Category: Alcohol

In this study, the researchers utilized multiple linear regression to identify the relationship between alcohol consumption and the characteristics of the neighborhood. The dependent variable for this study is alcohol consumption among students (Freitas et al., 2020). The study has five independent variables; firstly, is people often get mugged, robbed, or attacked in the neighborhood. Secondly, people in my neighborhood look out for each other and thirdly, people sold or used drugs in the neighborhood. Fourthly, people in my neighborhood generally got along with each other, and lastly, I feel safe being out alone in my neighborhood during the night.

From table 1.0, the value of R square is 0.026, which means that 2.6% of the variation on students drinking alcohol can be explained by the combined variation of people in neighborhood getting along with each other, people sell or use drugs in the neighborhood, I feel safe being out alone in my neighborhood, people often get mugged, robbed or attacked in my neighborhood, and people in my neighborhood could be trusted. However, the adjusted R square, which considers the number of variables and the sample size, shows that only 0.3% of the variation in the dependent variable can be explained by combined variations of the dependent variable (Ramachandran & Tsokos, 2021).

From table 2.0, the p-value is 0.342, which is greater than 0.05. This means that the regression analysis is not significant to explain the dependent variable using the independent variables (Maneejuk & Yamaka, 2020). From the correlations results in table 3.0; I feel safe being out alone in my neighborhood, people often get mugged, robbed or attacked in my neighborhood, and people in my neighborhood generally got along with each other have a weak positive correlation with how often do you have a drink containing alcohol? People sell or use drugs in my neighborhood, and People in my neighborhood could be trusted has a weak negative correlation with how often do you have a drink containing alcohol? (da Silva Filho et al., 2021).

Table 1.0: Model summary

Table 2.0: ANOVA

Table 3.0: Coefficients

References

da Silva Filho, A., Zebende, G., de Castro, A., & Guedes, E. (2021). Statistical test for multiple detrended cross-correlation coefficient.Physica A: Statistical mechanics and its applications, 562, 125285. Web.

Freitas, H., Henriques, S., Uvinha, R., Lusby, C., & Romera, L. (2020). Alcohol consumption and night-time leisure among Brazilian university students.International Journal of the Sociology of Leisure, 3(4), 389-399. Web.

Maneejuk, P., & Yamaka, W. (2020). Significance test for linear regression: How to test without P-values?Journal of Applied Statistics, 48(5), 827-845. Web.

Ramachandran, K., & Tsokos, C. (2021). Linear regression models. Mathematical Statistics with Applications in R, 301-341. Web.

Alcohols

Any class of organic compound that can be described as a hydrocarbon chain with one or more hydroxyl groups attached to it is called alcohol. Alcohols are among the most common and abundantly produced organic compounds with a variety of chemical usage and industrial implications. They resemble the structure of water, where one of the hydrogen atoms is replaced by an alkyl group of carbon atoms (Wade). Carbon atoms are usually represented by R in formulas of organic structures. Depending on which carbon atom from the chain is bonded to the hydroxyl group, alcohols can be categorized into three types: primary, secondary, or tertiary (Wade). For example, the molecular formula C3H8O represents two propanol isomers – 1-propanol and 2-propanol; the difference between them lies in the place of the hydroxyl group attachments.

Isopropyl (2-Propanol) Functions

The 2-propanol compound is also referred to as isopropyl. It is the first commercial synthetic alcohol, which was produced in the early 20th century. Isopropyl is synthesized in two steps: through the reaction of propylene with sulfuric acid and the consequent hydrolysis (Wade). If mixed with water, isopropyl alcohol can be used as a rubbing-alcohol antiseptic applicable in medicine and post-COVID everyday life. It is also used in products of personal care and cosmetics, such as aftershave lotions, bath and make-up products, as well as skin, hair, and nail care products (Han et al., 2018). Overall, isopropyl alcohol functions as an antifoaming and viscosity-decreasing agent, cosmetic astringent, and solvent (Han et al., 2018). For example, the reactions that use isopropyl are denaturing of ethanol, addition to wet gas to prevent the separation and freezing of a water layer, or oxidization in order to produce acetone, another essential solvent.

Isopropyl Pros and Cons

Isopropyl alcohol is a well-balanced organic compound. Compared to ethanol, which is also commonly used as a solvent, isopropyl is more toxic (Wade). However, it has a weaker drying effect on the skin, explaining its prevalence in the cosmetics market (Mahmood et al., 2020). As an antiseptic in highly potent combinations with water, isopropyl efficiently kills most viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Unfortunately, it cannot handle bacterial spores, which makes its usage appropriate only for instruments that do not come into direct contact with patients (Wade). Lastly, isopropyl is not regulated and taxed by the U.S. government, as is ethanol, but its frequent application can damage certain materials, such as shellac or plastic.

Isopropyl Alternatives

In the context of isopropyl alternatives as sanitizers, ethyl alcohol serves as a solid option. It has the same potency properties, varying primarily in the overall effect in the continuous application to the skin (Mahmood et al., 2020). However, both ethyl and isopropyl alcohols fail to kill micro-organic spores (Mahmood et al., 2020). For this case, hydrogen peroxide might be the best alternative, particularly in disinfecting open wounds. In the cosmetic field, reasonable alternatives are the fatty alcohols mainly used in soap production as emulsifiers. Due to their emollient properties, they positively impact and protect the skin, except for the oversensitive ones (Davidsohn). There are several natural astringents and preservatives regarding the alternatives that are not based on alcohol, such as green tea, hazel, and others.

References

Davidsohn, A. (n.d.). Soap and detergent. In Encyclopedia Britannica.

Han, C., Yao, Y., Lv, S., Wu, Y., Lu, A., Yan, C., Liu, Y., Luo, X. & Ni, X. (2018). Study on the components of isopropanol aqueous solution.Optik, 155, 307-314.

Mahmood, A., Eqan, M., Pervez, S., Alghamdi, H. A., Tabinda, A. B., Yasar, A., Brindhadevi, K. & Pugazhendhi, A. (2020). COVID-19 and frequent use of hand sanitizers; human health and environmental hazards by exposure pathways. Science of the Total Environment, 742.

Structure of water and alcohol [Online image]. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica.

Structure of 1- propanol [Online image]. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica.

Structure of 2- propanol [Online image]. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica.

Synthesis of 2-propanol [Online image]. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica.

Types of alcohol [Online image]. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica.

Wade, L. G. (n.d.). Alcohol. In Encyclopedia Britannica.

Wade, L. G. (n.d.). Isopropyl alcohol. In Encyclopedia Britannica.

Objective

The purpose of this experiment is to use the researcher’s background knowledge on alcohol reactions to explain more complex reactions. In addition, the test aims at reorganizing vicinal diol through the migration of a methyl group. The objective of this reorganization is to generate a ketone.

Synthetic Equation of the Reaction

Below is the synthetic equation of the reaction:

Physical Properties of the Reactants used and Products Generated

Pinacol¹

• Molar mass = 118.17 g/mol
• Density = 0.967 g/cm³
• Boiling Point = 171 to 173 °C
• Appearance = white solid
• Main hazard = irritation, explosion

Sulfuric Acid²

• Molar mass = 98.079
• Density = 1.84 g/cm³
• Melting point = 10°C
• Boiling point = 337 °C
• Appearance = clear, colorless liquid
• Main hazard = irritant, toxic, flammable

Water³

• Molar mass = 18.01528 g/mol
• Melting point = 0°C or 32°F
• Density = 1000 kg/m³
• Boiling point = 100°C or 212°F

Sodium sulfate⁴

• Molar mass = 142.04 g/mol anhydrous and 322.20 g/mol decahydrate
• Melting point = 884°C or 1623 °F
• Density = 2.664 g/cm³ anhydrous and 1.464 g/cm³ decahydrate
• Boiling point = 1429 °C or 2604 °F
• Appearance = white crystal solid
• Main hazard = irritant

Sodium Chloride⁵

• Molar mass = 58.44 g mol^-1
• Density = 2.165 g/cm³
• Boiling point =1413 °C or 2575°F
• Melting point = 801°C or 1474°F
• Appearance = colorless crystals
• Main hazard = irritant

Pinacolone⁶

• Molar mass = 100.16 gmol^-1
• Melting point = -52 °C or -62 °F
• Boiling point = 103 to 106°C or 217 to 223 °F
• Density = 0.801 g cm^-3
• Appearance = colorless liquid
• Main hazard = irritant, flammable

2,4 – dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4- DNP)⁷

• Molecular mass = 198.14 g/mol
• Melting point = 198 to 202°C or 388 to 396 °F
• Appearance = orange or red powder
• Main hazard = carcinogenic, flammable

Procedure Performed in the Lab

A number of steps were involved in this experiment. To start with, 3.0 g of pinacol and 30 ml of deionized water were added into a 50ml round-bottomed flask. The mixture was then heat gently in a heating mantle until it dissolved. Once heated, the flask and its contents were cooled to room temperature. The cooling was achieved by dipping the flask in a bath of tap water. After this, 1-2 boiling chips were added to the solution. Then 5.0 ml of sulfuric acid was added. The acid was introduced slowly, carefully, and while swirling the solution. The mixture produced an exothermic reaction. When the flask seemed to be getting too hot, it was cooled in a bath of tap water. The concoction was swirled for ten minutes.

The next step involved connecting the round-bottomed flask to a simple distillation apparatus. The contents were then distilled into a 50ml round-bottom flask. The distillation process was stopped when the temperature of the vapor reached 100°C. After this, 5ml of saturated sodium chloride solution was added to the distillate and mixed well. The aqueous layer was then removed using a transfer pipette. However, it is important to note that the layer was not discarded. The reason for this is because nothing is disposed of until the experimenter gets a verification of IR. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and pipette. On its part, the dried liquid was decanted into a clean, dry, pre-weighed sample vial. The liquid was weighed and the percentage yield of the product calculated. Finally, IR and 2,4 – DNP tests were carried out on the product. The solution was then capped until the next lab session when NRM spectrum of the product was run.

