Category: Airport

Introduction

The term “airport police system” refers to the procedures and tactics used to ensure customer safety. The safety system aids aviation officials in detecting any type of infiltration into the airfield. The material in the following paper will be utilized to present an excellent work strategy for an airstrip. The initial stage is to put together a powerful, competent, and determined management group that will strive to achieve optimal airport protection with the assistance of well-trained specialists. Second, in order to achieve optimum safety and management, the terminal needs to establish an aviation project. The port assures that all dangers are handled and addressed by building a cutting-edge surveillance system.

The airports have to make every effort to ensure that all structures are developed and configured properly. They are in perfect harmony and work tirelessly to acquire the highest degree of proficiency. The airline should also address the importance of managing and overseeing security processes. The requirement to develop a safety company for items sent by commercial airplane to the airfield is a necessity, and it necessitates a company structure to plan and implement internal risk assessment processes, as well as set the aims and range of the Flight Safety Committee. Senior management decides the functional group protection committee, which is in charge of creating safety initiatives and giving direction, guidance, and collaboration. The special commission will be obliged to take measures and provide the safety advisory board with comments and suggestions. Develop documentation, undertake risk appraisals, design and establish rules all at the appropriate time.

Security Force

Selection

To safeguard the safety of customers, workers, airlines, and electronic information systems, aviation security services should be established on federal and worldwide norms and policies. When choosing the optimal architecture, airport strategists and planners are heavily urged to examine the possible influence of shifting security issues and surveillance and security evacuation mechanisms on terminal infrastructure design. To ensure that designs allow the application of regional airfield and plane operator emergency measure standards, planners and engineers should work with aviation personnel organizers, flight crew, and Federal aviation security officials.

Organization

Project members, featuring airfield managers, terminal coordinators, municipal assistance agencies, and TSAs, will provide aviation protection services. The team can be established in these circumstances in collaboration with other institutions such as airports, intelligence services, freight and postal carriers, crisis intervention groups, anti-terrorist troops, and hazardous gadget law compliance authorities. The air travel expertise entails a slew of necessities that regions must address, including effective valid passport and border control, knowledge exchanging and the recognition of elevated travelers, security testing of individuals and cargo, worldwide anti-terrorism goals, and a slew of other interconnected priorities.

Training

Danger training is required for all trained security employees to obtain crucial and essential danger skills and knowledge to apply competitive abilities that assure excellent performance. To handle airport security problems, training is centered on education and awareness. Understanding that the armed services employs training as a crucial component in handling security risks is like recognizing that all protection professionals use it. Tactical training is vital because it allows soldiers to practice more effectively and in larger numbers across a larger area without causing undue inconvenience or placing others in danger. It is especially critical for all branches of training in which diverse components of the security services come together to collaborate and synchronize their movements.

Airport Layout

The major goal of this airline configuration is to create a system that would allow travellers to arrive at their destination in the least amount of time feasible by minimizing the overall time necessary for various customer and luggage operations before attaining the present value. Modifications in station design and airline processes are among the test options. In complement to idea research, numerical simulations are utilized to assess the solution’s practicality and quality. An airfield is divided into three sections: airside, inland, and terminus. The airside of an airfield is where airplane activities actually occur. The area of an airstrip and structures that both traveling customers as well as the quasi-public have unlimited access is referred to as the inland. The terminus is the third section and from a security point of view, airport terminal are normally separated into two different zones, known as airside and landside.

There is need to grasp what landside and terminus protection entails in order to get a decent knowledge and be able to evaluate the major factors of aviation safety for both terminal and landside security planning phase. The portion of the airfield that is available to the general public is known as the landside section. Community and worker parking spaces and structures, terminals and public highways, car rental and transportation services activities, hotel amenities, industrial and commercial projects are all examples of landside zones. The terminal is divided into two sections: landside and airside. From the standpoint of aviation safety, the two key goals in both landside and terminals safety design process are maximizing security operational effectiveness and passengers flow while reducing passenger pain and delay. The first focus will be security, given the existing terrorism concerns and worries, while also attempting to accelerate passenger movement. Because no two airports are the same in terms of size, extent, or nearby region, each must be uniquely designed.