Calculation of Theoretical and Percentage Yield

The computations below were used to determine the theoretical and percentage yield of the reactants and products in the lab experiment:

Theoretical Yield

• Mass of pinacol = 3.0g
• Moles of pinacole = 3.0g/ 118.17 g/mol = 0.02538 mol
• Theoretical yield = (0.02538mol*100.16g/mol)/ 1 mol of pinacolone = 2.542g

Percentage Yield

• Empty sample vial= 17.48g
• Sample vial + content = 18.87g
• Mass of product obtained: 1.39g
• Percent yield = (Actual/theoretical)*100 = (1.39g/2.542g)*100 = 54.68%

A Short Synopsis of the Results Obtained during the Experiment

The product (pinacolone) was obtained after the rearrangement of pinacole. After calculations were carried out, it was found that the product weighed 0.905g. However, the calculated theoretical yield was 1.39g. The pinacolone product showed a percentage yield of 54.68%. The results show that the product obtained was of substantial quantity. The reason behind this is because it was above 50%. The yield is an indication that a significant amount of the pinacol compound had been converted into pinacolone. Only a small percentage remained as the reactant. In the IR and NMR table, the IR spectrum reveals that there was a peak around 1451.28 -2942.41 cm^-1 (-OH) stretch. The observation shows that there are minimal extra pinacols. Another reason associated with the high percentage yield is that most of the pinacol compound was utilized and did not evaporate during the distillation process. During such experiments, evaporation is caused by the high temperatures used to heat the compound. When there is too much evaporation, the number of pinacol molecules to be rearranged into pinacolone decreases. As a result, some experiments yield low levels of pinacolone product.

A Discussion of the Results and the Outcomes of the Experiment

When carrying out a pinacol rearrangement experiment, a number of factors must be taken into consideration.⁸ For example, the experimenter should note the hydroxyl group that is lost from the process as H₂O. In addition, the carbocation that is steadier should be identified. The intrinsic changing trends of different substituent groups should also be taken into consideration during the experiment. Finally, the experimenter should note the influence of steric impediment on the rearrangement of the compounds. Other factors to be taken into consideration include whether or not the constancy of the products dictates the upshot of competing rearrangements. It should also be noted that the reaction conditions influence the course of the rearrangement during the experiment. Lastly, the experimenter should note whether or not epixodes are created as intermediaries in the pinacol experiment.

The pinacol – Pianacolone rearrangement is a procedure that involves turning a 1,2-diol into a carbonyl compound.⁹ The 1,2 – diol rearrangement process occurs under acid conditions. The experiment gets its name from the starting material, which is pinacol. The material is rearranged to pinacolone in the process. The reorganization allows a carbonyl group to be synthesized out of a diol. The synthesis takes place through a S_N1 reaction mechanism. During the experiment, protonation of one of the OH groups takes place. Consequently, carbocation is created. In instances where the two OH groups are different, the one which produces a steadier carbocation is used in the reaction.

Alcohols are considered to be bad leaving groups. As a result, the reaction is an acid-catalyzed process. In the current experiment, concentrated Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) was used as a catalyst. It was used to protonate one of the alcohol groups to form a good leaving group. However, it is important to note that other acids can be used in place of sulfuric acid. The substitutes include perchloric, phosphoric, tosic, and triflouroacetic acids. However, concentrated sulfuric acid is the most preferred catalyst. The reason is because it minimizes dehydration during the experiment.¹⁰ The process is termed as an exothermic reaction. The round-bottom flask was cooled down using a bath of tap water instead of an ice bucket. The primary reason for this was to prevent re-crystallization. Protonation of the oxygen in the hydroxyl group allowed it to give a pair of electrons to the H⁺ and to create new oxygen-to-hydrogen bonds. The process converts the alcohol into an oxonium species (-OH₂⁺). The conversion of alcohol into oxonium in the reaction takes place in relation to the standard migratory aptitude. In most cases, the oxonium ion has an absolute octet pattern at all centers. The oxonium is considered to be a good leaving group.

Loss of water gives a tertiary carbocation that is stable. The relatively steady tertiary carbocation can be converted into an even more stable carbocation. The enhancement can be achieved through the migration of a methyl group (methyl shift). The extra stability results from the process of placing the positive charge on the carbon atom where the second (-OH) group is located. The oxygen’s nonbonding electrons on the hydroxyl group are vital to the stabilization of the positive charge via resonance. Pinacolone, which is the product of the reaction, is generated after deprotonation of the resonance-stabilized cat ion.¹¹

The product has a carbonyl group. The group makes it different from the pinacole. Another important product used in the reaction is water. Pinacolone and water are co-distilled using a simple distillation apparatus. The aim is to detach the products of the reaction. The primary reason why water and pinacolone are important in the experiment is that the two are immiscible. The relationship can be explained using the Raoult’s law. According to this law, immiscible liquids are co-distilled below the boiling point of either component. The boiling point of water is 100 °C.¹² As a result, no further distillation should take place after this degree is attained. The reason for this is because it is not certain whether or not the pinacolone has been sufficiently co-distilled with water. In addition, extra heating of the mixture will distill the unreacted pinacole. If the unreacted product is distilled, the correct outcome may not be achieved. In the current experiment, sodium chloride was added to the distillate to remove inorganic impurities and excess water. It was also used to further separate the two layers.

It is also noted that water and pinacolone have different densities. As a result, two distinct layers should be obtained after the distillation process is complete. The upper layer is often the organic pinacolone. The reason why it is the first is because it has a low density (0.801 g/mL) compared to the aqueous water layer (0.997 g/mL). Water should be removed from the final product. The major reason for this is to avoid interfering with the IR and the NMR spectra analyses. Anhydrous sodium sulfate was added to the organic layer during this experiment. The acid was used to ensure that all water molecules had been removed from the organic layer.

Three different sets of tests were carried out to make sure that pinacolone was generated. The IR spectrum underscores the importance of this reaction. It shows how the pinacole was converted into pinacolone. The pinacole spectrum shows a (-OH) stretch around 1451.28 – 2942.41cm^-1. There is a peak shown on the IR of the pinacole. The peak illustrates the availability of the hydroxyl groups. On its part, the pinacolone spectrum does not indicate any (-OH) stretch. However, it contains a carbonyl (C=O) stretch around 3500-4000 cm^-1. The stretch shows that a ketone has been synthesized as a result of pinacol rearrangement.

The NMR spectrum of the product (pinacolone) shows two peaks. The presence of these peaks illustrates that there are two forms of protons in it. They include the ones on the methyl groups and the ones attached to the tert-butyl. The peak that depicts the protons on the tert-butyl group is higher than the one showing methyl groups. The reason for this is because there are nine protons on the tert-butyl. On the other hand, there are three hydrogens on the methyl group. Both the tert-butyl and methyl peaks are singlet. The reason is because the methyl protons are next to a carbonyl group that does not contain any proton on it. In addition, the protons on the tert-butyl group are attached to a carbon that has no protons on it. The same case applies to the pinacole. The reason behind this is the number of splits, peaks, and differences in the sizes of the peaks. The only difference depicted in the pinacole spectrum is the peak on 2.3 ppm. The peak was seen to shift to the left. It shows that the protons directly attached to oxygen molecules in the pinacol are down-shielded. There is no shift in the spectrum of the product. The observation indicates that pinacolone was generated.

A 2,4-DNP test was also used to show that pinacolone, which has a carbonyl group, was produced after the pinacol rearrangement process took place. Color changes were also observed during the course of the experiment. After adding a few drops of the product to the 2,4-DNP reagent, an orange solid was formed. The orange compound is an indication of the presence of a carbon-oxygen double bond in the ketone (pinacolone). The 2,4-DNP reagent reacts readily with aldehydes or ketones. It achieves this through a condensation reaction. The isolated pair of electrons on the terminal amino group in 2,4-DNP reagent makes it a good nucleophile. The nucleophilic 2,4-DNP attacks the electrophilic carbonyl group of the pinacolone. As a result, it generates the orange colored compound, 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone. The figure below shows the pinacol mechanism.¹³

Pinacol rearrangement is regioselective. Due to this, the primary product is obtained from the rearrangement of the more stable carbocation.

Works Cited

Blanc, Guilaine. New Strategies for Pinacol Cross-Couplings and Alkenation Reactions, New York: Free Press, 2010. Print.

Gamini, Gunawardena, Pinacol Rearrangement. 2015. PDF file.

Klein, David. Organic Chemistry, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2012. Print.

McMurry, John. Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry, Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, 2011. Print.

Organic Synthesis: Pinacol Rearrangement 2013.

Rearrangements Induced by Cationic or Electron Deficient Sites2013.

Footnotes

1. Blanc, Guilaine 2010.
2. Klein, David 2012.
3. Rearrangements Induced by Cationic or Electron Deficient Sites 2013. Web.
4. McMurry, John 2011.
5. Pinacol Rearrangement. 2015. Web.
6. Pinacol Rearrangement. Web.
7. Klein, David 2012.
8. McMurry, John 2011.
9. Pinacol Rearrangement. 2015. Web.
10. Klein, Dvaid 2012.
11. Pinacol Rearrangement. Web.
12. Blanc, Guilaine 2010.
13. Klein, David 2012.

Having a desire to conduct research in the field of alcohol consumption by adolescents aged 12-16 in the West Indies, it is important to create a detailed framework. We have already considered the main idea of the qualitative research, dwelt upon five approaches to this type of research and described the importance of the theoretical framework within the research. Therefore, at this stage of the discussion, it is important to consider the role of the theory in the five approaches to qualitative research with the purpose to underline the role of theory in our research plan and explain any considerations that should be kept in mind regarding theory. One of the first steps in conducting research is the consideration of the theory. The theory is used for consideration, identification, explaining and predicting the events of behavior, depending on the research questions (Ornek, 2008).

It has already been stated that narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, and case study research are the approaches to qualitative research (Creswell, 2007). Designing the research methodology for each of these approaches it is important to understand the role of theory in each of them. Theory plays a great role in designing research, but many scholars do not pay much attention to it (Leong, & Austin, 2006). However, it is wrong as strong and argumentative research is usually based on consolidated and substantial literature review which comprises the greatest part of the theoretical data. Therefore, using any of the applications to the qualitative research mentioned above, the role of the theory use should be considered. It may be helpful for highlighting the role of the theoretical knowledge for designing methodology for considering the level of alcohol consumption by adolescents aged 12-16 in the West Indies.