All security requirements must be examined at the same moment as the desires on the airfield, its geography, and the capacity of the airbase, as well as the estimated annual passenger traffic. We must also examine the number of staff and the appropriate quantity of security officers necessary, which will vary according to the size of the airfield. Whereas the landside region is more difficult to guard due to its open nature, it does not require the same amount of security as the terminal and the airside sections. With cameras, roaming patrols, and number of officers, they is more readily managed.

To ensure strong security standards, the positions and amenities of landside structures and access routes will also have to be protected. The security standards for the airside region are more complicated since they encompass guarded zones where real airport operations are performed and only authorized staff may access them. The places where cargo is loaded, and also the flying line whereby aircraft taxi, board, and alight, are examples of these processes. Fencing, video recorders, motion detectors, roving guards, protected entry points, and security credentials are required to keep these places secure and segregated from the public at large.

The safety system in the terminals is a considerably more difficult condition to design. There are two components to the terminals that is the general sector where the wider populace is welcome to come and leave as they like. Only travelers and their baggage that have gone through police checkpoints, as well as approved airport workers, have entree to the antiseptic area. Passengers must go through a fairly regimented security process in order to obtain entry to this antiseptic section of the airport. The actual safety assessment of both people and their bags will be handled by skilled and well – trained scanners and safety officers. Elevated electronic devices, highly trained monitors, and other means will aid these staff in doing their tasks. Then we need to provide them with the resources they will need to do their tasks correctly. We must provide them with security checkpoint equipment, such as x-ray devices, to check through traveller luggage and check for suspected items which can be used to do damage. Deploy full-body detectors to check passengers seeking to board commercial aircraft for any weapons or questionable objects they may be transporting.

Due to the general spread of bombs used in terrorist acts, we also need to build chemical testing devices and have dynamite and narcotics detecting dogs on hand due to their high smelling skills. It is critical to have cameras that are continually watched all through the terminals. Designers must not lose focus of the reality that we must address the demands of the travelers who need to use these amenities, despite how much emphasis we place on security elements of airport services. Designers must remember that they must move through the procedure as quickly and comfortably as feasible. The surveillance procedure is necessary, but it must be carried out with competence and decency. That is why, regardless of how significant the tools and technologies are, and the human aspect is what makes all the difference. Security personnel and security agents must be skilled not just in spotting bad men, but also in treating passengers with respect and dignity.

Passenger Travel Process

The buying of a flight for plane flight starts with the acquisition of a flight and concludes with the traveler departing for their destinations.

The customer pathways through the airport differ based on the traveler’s check-in type and whether or not they have checked luggage. Check-in booths, self-service devices, and the Web or online application are the three options for registering. All travellers wishing to take a flight must undergo a customer and hand examination. All international travelers are required to pass a boundary examination. Most terminals have a disembarkation hall, as well as shopping and recreational facilities immediately following security screenings. Before flying, one must show their identification documents and boarding permit.

Airport Arrivals

Passengers can choose one of two paths once a plane lands: change flights or exit the air base.

Baggage Routes in Terminal

There are numerous pathways in the station based on cargo categorization. Guests are responsible for their own luggage from the time they arrive at the terminal until they board the plane. Customer safety checks are used to manage hand luggage. Cargo storage options: At the reservation booth, inspect the traveler’s luggage. Luggage will be transported to the hold baggage claim area for safety checks once it has been verified. After going through the retain baggage area, the luggage enters the “Categorization” carrier, which transports the luggage to the sledding slope. When the luggage gets at the paratrooper, it will be placed into the tank and flown by plane.

Security Control and Facilitation

ICAO appears to have set two minimum requirements: “streamlining the procedure of entering and leaving the airports” and “profoundly improved air traffic control.” Because of the growing list of risks that have developed in current years, civil aviation security is continually changing. The essential security actions implemented by airlines after 11 September 2001 are the prohibition of beverages in proportions more than 100 ml of identified traveler networks (not simply metal scanning) and the installation of aircraft fortification in the entrances.