Substantial theoretical support is a good key to good practical research. Wisker (2009) is sure that “there is nothing so practical as a good theory” (p. 157). The main idea of applying to the theory is to help explain the research questions to the audience. Additionally, theory helps to interpret the information which is going to be considered, it aims at helping to understand what exactly is going to be researched and how the discovery or research results are going to contribute to the existing knowledge. The theory is helpful in explaining the empirical data which is gathered by means of scientific research. Wisker (2009) points out a few specific warnings which should be considered. First, when using some theoretical data for utilizing research paradigms and traditions, one should explain how exactly the information is used and why this particular design is applied. Second, one should not consider too many theories which are not going to be applied in future practical research. Therefore, the theory should use specifically for asking research questions and interpreting the purpose and goals of the experiment.

As it has already been stated, there are five approaches to qualitative research, narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, and case study (Creswell, 2007). Each of these approaches is particular, it uses specific methods and requires different types of information to be implemented. Additionally, the role of theoretical knowledge in scientific methodology is not restricted to explaining the research questions and describing the goals. Specific concepts, the measurement and applications may be considered as well (Hall, 2008). Therefore, having considered the role of the research questions in general, the theory used while utilizing each of the applications should be considered.

A narrative approach to qualitative research is based on the gathering of the stories, and personal experiences of one or two people. The interview questions are usually based on the previous discussion, therefore the process of communication takes a long period of time. The role of theoretical information, in this case, is going to be based on the description of the importance of this information. The main purpose of the research, the consideration of the experience and personal information should be grounded by means of the theory. Additionally, theory should explain the choice of the methodology and paradigm and the research questions. The researchers should spend time gathering theoretical issues devoted to the appropriateness and topicality of the problem (experience) under discussion. Additionally, much attention should be paid to the choice of the method as a narrative approach of the quantitative research does not give an opportunity for generalization of the research results.

A phenomenological approach to qualitative research is based on the consideration of the group experience or knowledge. The main peculiarity of this kind of research is that the research results may be generalized. Therefore, the choice of the theory for this application should be based on the larger qualities of the representatives. Thus, much attention should be paid to the discussion of the theoretical framework. The possibility of the generalization and the explanation of the research questions should be based on a thorough literature review. It is important to consider the necessity of the research in the sphere and support the importance of results generalization.

The ethnographic approach to qualitative research is based on ten cultural and traditional peculiarities of the society, group of people and other subjects for discussion. Theoretical data is important for considering the background information about the reasons for the formation of the traditions. In other words, the history of the area should be discussed. Additionally, the theoretical knowledge may help to reason the connection between the cultural aspects and the research questions. The previous research may be used for designing the paradigm of this research or for detailed consideration of the current problem. Additionally, Creswell (2007) states that multiple sources of information are necessary for this type of research.

Grounded theory application to qualitative research may be considered as systematic procedures and the constructivist approach (Clarke, 2005). The theory should explain each of the procedures in detail. It is important to refer to some well-known discussions of the procedures and constructivist approach. Additionally, referencing some particular sources of information, the researcher explains the reasons why specifically these methods and procedures are effective in considering this particular problem. Thorough and grounded theoretical research, in this case, helps reduce to a minimum the limitations connected with the choice of the approach and fitting to the research problem.

Case study research is research that is based on the experimental situation considered within a bounded system. The case study is usually based on theoretical information, that is why its role is exceptional in this case. The researcher should understand that the creation of the conditions for the case study and the measurement should be based on particular information. The empirical data may be obtained only in case substantial theoretical research has been conducted. It is important to include the theory in describing the methodology.

Considering our research based on the problem of alcohol consumption by adolescents aged 12-16 in the West Indies, we have chosen the ethnographic approach to the research as much information based on social customs and traditions should be gathered. The purpose of the research is to conduct a two-phase sequential mixed study aimed at obtaining statistical information and quantitative results from a sample for the research of the data in depth. Additionally, the family and social aspects should be covered before conducting the research. Considering the relation between alcohol consumption of the mentioned group, we are going to gather the theoretical and statistical information devoted to the age groups, entertainment facilities in the society, financial opportunities, family and school role in the life of children. On the basis of this information, an interview with each of the subjects is going to be conducted to understand how the presence or absence of some specific characteristics of society impacts adolescents’ behavior.

Therefore, it should be concluded that having a desire to conduct grounded research one should apply to the theory. The theoretical knowledge helps understand the necessity for the research, its topicality and provides the background information devoted to the issue under research. Being aware of the theory, one may base the research questions on it, explain those research questions and offer substantial arguments. Additionally, preliminary research helps understand that the problem under consideration really deserves solving and would not be the repetition of the idea which has already been considered by another researcher.

Reference List

Clarke, A. E. (2005). Situational analysis: Grounded theory after the postmodern turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches. New York: Sage Publications.

Hall, R. (2008). Applied social research: planning, designing and conducting real-world research. Sydney: Macmillan Education AU.

Leong, F. T. L., & Austin, J. T. (2006). The psychology research handbook: a guide for graduate students and research assistants. New York: SAGE.

Ornek, F. (2008). An overview of a theoretical framework of phenomenography in qualitative education research: An example from physics education research. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning & Teaching, 9(2), 1-14.

Wisker, G. (2009). The Undergraduate Research Handbook. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Alcohol consumption is one of the problems which exists in the modern society. It seems usual to meet a company of drinking youths who have chosen this option as a way for entertainment. The harmful effect of alcohol has already been discussed for many times. People are aware of hepatocirrhosis and other consequences of alcohol consumption. It is important to remember that alcohol consumption is regulated by different policies in the countries, but it does not mean that all people are law-abiding.

The problem of consumption of alcohol by adolescents is not limited to medical problems related to different types of body injures. Psychological issues are also important and may carry more harm for developing and growing organisms. Therefore, the main purpose of the discussion is the consideration of the developmental problems raised by the alcohol consumption during young age and the factors which influence adolescents’ choice in favor of drinking as the central psychological issue for youth growing up and becoming personalities.

Supportive environment in the relation to drinking

There are a lot of different factors which influence adolescents’ choice in favor of drinking. Multimedia is the main source of information. Watching TV, listening to the music, reading newspapers, or searching information online people meet different types of advertising which try to convince them to buy a specific brand of alcohol.

Using different marketing practices, the alcohol producers try to make advertising and branding the central promotional means of the delivering their products in the society. The rate of alcohol consumption by adolescents is dependent on the advertising and other marketing practices (McCreanor, Greenaway, Barnes, Borell, & Gregory, 2005).

Many advertising campaigns use alcohol as a part of youth culture. Watching the same ad very day, people are influenced and want to taste it. Youths are aware of the alcohol harmful effect, but at the same time, they also see a company of people who consume this product and remain successful healthy, etc. Following an ad, many adolescents just try to find their place in the world.

Even though some policies prohibit selling alcohol to people under some specific age, the understanding of alcohol as a part of adult culture remains. Becoming older people will consume this product as even if they had not tried it when they were too young, they are sure to consume it in elder age (McCreanor, Greenaway, Barnes, Borell, & Gregory, 2005). Isn’t it the main purpose of advertising and promotion strategies: to recruit youth in the future rank of consumers?

Drinking in movies is one more factor that influences adolescents’ understanding and perception of drinking as the part of youths’ culture. There are a lot of movies where advertising of alcohol brands is involved. Such advertising is indirect and has wider audience as advertising of alcohol on TV is forbidden in some countries up to specific time when most youths are already sleeping.

It is really exciting that “the extent to which alcohol represented in movies with a PG-13 rating was often indistinguishable from R rated movies” (Alcohol advertising, movies and adolescents, 208, p. 1936) that led to the alcohol consumption as a normal standard issue.

Much research is conducted in the sphere of the environmental influence of adolescents’ alcohol consumption.

Considering the results of the research conducted by Dal Cin et al (2009), the scholars received the following results, “alcohol prototypes, expectancies, willingness, and friends’ use of alcohol (but not perceived as prevalence of alcohol use among peers) were significant mediators of the relation between movie alcohol and exposure and alcohol consumption, even after controlling for demographic, child, and family factors associated with both movie exposure and alcohol consumption” (Dal Cin et al, 2009, p. 473).

This research is really important in understanding the factors which influence adolescents’ alcohol consumption, as it shows that watching movies and being influenced by stereotypes and friends many youths drink alcohol as a part of their social culture.

Alcohol and adolescents’ brain

Alcohol influences the health of all people who consume it. But, the influence of alcohol on adolescents is more powerful as people in this age still continue develop and grow up. It is not a secret that many people have the first try of alcohol in their young adulthood. This period is often called developmental and the consumption of alcohol during this period may have harmful consequences on brain function and structure.

The research conducted by Tapert, Calwell, and Burke (2004) has shown that “heavy drinking during adolescence and young adulthood is associated with poorer neurocognitive functioning during the young adult years, and particularly with impairment of attention and visuospatial skills” (Tapert, Calwell, & Burke, 2004, p. 211).

Considering the influence of alcohol consumption during adolescence on neuropsychological performance, it should be mentioned that such processes are considered as memory, executive functioning which includes planning, goal-directed behavior and abstract reasoning, visual skills, attention, etc. The research shows that those who consumed alcohol in their young adulthood could not use their neuropsychological skills in a proper way.

Some participants of the experiment who have grown older have poor memory, others are unable to abstract reasoning in effective way, etc. It is crucial that it is possible to live with such changes in neuropsychological performance, still, such problems create numerous concerns to the whole public health sector (Tapert, Calwell, & Burke, 2004). Moreover, keeping in mind these processes in organism and the declining natural environment, it is impossible to predict what exactly may be influenced further.

Alcohol consumption in adolescent age leads to the change of brain structure in general. The research was conducted in two groups, the one with alcohol use disorders in youth and another on where people did not suffer from this disorder in the developmental age. The results showed the difference in the volume of hippocampi.