Travelers and high-risk visitors, according to IATA, should analyze risk assessments more thoroughly. Individuals are being studied more closely in order to identify bombs. They decided to obtain facial readers at terminals after the terrorist assaults on New Year’s Eve in 2009 to identify the threat evaluation of munitions, and the client procedure has been adjusted to be more dependable (Li, 2018). The following are the primary steps used to reach this goal: The service aims to cut airline operational costs (staff, office, and paperwork) while also allowing customers to access low-bandwidth aircraft terminals. Due to robotics personal service, the port is also trying verhard to create this procedure less reliant on employees and simpler for each customer to complete.

System for Screening Passengers

Everybody who wants to board a plane is obliged to pass through the security check. The passengers must first put their belongings in hand luggage’s such as such as purses and handbags. Aerosols, liquids and gels should be packed in a bag. Equipment such as phones, laptops and metallic objects such as coins and keys should be placed in a basket. Wearing large clothes such as the jackets, jewelry, hats is forbidden in the airport therefore they should be removed and placed in the terminals. Any form of luggage is then placed in conveyer belt for electronic scanning. The passengers should inform the in attendant officers if they have any form of medical objects such as implants or any other medical related equipment’s.

Through the Metal Detector

Passing the Geiger counter (portable) security checks can be chosen at random if they occur in all regions of the planet. It is possible that the safety analysis procedure may need to be rechecked until the issue is rectified. Other detecting approaches may be used. You can choose hazardous tests at chance after one have completed the feature choosing procedure. One can choose the explosion recognition test at random once the first selection step is completed.

Explosive Trace Detector

Travelers would be forced to undertake standard liquid, spray, and lubricant inspections on their hand bags prior to takeoff. It may potentially be deliberately chosen for Terrorist Detection (ETD) screening at this stage. The ETD assessment will be comparable to the one conducted at airport checkpoints in Queensland. After one has made a choice, the program will prompt one to remove any electronic objects in their wallet or purse. Sanitary products would be used to clean them, their handbags, and personal devices, which will then be examined for contamination. This procedure should take no more than 30 seconds.

Spot Screening Program

SPOT refers for Screening of Passengers by observation methods, and it is a program administered by the National Transportation safety board Administration in the United States. Its job is to spot possible terrorists among airport passengers using a list of 94 objective standards, many of which are symptoms of stress, anxiety, or deceit. To spot possible offenders among airport visitors, the bright spot employs a set of 94 factual measures. The requirements are separated into various segments, with numbers for every requirement in the “reported benchmark position.” Delayed flights, tensions, concerns, nervousness, hand perspiration, and piercing the chilly design, for instance, are only a few of the suspicions listed in the SPOT comparison report. The technology also has AI systems that have the capability of any suspicious movements.

Behavior Detection officers

Agents trained in behavioral detection, identified as behavior assessors, will be on the watch for questionable behavior and activities mostly around dedicated airline registration and gate locations. Consumers presenting appearances and conduct signals or behavior signs, as well as randomly chosen customers, will indeed be orally engaged by conduct Evaluators. Clients will be selected and questioned in an unpredictable manner by behavior evaluators. For the primary reporting SPOT, Psychosocial Investigators (BDOS) do extra inspections in accordance with the necessary criteria. The approach was successful in detecting people who were carrying illicit substances, guns, and other contraband. The behavior detection officers also act as protectors to protect passengers from being conned within the airport. They also act as guide to first time passengers in the port. As compared to electronic crime detection, human observers are more accurate and can reason out in situations that require cognitive ability.

Concentric Ring Theory

To prevent attackers from entering the zone, the circular principle of physical safety necessitates the usage of numerous levels of protection measures. Several innovations may be employed to fulfill the corporation’s goal if the concentric zone hypothesis is used. The majority of them are centered on preventing complete confidence in one stratum while also spreading it to other layers. As a result, the assailant will have to pass it through numerous levels until it hits its destination (for example). The greater the security, the more strata the organization employs. Reaching the target as rapidly as feasible is one of the intruder hypotheses. The exact idea is used in concentric rings, but the duration and time intervals are increased. Those who possess exposure to tiers with varying rates at which invaders get to the objective will have varied authorization. In armed services notions, for example, admission to army barracks and other facilities is restricted. The issue is slowing down the rate at which illegal persons get access to locations they shouldn’t be.