Hippocamp is a part of human brain which is mostly for responsible for emotions and memory, and also covers some other processes which are important for proper functioning of human organism. The longer people consumed alcohol in adolescence, the smaller hippocampi they had. Being crucial to learning and memory function, the smaller volume of hippocampi, the worse abilities of the brain are seen, and the lower level of knowledge these people may get in the future (Tapert, Calwell, & Burke, 2004).

Alcohol use disorders in the developmental period has specific effect on physiologic brain functioning. One of the brightest examples of physiologic brain performance is brain response to the stimuli or another unexpected event. The results of the research represent the lower reaction to the stimuli or event in the group where people consumed much alcohol in the developmental age than those did not.

The research conductors point to the fact that different people have absolutely various reaction and sensitivity to alcohol (Tapert, Calwell, & Burke, 2004). Still, no matter whether a person is highly influenced by alcohol consumption or not, the effect of alcohol on human brain is proved especially if drinking takes place in young adulthood, a so-called developmental age.

Much attention is paid to the harmful effect of alcohol on human body, but it is also important to remember that adults may face more serious problems if they used to heavy drinking while adolescence. The first try of alcohol and further alcohol consumption in young age are the reasons of worse learning skills in the future. There are other effects of alcohol consumption in the adolescence which may be identified in the adult life.

Methods for controlling youth alcohol consumption

Having considered the influence of drinking while developmental age, it is important to realize the effect of this influence and make some specific actions to prevent drinking in adolescent age. Almost each country has a number of polices which prohibit youth from drinking alcohol. Most of such polices state a specific age up to which youth is unable to buy different kinds of alcohol and freely consume it.

The research conducted by Paschall, Grube, and Kypri (2009) about the relation of drinking policies to the level of youths alcohol consumption in such countries as the USA, Spain, Canada, New Zealand and Australia has shown that the countries where drinking policies are comprehensive and restrict alcohol availability and marketing show lower rate of adolescents who consume alcohol.

The age when youths try alcohol for the first time is higher in such countries. Policies are created to restrict alcohol consumption by youth as the government understands how much the influence of early beginning of drinking influences may be harmful.

More severe policies and control over youths’ alcohol consumption in middle and high school should be one of the variants for reducing the effects of the problem.

Policies should be created and someone should control their following. It should be mentioned that the research conducted in some countries devoted to the drinking policies disclosed some specific facts. One of the main problems which exists in the world is that the policies are directed a different issues connected to drinking, like the selling of alcohol to people under some age or drunken drinking.

There are too few policies related to the prohibition of alcohol consumption up to some specific age (e.g. 21). Therefore, this issue should be the priority for many countries and without regulating the alcohol consumption in the developmental age, these countries risk to grow up a generation with numerous psychological problems and disabilities.

In conclusion it should be stated that alcohol consumption in adolescence influences human development and provide harmful effect on the organism. The effect of alcohol consumption in young adulthood age is reflected in the older age when brain processes do not work in a proper way.

The literature review we have conducted shows that consuming alcohol in developmental age youths risk to have worse memory, reduce their ability of abstract reasoning and lower the effect from other mental and psychological processes which occur in human brain. Such harmful impact occurs because drinking alcohol in developmental age people provide opportunities for the change of brain structure and other neuropsychological performances which cannot be stopped or renewed.

Reference List

Alcohol advertising, movies and adolescents. (2008). Addiction, 103(12), 1935-1936.

Dal Cin, S., Worth, K.A., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Stoolmiller, M., Wills, T. A. & Sargent, J. D. (2009). Watching and drinking: Expectancies, prototypes, and friends’ alcohol use mediate the effect of exposure to alcohol use in movies on adolescent drinking. Health Psychology, 28(4), 473-483.

McCreanor, T., Greenaway, A., Barnes, M.H., Borell, S. & Gregory, A. (2005). Youth identity formation and contemporary alcohol marketing. Critical Public Health, 15(3), 251-262.

Paschall, M.J., Grube, J.W. & Kypri, K. (2009). Alcohol control policies and alcohol consumption by youth: a multi-national study. Addiction, 104(11), 1849-1855.

Tapert, S.E., Calwell, L. & Burke, C. (2004). Alcohol and the adolescent brain: Human studies. Alcohol Research & Health, 28(4), 205-212.

Introduction

Alcohol is a psychoactive substance contained in intoxicating beverages such as beers, spirits and wine. Chronic use of alcohol leads to alcohol dependency or alcoholism, a condition characterized by continued use of alcohol despite evident adverse psychological and physical effects to the user.

The alcoholic individual exhibits compulsive behavior patterns and sometimes tolerance and withdrawal symptoms, which are indications of a psychological dependence on alcohol. Numerous factors contribute to the development of alcoholism, including hereditary and environmental factors.

The connection between alcohol dependency and genetics is significant; however, the heredity and environmental factors work hand in hand to influence an individual’s vulnerability to alcoholism. Alcohol abuse especially in young people is strongly influenced by environmental factors. Many complications arise from alcohol dependency, including mental impairment, psychological effects such as withdrawal symptoms and severe health complications like liver cirrhosis.

Environmental and Genetic Influences to Alcoholism

Alcohol products readily available in local establishments like schools and homes greatly influence adolescent alcohol abuse. Gruenewald, Remer, and Lipton observe that alcohol is readily available at low prices in community stores and retail shops near (2007). This influences the purchase and consumption of alcohol by adolescents. In addition, alcohol is readily available in local establishments at low prices, which encourages irresponsible drinking and intoxication.

Adolescent alcohol abuse is also influenced by parental behaviors and the extended family’s attitude toward alcohol use. Parental and the immediate family members’ behaviors and attitudes influence early child learning and development; therefore, exposing children to alcohol early in life increases their likelihood of abusing alcohol later in life. Furthermore, alcohol abuse by parents stresses the children and leads to poor parent-child relationships, which in turn increase the likelihood of the children engaging in alcohol abuse.

The media and societal perceptions strongly influence alcohol abuse. In most cases, alcohol consumption is portrayed as fashionable and morally acceptable by the mass media through television shows and videos. This influences problematic alcohol use particularly amongst the youth who are ready to experiment with everything that comes their way.

Alcohol abuse among music artistes and film stars further influences alcoholism amongst the youth; they associate alcoholism and substance abuse with celebrity status, oblivious of the adverse effects of alcoholism. Additionally, peer attitudes and society acceptance of alcohol use also influence alcohol abuse amongst the youth. This phenomenon is aggravated by lack of implementation of alcohol policies to punish drunken behaviors like drunk driving.

On the other hand, studies show that, alcohol-related disorders such as alcohol dependency are genetic, controlled by multiple genes. Hereditary factors strongly influence alcohol abuse, as observed in children of parents with problematic drinking.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (2011) assures that there is a strong correlation between alcoholic parents and the likelihood of their children engaging in substance abuse later in life. In addition, children of alcoholic parents develop risk-taking personality that involves alcohol abuse. It is believed that the heredity factor of alcoholism is linked with personality traits such as antisocial behaviors.

Alcohol Dependency Complications

Individuals who suffer from Alcohol dependency disorder show various symptoms caused by harmful effects of continued alcohol abuse. According to National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) (2006), alcoholic individuals exhibit “compulsive alcohol use, a disorder whereby individuals have a strong craving for alcoholic beverages.”

People with this disorder continue to abuse alcohol despite experiencing physical and mental effects of chronic alcohol use. Complications such as depression, cardiovascular disorders and liver cirrhosis affect these individuals. In addition, individuals with compulsive behaviors engage in high-risk behaviors such as drunken driving, suicide attempts and murder, among other ‘unreasoned’ behaviors.

Compulsive behaviors are also associated with anger outbursts and feelings of sadness that contribute to suicidal thoughts. Individuals with Alcohol dependence disorder experience severe withdrawal and psychological symptoms on sudden termination of alcohol use. Individuals with alcohol dependency disorder experience nervousness or mild tremors, anxiety, depression and fatigue when they suddenly stop drinking. They also experience emotional instability and become easily irritated or excited.

Other individuals experience nightmares, insomnia, chronic migraines and vomiting. Physical withdrawal symptoms such as paleness of the skin, increased heartbeat and dilated eye pupils also occur. Severe withdrawal symptoms include a condition called delirium tremens, whereby an individual experiences frequent hallucinations, convulsions and fever.

Some individuals experience tolerance to the effects of alcohol after chronic alcohol consumption. According to the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, alcohol tolerance develops when only increased consumption of alcohol brings about intoxication. Alcohol tolerance, therefore, increases alcohol consumption resulting to alcoholism that has severe health complications. Alcohol tolerance also affects the efficacy of medicines in the body increasing vulnerability to infections.

Individuals experience alcohol tolerance in different ways. Acute tolerance develops to a feeling of intoxication during a drinking session encouraging more alcohol consumption, which causes harmful health effects. Some individuals develop environment-dependent tolerance whereby, the alcohol-induced effects decrease in response to alcohol-associated environment.

Functional tolerance develops heavy drinkers who do not show significant effects of intoxication even after increased consumption. This encourages more alcohol consumption leading to alcohol dependency and adverse health effects. Moreover, chronic abuse of alcohol causes severe health effects, including effects to the organ systems of the body (Inaba, & Cohen, 2007, p.146).

The effects to the gastrointestinal system result to conditions such as gastritis; that is, the effect to stomach glands and ulceration of the stomach wall. Heavy use of alcohol leads to pancreatitis and liver cirrhosis whereby the functioning of the pancreas and liver are impaired by toxins contained in the alcohol. Chronic alcohol use also leads to development of many types of cancers, including cancer of the food pipe and stomach.

Alcohol dependency leads to development of medical conditions such as hypertension and cardiovascular disorders that increase the likelihood of heart attacks. The effects of alcohol to the central nervous system include severe brain impairment leading to memory loss. Inaba and Cohen warn that “continued alcohol use affects the central nervous system leading to a condition called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a condition characterized by affected short-term memory” (2007, p.146).

Chronic alcohol use also affects the cognitive ability of the brain resulting to poor functioning of the sensory organs. Effects of alcohol to the cerebellum part of the brain leads to poor coordination and loss of body balance. However, despite these health effects, individuals suffering from alcohol dependency continue with alcohol use.