The Federal Motor carrier safety Agency was founded in the aftermath of the “October 11” atrocities to ensure the integrity of the United States transportation industry (“Security, Transport Administration”). The TSA has implemented a tiered surveillance system with 20 distinct layers of safety to defend the air transportation system from possible terrorist assaults. A BDO is a defense system structure used by the TSA to defend terminals and airplanes from numerous terrorist activities and dangers linked to the SPOT.

System Integration for Maximum Security

In the field of airport screening testing, technological efficiency and socially acceptable remuneration are all mechanical advancements. Any alterations to recognized gateways for detecting metals would have more damaging consequences, as well as privacy breaches and reduced passenger safety. Most airports are intended to accommodate standard size airplanes if the spacecraft’s weight necessitates a bigger arm impact that may be disastrous not only for the hands but also for the effects of terminal degradation and other problems. More than one billion kilograms might have an impact on most airports’ present models. As per Caiba India Consultants’ homepage, the “‘ intelligent tag” may “transform the current logo, leading travelers through numerous parallel bilingual terminals without mingling, and can even give a touch screen, allowing guests to be controlled manually.”

The requirement for airlines necessitates technology development that not only expedites the assessment of photographic luggage but also reduces costs. The airline will create scanning and detecting solutions for munitions, firearms, toxic elements, biological devices, espionage, radioactive objects, and physical and biochemical warfare, among other things. Security systems can fulfill the demands of many businesses because to their flexible setup, effective design, and user-friendly interface. In a culture where customers are endangered by other technological activity, the customer experience is becoming increasingly safe.

CCTV system

Monitoring the air surrounding individuals or handling them to eliminate hazardous components from them rather than their belongings are examples of possible samples. A number of procedures can be used to identify the component of relevance. Visitors using sample procedures are unlikely to be concerned about the specifics of biochemical detection methods. The main security mechanism is the ability to contribute in its execution. The administrator is in charge of the protection system’s judgement call aspects. The capacity to engage in voice is a crucial aspect of accuracy. Determine whether or whether there are any possible threats to the airplane.

It is critical to incorporate technologies in order to collaborate in a prompt and effective manner. To begin, it is a video-based connection network that connects all safety actors interested in aviation security. In three regions of the runway layout, sound and motion sensor technology will necessitate the same sort of method, which will be controlled from a centralized point. So that any catastrophe scenario may be instantly identified and the appropriate response group can be contacted. The security people who watch and defend the culture are the most valuable commodity. We must improve our capability to send them to where they will be required the most. The most significant disadvantage is the continual change in flight.

When reviewers are really busy, they shade and take a seat, although in other locations, this activity has greatly risen. It is vital to sustain a constant flow of production due to the lack of steady and secure flows. When two or three foreign planes arrive, the terminal may see the requirement to move qualified personnel swiftly and efficiently by looking at the immigration gates. It may be used by employees, and there are methods for determining where and when they are needed. Simply set the mechanism up for in-person or online delivery. The solution will be to employ current technologies to assist the first sensor in conducting offsite diagnostic tests. They’ll be able to perform genuine traveler investigations and luggage examinations. How to assess customers based on known trends of behavior.

Access to Airport Operation

The committee proposed that the Government should speed its social factors programs to assist airplanes and corporations in incorporating physiological surveillance training into the development of quality assurance equipment, as well as inspecting travelers and advising personnel on safety checks. Establish an appropriate functional efficiency test to establish the best combination of capabilities in newly created systems, as well as studies in the fields of ergonomics, choice, orientation, and motivation for dynamite operators. Human controllers must be successfully integrated with the entire defense system in consumer transportation based on current or projected modern tools. This will allow travelers to transit through an airport at a quicker rate, resulting in not just favorable interactions with personnel but also action. Three major parameters have not been estimated after examining the elements of the technology after thinking and thoroughly comprehending its execution.