Conclusion

Environmental factors significantly influence the tendency of individuals to abuse alcohol, especially young people who tend to learn from peers and parents. Genetic predisposition to alcoholism is influenced by environmental factors, including exposure to alcohol.

Chronic consumption of alcohol leads to alcohol dependency that has profound psychological and health effects to an individual. Alcoholic individual displays compulsive alcohol behaviors and later on withdrawal symptoms upon discontinued alcohol use. However, other individuals show tolerance behaviors, which encourage more consumption of alcohol that causes adverse health effects.

Reference List

Gruenewald, P., Remer, L., & Lipton, R. (2007). National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism: Evaluating the Alcohol Environment: Community Geography and Alcohol Problems. Web.

Inaba, D., & Cohen, W. (2007). Uppers, Downers, All Arounders: Physical and Mental Effects of Psychoactive Drugs. Oregon: CNS Publishers Inc.

NIDA. (2006). The Science of Drug Abuse and Addiction to Alcohol. Web.

SAMHSA. National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information (NCADI): Environmental Management. Web.

Abstract

This research work focuses on self-esteem as well as self-concept of those women who have alcohol problems. This critical analysis has been centred from a client view-point. The outcomes of the research are linked to relevant person-centred practices as well as theories.

Under this analysis, eight women who have been suffering from severe effects of alcohol are going to be interviewed on their self-concept and self-esteem. This can be done using appropriate interview techniques explored in the works of Hayes (Nicky 2000, p.114). These groups of women are perceived to have undergone the services of person-centred counselling.

The data gathered are going to be analysed using appropriate theory and research methodology. The data gathered from the interview would be utilized in showing relationships that exist among the concepts of self esteem, self concepts, and the women’s own life experiences about alcohol consumption. Analysis of the data was carried out using grounded theory methodology, explored in Noreen’s literature (Lillie 2002, p.99).

Introduction

The paper I have chosen to critique is written by Noreen Lillie, who describes herself as a person-centred counsellor and carried out this research project during her work as a counsellor in a voluntary organisation “for women concerned about their own or someone else’s drinking…” (Lillie 2002, p.101).

This essay discusses the research setting and sample, the selection of the setting and the data collection procedure to be used during the project. After which, the sample characteristic, the research instruments and measures and data analysis method is to be discussed. This is then followed by the conclusion.

Discussion and Literature Review

In her discussion of the topic, Lillie provides an overview of the subject and argues in her review of the literature there was an absence of research carried out regarding the difficulties associated with problem drinking, specifically related to women.

One of the assertions in the literature was that women drinkers have lower self-esteem than their male counterparts and are: “Likely to have an inadequate or distorted self-concept” (Lillie 2002, p.99; Beckman, 1978).

The Researcher provides the underpinning of her work by utilising Carl Rogers’ person-centred theory on self-concept as a result of distorted conditions of worth:

“As self-esteem diminishes, the individual becomes acutely affected by the assimilated conditions of worth and divorced from his/her own organismic experience as a source of what is ‘real’. His/her self-concept is no longer congruent with that reality, but has become distorted”, (Lillie, 2002:99).

Mcleod ascertained that under self-concept, the analysis is centred on the four elements self-esteem, self-ideal, self-perception, and social identities, which are necessary in sustaining the behaviour of the alcoholic women (Mcleod, 2001:169). In addition, these elements on the self-concept are useful in directing and energising the behaviour of women who are alcohol addicts.

Therefore, it is prudent for alcoholic women to adopt and utilise these essential elements. For instance, the perceived self comprises of the most important values, traits, and competencies that the alcohol addicts must incorporate in their personal planning and development. When women plan well for the future, they attain growth, not just for themselves alone, but to the entire family or community.

However, alcohol abuse brought in a new concept in the social lives of many women. This made it necessary for the movement to incorporate certain children’s rights since many women experienced low self concept, and disregarded their self-esteem, which resulted into abandoning of family roles and responsibilities.

There was also increased consensual sex, and men and children begun to suffer and it is such a state of anxiety that caused the temperance movement to develop. Economically, the excess drinking by women hindered their performance both at home and places of work.

Indeed, this threatened to sabotage the economy, which was slowly shifting to urbanisation. As long as there was continued abuse of alcohol in the society, there was very high shortage of labor in places of work (Bond 2004, p.74).

The literature review carried out by the researcher appears to be very much related to the problems of self-esteem and sense of self that women with alcohol abuse difficulties experience.

Several reference sources are quoted and it seems the researcher carried out an extensive and thorough review of the literature available on the subject and was able to identify sources where research work had been carried out into related issues.

The review seems to have been carried out with an open-minded approach and does not focus on a specific methodology and discusses the merits of quantitative as opposed to qualitative studies as in:

“Some quantitative studies offer insight into the relationship between alcohol and self-esteem for women. They are useful because they have studied large numbers of women using validated measures and controls”, (Lillie, 2002, p.100).

The Researcher found that there few studies that used qualitative methods, such as herself, to study women’s experience of alcohol dependency. One those cited is a study carried out by Long and Mullen in 1994:

“Who explored seven women’s perceptions of the major factors which led to their alcohol abuse. The self-perception and self-image of this study group was found to be ‘very negatively skewed’ and all seven reported maximum scoring on factors of low self-esteem”, (Lillie, 2002:100).

The arguments for qualitative and quantitative methods in research have been around since about the mid-19^th century (Hammersley1992, p.39).

Hammersley argues that there is not a great deal of difference between these two methods and also suggests that instead of these two paradigms, consideration could be given to several approaches taking into account the: “the particular purpose of the research and practicality of various strategies given the circumstances in which the inquiry is to be carried out ….” (Hammersley 1992, p.40).

He further argues that main role of the qualitative researcher is to record and interpret the world-view of the client where the research is aiming to describe and explain perspectives and behavior to find meaning in what is being said; as opposed to quantitative research which may mainly examine attitudes and how these affect behaviour (Hammersley 1992, p.45).

The Researcher used grounded theory methodology as a means for analysing the data collected. The main aim of grounded theory is that interpretations of the data arises from the participants experiences. The researcher collates the data by searching for ways in which to categorise the information into themes or meaning units.

Theory comes from the research process and the data being collected (Moustakas 1994, p. 4). This is apparent in the work as Lillie describes her methodology in seeking to record and analyse the experience described to her by the eight participants in her study.

Her description of analysis of the data collated appears to have been stringent and meticulous where she refers to: “At all times an attempt was made to focus on material generated by the data rather than preconceived ideas” (Lillie 2002, p.102).

The Researcher stipulates using Person-Centred counselling modality with women experiencing alcohol abuse difficulties, may provide the ‘necessary and sufficient change’ as described by Rogers to take place. Her further arguments are that the client benefits from the empathy and acceptance of the counsellor, ‘in order for healing to take place.’ (Lillie 2002, p.101).

Mention is made of current practice for the treatment of women with alcohol abuse issues, which is reference to the medical model of abstinence and relapse prevention. Studies have shown and anecdotal evidence suggests that individuals may find any modality of counselling therapy helpful with many personal issues including alcoholism.

Indeed, there are a range of treatments available for individuals with alcohol issues apart from counselling, including Alcoholics Anonymous, group therapy, treatment in clinics and so on. With reference to counselling, the crucial aspect for the individual is that there should be an effective working alliance between themselves and the therapist.

Discussion

It is worth noting that the theories have some common understanding or interrelated stand when it comes to critical factors of human nature, such as the problem of alcohol abuse among women. From these, we can deduce and come up with a precise and thorough understanding of the basic view of human nature, self-concept, self-esteem, changes of behavior, and therapy (Roth & Fonargy 2005, p.69).

The human nature can be best described by the distinguishing traits among alcoholic women. These traits include how an alcoholic woman thinks, feels, and acts. These naturally occurring traits constitute the human nature, self-concept, and self-esteem.

Therefore, the human nature and self-concept exhibit some uniformity that is accompanied by feeling. This is what makes individuals be referred to as human (Lillie 2002, p.101).

The human nature is usually composed of dynamic and transforming events, which are brought about by the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind. The three elements work together in unity to constitute the human nature. This is why it is very difficult to precisely describe an individual’s nature since these components are not automatically visible at once.

Therefore, it is not absolutely true to always link a woman’s low self-esteem and low self-concept to her habit of indulging into excessive drinking.

It is also important to know that the human nature comprises of the intellectual, emotional, social, spiritual, and vocational needs, which must work together in a unified synchronization since the neglect of one would greatly reduce the ability of an individual to withstand adverse effects of life.

However, if these factors are well coordinated and monitored, it is possible to control the well-being of a woman, both in the short term and long term. Moreover, human behavior, especially among women alcoholics, is affected by a wide array of factors.

Among these factors that cause behavior change is the social influence. Roth and Fonargy recorded that the social influence has a key role in a change of behavior (Roth & Fonargy 2005, p.68). It has been proven that our interactions, be it with friends, co-workers, and families affect greatly how we behave and sometimes even how decisions are made.

An individual cannot exist as a sole entity, thus he or she must interact a lot with other people. As a result of this interaction and individuals often change their behavior by either copying or imitating what others do. It is surprising to note that this can happen even within a very short period of time. People can change their priorities, value systems and believes based on their interactions.

Therefore, it can be argued that alcohol has less impact on women’s self-concept as well as their self-esteem. On the other hand, environmental factors also greatly affect behavior change. Individuals have little or no control to environmental factors, which end up influencing their behavior a lot.

Therefore, it is impossible to address a behavioral problem such as low self-esteem and low self-concept among women based on personal factors and alcohol consumption alone.

People from the same environment tend to have interrelated behavior and this has to be known when one is addressing certain behavior change (Roth & Fonargy 2005, p.71). In addition, attitude also plays a crucial role on the behavior of individuals, especially on women alcoholics.

Attitudes account greatly for behavior change since changes of behavior first emanate from the attitudes that individuals possess. Attitudes would define the associated beliefs and evaluations towards things. Therefore, to have control of behavior, one only needs to activate an emotion or an effective attitude.

Thus, change of attitude is a key component for the behavior change. Moreover, compliance is the change of behavior as a result of consequences. For, example an individual’s strives to avoid punishment or changing behavior with hope of getting a reward.

Here, there has to be some driving force behind an individual so as to respond in the required way. It is also important to argue that the nature of the therapist-client relationship determines the self-concept and self-esteem of the alcoholic women since a psycho-therapist educates and motives them (Roth & Fonargy 2005, p.72).

Therapist-client relationship may develop a close relationship. However, the therapist has a duty to maintain a boundary of professionalism in order to help prevent difficulties in the relationship at any stage. At times, it may be difficult for the counsellor or client to end the relationship, particularly in long-term therapy.

This is brought about by the fact that clients often feel comfortable when they are with the therapist since they believe he or she is the only one who can solve their alcoholic problem, and a strong love usually develops from this relationship and the client, if well attended to the first time would need more counselling services from the therapist.

Therapist-client relationship is also strengthened by the fact that counselors would like to know that they have really taken care of their clients over a significant period of time. This may force them to follow on the clients just to ensure that he or she is very okay.

Some therapists may find certain clients are pleasure to work with and they usually feel attached to their clients as a result of the relationship. However, many professional acquaintances do not support therapist-client relationship outside professional setting because this is feared that it might violate professional ethics, thus jeopardising the whole process.

Therefore, it is important that despite the therapist-client relationship being very strong, the therapist must learn to let go and become unnecessary to the client once the business is done. The therapist-client relationship in solution finding majorly focuses on factors surrounding one’s life.

The two parties must work together in an attempt to find a solution. This is because a therapist would not fully understand some aspects of an alcoholic’s behaviour unless he is told by the client. Therefore, it is important for the client to give his/her past and present accomplishments.

Then, these are used by the therapist to provide and address both the present and future occurrences/challenges. Here, the centre stage is the fact that the client must understand and develop positive reasoning, which is sometimes referred to as the learned optimism.

Moreover, therapists and counsellors have essential roles and functions to play in boosting self-esteem as well as self-concept among the women alcoholics (Noreen 2002, p.102).

The key functions of the therapist are to ensure that he or she provides growth-promoting environment for the clients. When this is effectively done, the client would be at ease to grow and discover him fully. He can then develop as he or she wants.

A therapist must also exercise the role of ensuring that he impacts or convinces the client on the way forward. Therefore, he/she should ensure that the client actively listens, understands, and accepts herself. There should be genuineness and acceptance in the whole process.

On the other hand, a therapist also has a role of ensuring an individual precisely understands his identity and as such know how to establish meaningful relationship with the people around him.

This way, a lot of problems and conflicts would be greatly reduced and relationships nurtured. In addition, a therapy has goals, which are aimed towards improving both self-concept and self-esteem among the women alcoholics (Lillie 2002, p.104).

Different types of therapy have various goals, but the general focus of a therapy that applies to all include the re-structuralisation. A therapy seeks to expand the most flexible ways of finding alternative ways of dealing with problems.

For example, when there are disagreements in a family set up, a therapist would assist in ensuring each partner deals with one another in a way that they would cope well and endure whatever comes their way. Therapy also seeks to create awareness of oneself and their environment.

If individuals do not fully understand themselves, they are subject to disagreements, conflicts and as such are prone to stress and other minor challenges. Therapy gives the solution to this; through education on ones own understanding, appreciation and acceptance.

Though, people can perceive things differently, they can also change their ways of thinking, modify behavior and view the same situations in a new perspective. The goal of therapy is to ensure that this is induced into an individual’s mind so as to convince him or her that this is possible (Lillie 2002, p.102).

Therapy also has a goal of ensuring that individuals understand the world and know how our behaviour regarding how we feel, act, think, and relate. In fact all these can be addressed and help us live in a better way. This would in turn help women who are addicted to alcohol to look for their reasons for living and develop positive attitudes as.

Once the researcher’s request has been approved, he then proceeds to meet the management of the research venue to draw a plan of activities. In the meeting, the schedule of activities is finalized, including the necessary logistic preparations. There has to be a cordial agreement between the management and the researcher to ensure that the interview proceeds without any technical hitch.

Indeed, such an agreement would lead to a smooth execution of the whole project so that accurate and reliable data are gathered. Normally, the researcher takes time to ensure that the process of research is well organized, and the necessary tools and equipment are available.

Preferably, the tools and equipment should be tested prior to the actual research to ensure they are in working order. In addition, there have to be extra tools to cater for the emergency. After this, the process of data collection proceeds. The data collection in the project is to be carried out using the questionnaire.

Notably, the process starts by administering the questionnaires once they are approved by the researcher. In essence, morning session is the most suitable as it gives the participants enough time to prepare for the day’s exercise.

Also, the morning session is considered appropriate time since most of the day’s customers might not have reached the place, thus the time provides minimal interruption to both the employees and the customers available at that time. Moustakas Clark postulated that grounded theory research is employed to evaluate some of the existing gaps in the data analysis (Moustakas 1994, p.5).

The researcher then gives the day’s instructions to the employees to equip them with what to expect for the day. Note that the researcher has to cooperate with the participants. Besides, he/she should be prepared to answer all questions that the participants would like to seek clarification about.

Therefore, the researcher has to carry out the exercise diligently sine the data collected and the research findings may be used to assist in doing future research. The questionnaire is preferred due to its accuracy and efficiency.

It is also easy to analyse, since the questions to be answered are standardized and contain optional answers. In addition, the questionnaire also contains simple questions which might not prove hard to the respondents (Mcleod 2003, p.74). Arguably, data samples are likely to portray different characteristics.

The data sample characteristics would focus on newcomers and alcohol addicts. Initially, the problem of addiction begins in women’s minds, it starts with the way women think and how they later change their ways of thinking.

It is important to realize that some addicts portray characteristics that appear to be misleading for instance; they normally nurse the false hope that they can improve and get sober after drinking. In fact, the disease of addiction is psychological because it creates a notion in women’s minds that even with multiple years of sobriety a person can remain fine after drinking.

Furthermore, the problem of addiction shows women that they are functioning drinkers and hence they cannot have problems with drinking. Indeed, the problems of addiction therefore come in a number of ways which creates different kinds of addictions.

Women alcoholics share close bonds with one another and they relate to each other more than the normal human beings. Most women addicts do not care much as long as they form part of the group they feel comfortable with. It is worth noting that these women addicts have a burning desire.

This generally occurs in women dealing with tough time. For instance, new comers may report to the meeting and share their opinions and leave the meeting, thinking that they have got off their desire.

Finally, there have been cases where addicts have been shown to suffer from medical hopelessness and depression which may bring disillusionment in their lives. This analysis can only be made possible, if appropriate research instruments and measures are used in the study (Mcleod 2001, p.82).

Data collection for this research would involve the administration of questionnaires and other secondary sources like books and journals. Data collection would involve administration of questionnaires. This method has been chosen because it is an inexpensive method.

In addition, questionnaires gather data eight respondents, but eight women have been chosen for this study. In fact, in most cases administration of the questionnaires is the best way to reach out to a large number of women because it provides enough data for a better statistical analysis.

Various stages would be followed in developing the questionnaires. These stages would be followed by administering the questionnaires and finally the interpretation of the result. Another important activity is defining the objective of the study, especially with the use of heuristic research.

According to Rose Theresa and Del Loewenthal, this is a method that helps individuals in interpreting their own personal experiences (Theresa & Loewenthal 2006, p.133)

Lillie postulated that when the logical flow of the questionnaires is compromised, useful data that could have been collected may not be valid, as expected during the pilot-research (Noreen, 2002:103). Therefore, a well set questionnaire helps in defining correct objectives for a research interview.

Consequently, in this research the first objective of the study would be to determine whether women alcoholics share close bonds with one another and relate to each other more than those who do not drink alcohol. The second objective would be to determine if burning desire to drink alcohol is associated with low self-concept, reduced self-esteem, and tough times in women’s lives.

In order to enhance efficiency in this study, the collected data must be properly administered. It is important to note that the research problems must also address the issues on data adequacy, as explored in Susan’s literature (Morrow 2005, p.255).

A critique/ evaluation of the existing literature

Existing literature evaluation can be best understood under the following subheadings. This research overview measures have strong correlation with context of the study problem. The measures achieved the goals of self-concept and self-esteem of women who are alcoholics. However, there are weaknesses realised from this research study.

The comparative study on assimilation, self-concept and self-esteem of women who are alcoholics was rather weak since it failed to incorporate a unified system of assessment that can be built using database of instruments. Besides, the research was based on simple models that cannot analyse the complex processes of SPSS analysis.

In addition, essential database instruments were lacking and their properties that make use of meta-analytic methods to decide on the best assessment methods to be employed in the study. The number of respondents used in this study was not sufficiently large to provide adequate data for the research.

Only eight women were sampled for interview, but this could not provide a representative sample for this research work. Though, the research literature dealt much on alcohol consumption among women, elements such as self-concept and self-esteem were not given equal weight since sufficient evidence was missing. Morton Adam argued that experiments are done on scientific theories so as to find evidence (Morton 2003, p.5).

Proposed steps for next research

Focusing on the next research that is meant to examine issues of self-concept as well as self-esteem among women who are under the influence of alcohol, database instruments should be involved to ensure more refined study outcomes.

There is also the proposal to expand this field of knowledge since it is currently too small to accommodate such complex analytical procedures. In addition, the next research work should incorporate various life domains such as self-perception and social identities, which are part and parcel of the self-concept.

Besides, the next research should make sound decisions on whether to incorporate behaviours and attitudes in the assessment. Moreover, multiple items or different response formats with detailed psychometric properties should be chosen for the study.

Conclusion

In conclusion it can be noted that if the research proposal is planned and implemented, the research process would succeed in achieving its objectives without major problems. Most importantly, the degree in which the researcher and the management of the location relate to one another also determines the success of the research.

The other important thing to be considered by the researcher is the availability of the tools and the equipment to be used during the research. Indeed, if the equipment and the tools are availed in time and in good condition, the process of doing research would not stall.

These are crucial elements that need to be incorporated in the study of the problems of self-concept and self-esteem among women who are under the influence of alcohol.

References

Bond, T 2004, Ethical Guidelines for Researching Counselling and Psychotherapy, BACP Publications, Boston.