Air Carrier Safety Management

In the aerospace sector, there are several strategies to transfer commodities and customers from one location to the other. These are mostly path optimization ideas in the airline sector. These two extremely different perspectives on the customer service center: privatization of civil aviation, government interference of all air services, and a moment in time air system. The aircraft sector began to change once dynamic routing was deregulated. Today, practically all significant airlines employ a core radioactive system to attract customers and planes in every location where they function, both regionally and internationally, to use the axe pinion gears model.

The key result, according to the carrier, is that these facilities enable them to deliver greater and more regular trips for clients. The center and spread concept had become the standard for most international flights when the aircraft business was deregulated in 1978. Prior to liberalization, the national government recommended that the “connector” model utilized between two tiny airlines and multiple aircraft be half-empty, resulting in airline losses.

To link each country with its schedule and supply services, the Terminal must form agreements with other carriers. When dealing with large amounts of linked airlines, this may lead to tensions and competition for competitiveness. This is a breakthrough for regular business travels that can build distance while being comparable to numerous reductions with affiliate links or other possibilities, and intend to journey with the industry’s personnel, the issue is at their core.

The CNN story examined the coalition’s present capabilities and how partnerships with other carriers can help travelers give support during flights. “The partnership has built personalized terminals that serve most of the group’s activities at large ports such as Heathrow and Narita,” Snyder added. This could not be exactly you got in the main trip plans, independent of your contact with the other airplanes in the competition. These institutes, as well as the capacity to locate them, specify the proper path to take to reach the hub and destination of travel. One element that helps to Dubai’s growth as an air transportation hub is that protracted planes, such as that of the B777 and A340, may be linked to two anchoring locations from Sharjah to a destination.

Flights that operate on a moment in time basis, such as Terminals employ regional runways at its desired location under the mentoring paradigm. They discussed their objectives in the same way that travelers and the organization did. They often use, but they may also employ point-to-point systems. Planes play a critical role in global transportation, utilizing mentoring, center, and radio links. These flying concepts have grown so divisive that various airplane manufacturers have opposing viewpoints on their viability in the marketplace. The hub concept and radio, according to Airbus, control the aircraft sector.

Boeing built a Super A380 plane to back up his idea, claiming that the participant approach will triumph. Build a 787 biofuel that is both stylish and effective, and that is well suited to this industry. Both versions will, in reality, be employed in the business. They commute in a peer-to-peer method that takes them from their house to their location. Both techniques have benefits and drawbacks because the cubed and transmitter model represents the aircraft prior to flight, it should be employed.

The Federal Motor carrier safety Authority is requiring express and logistics businesses to assess 100 percent of their transportation cost under a Legislative statute. As a consequence of these efforts, the airline has been able to considerably alter the way, techniques, and efficiency with which items is handled, as well as the manners in which by-products significantly decrease the transportation of products. It is vital to improve the productivity of airfreight clearance procedures in order to expedite the processing while guaranteeing the greatest degree of safety feasible. Each item must be examined prior to entering the security and unloading area on the airplane, in contrast to technology that required maximum protection of the cargo being handled, stored, and carried.

Conclusion

Service quality may be improved by using fast-channel services. This kind is mostly found in international travel. This notion serves to increase the competitive advantage of air travel in locations where HST seems to be well supplied (which is not the case in Lisbon) when planning terminal and airport programs, keep the solution in mind. Passengers should take their bags to the aircraft’s entrance and the baggage to personnel in the basement as a solution to the crisis. This “quick route” service will take the place of other passengers (regular passengers) for security screening. Fast travellers pass immediately through to the “Fast Track3 Connector” stream after passing through safety. The simulation software was used to apply the alternative situational analysis at the Lisbon terminal building, which found that the effective service delivery is helpful to frequent travelers.

References

Bhandari, B., & Park, G. (2020). Development of a real-time security management system for restricted access areas using computer vision and deep learning. Journal Of Transportation Safety &Amp; Security, 14(4), 655-670. Web.

Dobruszkes, F. (2021). A global business? Mapping the densest passenger airline routes.Journal Of Transport Geography, 92(35), 102-941. Web.