Hammersley, M 1992, “Deconstructing the qualitative-quantitative divide”, Mixing methods: quantitative and qualitative research, pp. 39-56.

Lillie, N 2002, Women, Alcohol, Self-Concept and Self-Esteem: A Qualitative Study of Experience of Person Centred Counselling, British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy Publishers, Scotland.

Mcleod, J 2001, Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy, Sage Publishers, London.

Mcleod, J 2003, Doing Counselling Research, Sage Publishers, London.

Morrow, S 2005, “Quality and Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research in Counselling Psychology”, Journal of Counselling Psychology, vol.52, no.2, pp. 250-260

Morton, A 2003, Belief’s and their Qualities: A Guide Through the Theory of Knowledge, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.

Moustakas, C 1994, Phenomenological Research Methods, Sage Publishers, London.

Nicky, H 2000, Interviews: Doing psychological research: gathering and analysing data, Open University Press, Buckingham.

Roth, D & Fonargy, P 2005, What Works for Whom? A Critical review of Psychotherapy Research, Guildford Press, New York.

Theresa, R & Loewenthal, D 2006, Heuristic research, London. Karnack Publishers.

Alcoholism has been a problem since the ancient times. People who abuse alcohol have always found themselves in problematic circumstances in regards to the negative impacts of alcohol (Fletcher, 2001). Whereas a majority of the alcoholics have the desire to quit, the compulsion to continue drinking overpowers them immensely. The solution to every problem lies in understanding the root of the concern.

Abstinence and moderate drinking are the available treatment options for alcoholism. Patricia Owen believes that abstinence should be the ultimate goal in alcoholism treatment.

On the contrary, Anne Fletcher supports moderate drinking in the treatment of alcoholism. This paper critically examines the contrasting position held by the two. In addition, the position supported by contemporary research is also outlined.

Facts

According to Patricia Owen, all alcohol drinkers aim at achieving abstinence in the long term. People who opt for controlled drinking always train their systems to stay free of alcohol. Saying ‘No’ to alcohol is not only necessary (Owen, 2001). Rather, it is the most direct approach of ensuring that alcoholics address their problem.

In addition, Owen attests to the fact that moderation is not attainable by all people. People with serious alcohol dependence may find moderate drinking insignificant. Whereas a good percentage is comfortable with controlled drinking, the rest find the approach unsuccessful and impossible.

On the other hand, Anne Fletcher argues that alcoholism is a continuous process that requires professional care. Most alcoholics suffer from mild risks at the initial stages of their drinking experience. Subsequent drinking eventually leads to life threatening risks (Fletcher, 2001).

Abstinence is ignorant of this fact. Fletcher is categorical of the fact that moderate drinking is characterized by physiological stability, proper education and steady employment. People who possess these qualities greatly benefit from moderate drinking.

Opinions

According to Owen, alcohol dependent people find it problematic to moderate their drinking. This is because of the intense compulsion offered by the brain.

A person finds him/herself in a condition where alcohol becomes a need rather than a liking. Such people find it extremely impossible to desist from drinking temptations. Efforts and programs that advocate for moderation are therefore futile (Owen, 2001).In addition, Owen believes that abstinence is achievable.

The ultimate desire of all alcoholics is usually to quit drinking. Abstinence offers the best treatment for such cases. On the other hand, Fletcher is of the opinion that moderation is best achieved when professional guidance and help are sought. The professionals establish mechanisms to monitor the progress of alcoholics.

The success of controlled drinking does not entirely depend on the decisions made by the professionals (Fletcher, 2001). Rather, the involvement of the alcoholics is vital. Alcoholics need to be aware of the situations to prevent cases of self denial. Consequently, several studies have shown that controlled drinking applied at the onset gave better results than abstinence approaches.

Owen’s Position

Abstinence is a logical approach. It is always correct to assert that the avoidance of causes of misery is the surest way to be safe. Alcohol dependency and addiction are situations that are not experienced by non-drinkers.

Abstinence is usually the ultimate goal for all recovering alcoholics. Avoiding alcohol altogether strategically mitigates all the effects associated with it (Owen, 2001). The fact that abstinence is an ideal condition does not render it impossible.

It is possible to abstain. Through abstinence, emotional health, spousal relationships, job performance, legal and health status are improved. Moderate drinking may lead to “Loss of Control”. This condition results from the intense compulsion generated by the brain.

Owen affirms that a person finds him/herself graduating from the condition of “liking” to that of “wanting”. Several factors are overlooked. Alcoholism is usually a process that requires professional care. Professionals are usually aware of the fact that people with severe neuronal sensitization may find it difficult to abstain.

Owen assumes that abstinence is the best treatment option for all. It is not correct to assert that all the prescriptive rights are vested on the professional. Abstinence may be the treatment goal prescribed by the professional. However, the alcoholic should have a say about his condition.

Fletcher’s Position

Several cases are available to support that moderate drinking is possible. Abstinence should be driven by intrinsic forces and not external forces.

External forces should not be imposed against people recovering from alcoholism (Fletcher, 2001). Nolan changed from being an alcoholic to a non-problematic drinker. Abstinence and moderate drinking work together as posited by Nolan’s story. However, most alcoholics attest to the fact that abstinence is not easy as most people believe.

Moderate drinking is best achieved when one disregards emotions and the drinking environment. Drinking problems are continuously propagated as opposed to the view that they are instantaneous. Enco was of the view that most alcoholics feel more comfortable once introduced to moderate drinking programs (Fletcher, 2001).

Fletcher affirms that involving the alcoholic in the treatment process is important. The alcoholic makes an informed and experimental choice regarding moderation or abstinence. Heather, another alcoholic found out that abstinence was indeed the best option. Moderate drinking was the initial option but later on abstinence became the ultimate goal.

Studies indicate that moderation approach has been successful than abstinence on 3-year treatment programs. Setting drinking limits has worked for most alcoholics who moderate their drinking. Ed Shaw, Pat and Jack are good examples of alcoholics who have moderated their drinking (Fletcher, 2001). Moderation drinking is subjective and discriminatory. It has been found to work well in women and people under 40.

The credibility of the Authors

Owen is inclined towards the views held by Alcohol Anonymous. The group insists that abstinence should be the aim of all professionals. Owen however assumes that alcoholism can be addressed instantaneously.

The effects associated with alcoholism are regarded to end at once in cases where abstinence is applied (Fletcher, 2001). Owen assumes that abstinence can be applied to all people under the influence of alcohol.

This assumption ignores the gradual effects that alcoholics suffer from starting from the initial and advanced stages of their alcoholism. The other weakness posited is the fact that the author fails to validate her position. Lack of possible life examples is questionable. Fletcher is conclusive in her study.

She gives practical life examples to support her position. Her literature review is detailed. She is considerate of all cases of alcoholisms. She appreciates the role played by both professionals and the alcoholics in the treatment process. Her study is conclusive of the fact that moderation drinking is superior to abstinence.

Personal View

Alcoholism is a problem that can either be handled through moderate drinking or abstinence. The choice on which method to adopt solely depends on the condition of the alcoholic.

Abstinence is the ultimate goal in the treatment of alcoholism. However, it is not the only available option. It is ideal and difficult especially for heavy drinkers. It is therefore important to actively incorporate the views of the alcoholics in the treatment programs.

Professionals become aware of how to address specific alcoholism cases. Studies have indicated that indeed treatment programs that are interactive yield positive results. Fletcher uses various cases to validate her position. Heavy drinkers may find it difficult to abstain at once.

Moderate drinking programs may work for such people in the long term. The drinking limits set by the recovering alcoholics aid in the rehabilitation process. It is therefore correct to affirm that abstinence should not be the ultimate goal. Rather, moderate drinking should be advocated for.

Contemporary Research

Total abstinence is usually the best way of treating alcoholism. However, a strong social network and family support are vitally important in the treatment program. Whereas some drinkers find it possible to abstain, the majority affirm that moderation is the best approach to take. In addition, complete alcohol abstinence remains a challenge (Campbell, 2011).

For this reason, it is prudent to advocate for moderate drinking to avert the serious problems associated with alcohol addiction. People should be actively involved in alcohol treatment programs.

Through such a forum, people are able to realize the harms posed by alcohol. Consequently, they can aim at living a sober life. Honesty by family members is usually important in situations where moderate drinking is prescribed. Stanton Peele and Herbert Fingarette have expressed their dissatisfaction with how the USA government compels alcoholics to abstinence (Campbell, 2011).

They are of the view that personal freedom should be sought in regards to alcoholism. A study involving 80 participants showed that indeed moderate drinking was the best mode of treatment.

Most participants attested to the fact that that their abstinence levels had increased from 16% to 20% through moderated drinking (Campbell, 2011). During the 12 month period, the blood alcohol content levels had reduced by 50%.Moderate drinking is therefore superior to abstinence (Campbell, 2011).

References

Campbell, H. (2011). Moderate Drinking: Outcomes of a Randomized Clinical Trial With Non-Dependent Problem Drinkers. Journal of Counseling and Psychology, 12 (5)

Fletcher, A. (2001). One Drink Does not a Drunk Make: How the Masters Determined whether they could ever drink again. Houghton Mifflin

Owen, P (2001). Should Abstinence be the Goal for Alcohol Treatment? American Journal of Addiction, 289-295.

Alcohol is a depressant that alters the transmission of messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It is a by-product of fermentation after a sugar, fruit or vegetable is acted on by bacteria/yeast. It is the main recreational drug in Australia, meaning that people indulge in alcohol consumption for enjoyment purposes only, especially in social events and gatherings such as parties and clubbing.

There is a lot of advocacy on the dangerous effects of alcohol and cannabis use. The term ‘dangerous’ in this context is in relation to normal body functioning, which is disrupted by the use of these drugs. Dangerous effects of alcohol and cannabis form the basis for discussion of this paper.

In a study by Dietze et al. (2009), death and hospitalisations were highlighted as the effects of alcohol. It is surprising that this is the first study in as far as alcohol-attributable harm in Australia is concerned. I would expect to find numerous studies on alcohol since it is usually a topic of concern in the contemporary society; the social media, schools, policy makers never fail to mention alcohol in at least one occasions during the day.

However, it may be because of the very same reasons that little research has been conducted. The fact that alcohol consumption, either in moderation or binge drinking, is deemed a normal occurrence in day to day life could be a reason for this. In addition, cooperation from participants, who are mainly drunkards, is not guaranteed. Other effects of alcohol, according to Korsmeyer & Kranzler (2009), include an array of neurological disorders, poor nutrition and systemic damage.

The same is true for cannabis. It is the most commonly used illegal drug in the world. Karch (2006) points out that in 2003, 161 million people used it, and 46% of 101 states reported an increasing trend in its usage. There are associations made between the use of cannabis and cardiovascular diseases (Swift, Copeland, & Lenton, 2000).

However, little research has been conducted on this, especially in Australia. The study by Karch (2006) indicates that only in vitro animal experiments have been conducted. Human case studies are not valid due to confounding factors like underlying chronic medical conditions and/or cigarette smoking.

There is minimal difference in effects between alcohol and cannabis on a face evaluation. The prevailing research concurs with Barack Obama’s statement that cannabis is no more dangerous than alcohol because each has its own share of detrimental effects. Both alcohol and cannabis have dangerous systemic effects which vary with regard to the affected body organ.

In conclusion, it is inarguable that each drug has its own share of the dangerous effects that affect the normal functioning of the body. When a person combines either two or more drugs, aggravated effects result. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of scientific evidence on the usage and effects of alcohol and cannabis.

References

Dietze, P., Jolley, D., Chikritzhs, T., Clemens, S., Catalano, P., & Stockwell, T. (2009). Income inequality and alcohol attributable harm in Australia. BMC Public Health, 9, P. 70. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-9-70.

Karch, S. (2006). Cannabis and Cardiotoxicity. Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology, 2(1), 13-18.

Korsmeyer, P., & Kranzler, H. (Eds.). (2009). Encylopedia of Drugs, Alcohol & Addictive Behavior. Detroit: Macmillan Reference.

Swift, W., Copeland, J., & Lenton, S. (2000). Cannabis and harm reduction. Drug and Alcohol Review, 19(1), 101-112.

Introduction

Though alcohol consumers are aware of the dangers associated with alcoholism, many embrace alcohol as a tolerable agent for reducing anxiety, simplifying social communication, and instigating congenial feelings. The conflicting perceptions about alcohol have instigated a relentless debate about whether individuals with weaknesses in consuming this dangerous but acceptable beverage can use it in moderation.

Over the past years, the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) has been considered as the solution for people with drinking weaknesses. Even though the AA suggests abstinence, some people still feel that individuals with drinking weaknesses can also use moderation.

This paper tackles the issue of whether abstinence is the solitary goal for assisting people with drinking problems or whether moderation can also help. This analysis will be done through critically comparing the opinions and facts provided by Owen and Marlatt (2011) and Fletcher (2002).

The least two facts presented by each side of the critical issue

Psychologist Patricia Owen, who supports abstinence, notes that studies have disclosed that 50 per cent of people who go for treatment successfully attain abstinence.

Another fact presented by Owen and Marlatt (2001) is the research on neuroadaptation, which shows that the brain’s adaption to constant consumption of alcohol leads to loss of control. Loss of control refers to a situation where a person cannot quit from drinking soon after consuming the first drink.

Fletcher (2002) who opposes the AA philosophy also provides a number of facts to back his position. First, Fletcher states that research shows that individuals who use moderate approaches at the outset heal faster than those who are introduced to abstinence-focused methodologies.

Fletcher uses the examples of two psychologists who conducted experiments on chronic drinkers who were told choose between moderate drinking and abstinence. Individuals who chose moderation recovered more than those who chose abstinence.

Another fact presented by Fletcher is that alcohol research professionals suggest that many individuals would have an alternative option for their drinking weakness at an earlier stage if they were given a choice between abstinence and controlled drinking (Witbrodt & Kaskutas, 2005).

The least two opinions presented by each side of the critical issue

Owen claims that abstinence is sensible as a treatment goal for people with drinking problems since it is the most direct tactic. Furthermore, it is hard to convince an individual who is addicted to alcohol to take moderated amount of liquor.

On the other side, Fletcher holds that compelling all individuals with alcohol problems to abstinence overlooks the reality that drinking occurs in serious and minor circumstances. Moreover, an individual can effectively moderate his or her character if s/he gets proficient assistance as well as guidelines to monitor his or her improvement.

Some of the strengths associated with the pro side of the issue and some of the weaknesses

A strong argument for the pro side is the issue of moderation over drinking. Owen argues that a person who is already addicted to alcohol will find it very challenging to start moderating his or her drinks. Through the study of neuroadaptation, Owen explains clearly that one may go through preoccupation if s/he attempts to control his or her drinks while s/he is already addicted.

Owen states that an alcohol addict will be unable to control his or her drinking because of the pleasing properties of alcohol and the powerful coercion to drink. Furthermore, Owen uses several scientific researches to support his position making it easy for one to consider his argument credible.

On the other sides, the writer agrees that moderation can be applicable to some drinkers. This opinion implies that she also believes that abstinence is not the solitary goal for treating drinking problems. Furthermore, the fact that she states that there is no biological evidence to show that certain types of drinkers can moderate their alcohol intake weakens her positions.

If the opposing side provides valid evidence that there are individuals who can regulate their alcohol consumption, abstinence will cease to be the solitary goal of treating harmful alcohol intake (Myers & Isralowitz, 2011).

Some of the strengths associated with the Con side of the issue and some of the weaknesses

Fletcher’s main strength is how he structures his points. He begins his arguments with a testimony of an individual who was formally a drug addict, but reformed to a moderate drinker. Furthermore, he also agrees with Owen that not everyone can use moderation and mentions the kind of people who can control how they drink.

According to Fletcher, people who are learned, sane, have a job, and believe in moderation are the ones who can control the amount of alcohol they consume. Fletcher scores highly by nothing that the argument that everyone should abstain overlooks the fact that people have disparate rate of problems when it comes to drinking.

However, the weakness of Fletcher’s sentiments is displayed when he gives a contradictory statement that most individuals always want a method that can help them stop alcoholism.

He states that even alcohol-reliant people are likely to choose abstinence and leave moderation and after abstaining for a month, they are willing to live without alcohol. This opinion suggests that he also believes that abstinence is more effective than moderation (Wilson, 2012).

Authors’ credibility and an explanation

Both Fletcher and Owen offer strong arguments that are occasionally contradictory, but Owen’s arguments are more credible than Fletcher’s assertions. For instance, Owen argues that the best way of solving a problem is to eliminate it. A person suffering from alcoholism should be trained on how to stop the behavior.

Moreover, Owen argues that once one is addicted to alcohol, s/he will remain addicted to alcohol, and this argument is practical in real life. Owen’s argument overshadows Fletcher’s sentiment that a person who is already addicted to alcohol can start consuming it in small portions and feel comfortable with the new behavior.

Fletcher’s argument is not practical because the more one gets addicted to a certain substance, the more s/he will hanker for the substance. If a person can transform from a drunkard to a moderate drinker, then it is only sensible that s/he should not have been an addict in the first place ((Dick & Bierut, 2006).

The author I agree with and why

I agree with Patricia Owen. She gives logical and practical reasons. The effects of alcohol to the consumer and the community are detrimental. The little pleasures that it brings to the drinkers should not overshadow the harmful effects it causes to the consumers. The best way of assisting addicts is through elimination of the problem and not allowing moderate consumption.

Moderate drinking does not prevent one from getting the alcohol toxins, unlike in abstinence (Myers & Isralowitz, 2011). Patricia Owen proves that AA philosophy is sensible, possible, and simpler than sustaining moderation. The author exhausts various studies and scientific evidence to prove that an addict cannot start controlling the amount he or she consumes because of the compulsion the alcohol brings.

Owen admits that some types of individuals can regulate how they drink, but there is no substantial evidence to prove the credibility of this aspect. Abstinence remains the most effective goal of alcohol treatment. The quality of life indicators such as health, family relations and work output steadily increases with abstinence (Witbrodt & Kaskutas, 2005).

The side that contemporary research supports with specific examples

Recent studies show that abstinence is still the goal for treating people with drinking problems. However, studies also show that moderated drinking is attainable if the patient has not shown persistent pattern of excess alcohol consumption or negative results of drinking. The goal is to assist alcohol consumers to set a boundary for their drinking habit before they get addicted (Fowler, 2011).

Unfortunately, moderation will certainly fail where a person is already reliant on alcohol. For instance, a research done to monitor the outcomes of alcohol consumers for eight years after completing behavioral self-control teaching, a therapy crafted to impart moderate drinking habits showed a notable fact.

The study revealed that, as gravity of reliance in alcohol escalates, the probability of patients to lower their drinking to normal levels and maintain those levels drops drastically. Therefore, for the heavy drinkers, the only realistic option is abstinence (Family Health Guide, 2009).

Conclusion

Moderate alcohol consumption plays a significant role in treating alcohol patients. Moderate drinking and abstinence is a relevant goal for most consumers who are not yet alcoholic.

Fletcher and Owen share their opinions about this issue and their sentiments should be put into consideration whenever an alcohol consumer seeks treatment. Though many individuals have managed to lower their alcohol consumption using moderation or abstinence, most people having drinking problems see abstinence as the only feasible solution.

References

Dick, D., & Bierut, L. (2006). The genetics of alcohol dependence. Current psychiatry reports, 8(2): 151–7.

Family Health Guide. (2009). Alcohol abstinence vs. Moderation. Web.

Fletcher, A., M. (2002). Sober for Good: New Solutions for Drinking Problems – Advice From those who have Succeeded. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Fowler, R. (2011). Moderation vs. Abstinence: What’s More Effective? Web.

Myers, P., & Isralowitz, R. (2011). Alcohol. California, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Owen, P., & Marlatt, A. (2001). Should abstinence be the goal for alcohol treatment? The American Journal on Addictions, 10, 289-295.

Wilson, D. (2012). Alcohol dependence – what actually works? Continuing Medical Education Journal, 30(4), 122-126.

Witbrodt, J., & Kaskutas, L. (2005). Does Diagnosis Matter? Differential Effects of 12- Step Participation and Social Networks on Abstinence. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 31(4), 685-707.