Issa, K., Pierce, T., Gwam, C., Festa, A., Scillia, A., & Mont, M. (2017). Detection of total hip arthroplasties at airport security checkpoints – how do updated security measures affect patients?. HIP International, 28(2), 122-124. Web.

Kleiman, A., Cohen, I., & Berdugo, B. (2021). Constant-beamwidth beamforming with concentric ring arrays.Sensors, 21(21), 52-53. Web.

Li, X. (2018). Airport simulation technology in airport planning, design and operating management.Applied And Computational Mathematics, 7(3), 130-132. Web.

Introduction

Athens is the capital city of and also the largest city in Greece. Ancient classical Athens was a great urban center that grew during the expansion of the trading port that was Piraeus. It was a global center for philosophy, arts, and learning (Athens History 2019). In the modern world, it is generally thought to be the fountain of modern civilization and democracy as a result of its systemic and societal influence on the Roman Empire and Europe as a whole. Today, Athens is a big metropolis with a central role in the cultural, economic, political, financial, maritime, and industrial life of Greece.

Istanbul is the city with the highest population in Turkey. It serves as an economic, historical, and cultural center. It is currently ranked fifth among the most popular tourist destinations in the world, its biggest attraction being its historic center. The city also houses the headquarters of various Turkish organizations and contributes more than twenty-five percent of Turkey’s gross domestic product.

These two cities are important economic giants located in the same geographical area. They are significant contributors in the fields of commerce and especially tourism (Ciommi et al. 2018, p. 2765). To drive their position and make them stronger in the region, both cities have modern airports intended to drive growth now and in the future. In spite of these efforts, Athens Airport has continued to face challenges that prevent it from meeting its actual potential while Istanbul Airport has grown to become one of the leading hubs in the global air services scene. Modern physical designs and technology, aggressive marketing, and increased capacity for handling passenger traffic are key considerations when setting up an airport and positioning it to become a global hub in both domestic and international aviation.

Consequences of Physical Design and Capacity Limitations for an Airport

The facilities are upgrades from previous international airports, with the key driving force being the limitation of its air services, especially passengers and cargo. Additionally, both of their predecessors lacked advanced designs to ensure maximum output in terms of passenger and cargo handling. This involves runways, terminal designs, and access from the catchment areas.

Athens Airport

Athens International Airport is the biggest international airport in Greece. It has been in operation since the year 2001 and is the chief base of Aegean Airlines and other Greek airlines (The Airport Company 2019). The airport was built as a replacement for the previous Athens International Airport, which was abandoned due to physical space restrictions. The airport’s major characteristics include two long runways and awaiting the lifting of legal restrictions by the Federal Aviation Administration and the European Aviation Safety Agency to allow it to handle some of the largest passenger jets worldwide.

The airport currently operates two terminals. These are the main and the satellite terminals. The satellite terminal is linked to the main terminal by an underground link. The airport is designed to have the capacity for extension in a modular manner in the future to accommodate increasing air travelers (The Airport Company 2019). The extensions are structured in a six-phase approach. The first phase, which is the current one, enables the airport to handle 26 million passengers annually (The Airport Company 2019). At its initiation, the current phase could handle 16 million passengers annually but has grown without necessitating progression to the next phase as a result of the employment of advanced information technology logistics (The Airport Company 2019). The 6^th expansion phase will enable the airport to handle about 50 million passengers annually (The Airport Company 2019). To support this projected passenger traffic, the existing parallel runway module was designed with such numbers in mind. Athens International airport is accessible by road, metro, and railway.

Istanbul Airport

Istanbul airport is the chief international airport that serves Istanbul. The airport began operations in 2019 after the closure of Istanbul Atatürk airport. The new Istanbul airport was due to the previous airport’s operational restrictions. It lacked space for the construction of another runway, the growth of the city limited its growth, and there was worsening traffic congestion. Furthermore, there were political restrictions on additional charter or cargo flights to the airport. The new airport was therefore located north of central Istanbul, where there was ample space for expansion.

The construction of the new airport is being undertaken in stages, with expansion being rolled out over time. The first phase consists of the main terminal that can handle 90 million passengers annually (Anadolu Agency 2019). The airport will also employ the two parallel runway system, and these will terminate next to eight taxiways. The project is scheduled for completion in 2027, at which point the airport will have eight runways, 16 taxiways, and a passenger capacity of 150 million annually with room for expansion to 200 million passengers (McKernan 2019). Currently, the airport has one operational terminal being serviced by four runways.

Critical Assessment

The previous Athens international airport could handle 11 million passengers annually (Anadolu Agency 2019). This capacity offered a limitation in the number of passengers that could be handled through the airport in the face of a rapidly expanding Athens driven chiefly by the tourism industry. The airport’s main operational restrictions were that it could not handle larger passenger jets and therefore needed upgraded modern runways. It was also limited in terms of infrastructure linking it to the city of Athens. These limitations led to congestion of passengers, strained support infrastructure and poor customer satisfaction at the airport, therefore, necessitating the construction of the new airport.

The new Athens airport still has the capacity and design limitations when compared to Istanbul international airport. Athens Airport can handle 16 million passengers, while the Istanbul airport can handle 90 million passengers annually (Anadolu Agency 2019). This difference in capacity is determined by the difference in the design of terminal sizes and passenger handling facilities. It is a significant difference that makes Istanbul a preferred destination, as opposed to Athens, with far more superior passenger handling capabilities. The larger passenger terminal at Istanbul provides enough space to handle large passenger volumes and as a result, Istanbul airport is thriving while Athens faces challenges.

Airport Strategy

Athens Airport

Athens Airport is managed through a public-private partnership management model that involves the Greek state through Athens Airport SA and the private sector in a 55% to 45% stake agreement, respectively (The Airport Company 2019). Private investors include PSP investments, a Canadian company, and the Copelouzos Group. Athens Airport saw a growth in profits before tax and operating revenue and ADF in 2018 as compared to 2017 (Facts and Figures 2019). The company’s expenditure has increased through its absorption of more long-term debt and the upgrading of its facilities (Facts and Figures 2019). Profit before tax grew by 19.9% from 2017 to 2018 while operating revenue and ADF grew by 8.9% from 2017 to 2018 (Facts and Figures 2019). The year 2016 was significant for Athens Airport in both the international and domestic scenes. In that year, the airport was able to surpass its target of handling 20 million passengers annually (Facts and Figures 2019). It was also able to sustain an increase of 10.7% in passenger numbers consequently (Facts and Figures 2019). This trend was maintained in 2017 with the airport achieving a traffic increase of 8.6% to achieve a total of about 21.7 million passengers (Facts and Figures 2019). In 2018, passenger traffic grew by 11% to attain its greatest volume of 24.1 million passengers (Facts and Figures 2019). Concurrently, aircraft traffic also reported a growth of 10.8% to reach 217,094 movements (Facts and Figures 2019).

Many airlines that operated long haul flights terminated their contracts with the airport while others reduced the volumes of their operations to the seasonal basis, terminating operations during winter. The debt crisis that faced the Greek government resulted in a reduction in passenger traffic through the airport for over six years (Dimitriou, Mourmouris & Sarzetaki 2017, p. 5251). This period also saw the closure of Olympic Airlines that operated long haul flights via the airport. As a result, in the year 2013, the airport handled only 12.5 million travelers representing a 3.2% drop from the year 2012 and 25% less than the volumes reported in 2007, which had the highest volumes at the time (Papatheodorou et al. 2019, p. 30). The airport was, however, able to recover as from 2014 as ten airlines began operations at the airport, and Aegean airlines increased its network by 30% (2018 Financial Results 2019). Ryanair also established a base at Athens airport with eight new destinations (2018 Financial Results 2019). Thus in 2014, the airport reported more than 21% growth in passenger traffic to reach 15.1 million travelers (2018 Financial Results 2019).

Istanbul Airport

Istanbul airport was constructed through government tender that was issued for construction and operation of the infrastructure until 2030. The tender was awarded to the consortium Cengiz-Kolin-Limak-Mapa-Kalyon that was obliged to pay a down payment to the government in addition to value-added tax spanning over 25 years beginning from 2018 (Kormuculer 2015). It has created between 194,000 and 225,000 jobs translating to an additional household income of about 4.4 billion dollars and between 4.2% and 4.9% contribution to national income (Fasone, Kofler & Scuderi 2016, p. 37). The airport can handle 2.5 million tonnes of cargo, representing almost double the capacity of Atatürk airport (Anadolu Agency 2019). It has also signed contracts with logistics firms worth about 250 million euros (Anadolu Agency 2019). Indirect revenues have been realized in subsidiary sectors and other branches such as technical service and logistics (Fasone, Kofler & Scuderi 2016, p. 39).

The airport, opened in 2018, had total passenger traffic of 95,330 for the year. This figure grew to 28.8 million for the period between January and August 2019 (Anadolu Agency 2019). Istanbul Atatürk airport handled 63.7 million passengers in 2017 and 67.9 million passengers in the year 2018 (Anadolu Agency 2019). It was ranked 11^th and 10^th respectively globally in terms of passenger numbers. Of note, however, is that despite the growth in passenger numbers between 2017 and 2018, there was a 2% drop in domestic passenger numbers from 2017 to 2018 (Anadolu Agency 2019). Currently, the new Istanbul airport handles passengers and cargo while the Atatürk airport only handles cargo.

The Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies of Turkey predicts that worldwide global air traffic is set to increase at a yearly average of about 4.4% until the year 2025 (Eren 2019, p. 670). This is in spite of the local Turkish aviation sector exceeding the global sector in terms of growth. The operations of the airport are expected to contribute 2.76% of the country’s GNP and create around 107,000 jobs by 2025, translating to 5.3 billion TRY in new household income (Eren 2019, p. 670). The new Istanbul airport serves passenger airlines while Istanbul Atatürk serves cargo airlines. Istanbul airport serves 68 passenger airlines, while Atatürk serves 19 cargo airlines (Anadolu Agency 2019). The division of passenger and cargo operations between the airports has enabled a smooth transition from Atatürk to the new Istanbul airport by relieving pressure on Atatürk and the Turkish aviation industry. This arrangement addresses one of the major challenges that faced the old airport: the restriction by the Turkish Airport Authority of increased charter and cargo flights to the airport.

Running more than one airport presents an advantage to the Turkish aviation industry. The new Istanbul airport brings modern facilities that enable the handling of larger passenger numbers enabling Istanbul to become an aviation giant in the region. Additionally, the new airport addresses the challenges that were facing the old airport, such as limited expansion capacity due to the rapidly growing city and restrictions by the Turkish Aviation Authority. Some of the weaknesses of running more than one airport include the fact that the venture is costly, requiring massive capital investment and massive environmental destruction because airports require large tracts of open land for efficient operation. In the case of the new Istanbul airport, environmentalists were opposed to the project due to the massive deforestation that was involved.

Critical Assessment

Both airports are run through public-private partnerships that provide the necessary capital and expertise to run modern international airports efficiently. However, Athens airport was significantly affected by the Greek government debt crisis that resulted in the cancellation of operations by major airlines operating long-haul services (Eren 2019, p. 670). This period was marked by a significant drop in annual passenger numbers handled through the airport. It was able to increase its annual passenger numbers up to an all-time high of 24.1 million passengers in 2018 (Facts and Figures 2019). In comparison, Istanbul airport handled 67.9 million passengers in the same year (Anadolu Agency 2019). In both airports, there were higher volumes of international passengers compared to domestic passengers. However, the volumes were significantly higher in Istanbul airport than Athens Airport. The airport strategy employed in Istanbul airport has resulted in significantly higher passenger numbers and cargo volumes as compared to the strategy employed at Athens Airport. The revenues realized at Istanbul airport are also significantly higher than those realized at Athens airport. This is why Istanbul airport continues to thrive while Athens airport faces challenges in the quest to become a global aviation hub.

Running more than one airport has allowed Istanbul to harness the increased capacity for handling passengers at the new airport and cargo at the old airport as the transition is being made towards complete adoption of the new airport. As a result, Istanbul airports are able to handle more cargo and more cargo airlines as compared to Athens airport which operates both functions in a smaller airport with limited capacity.

The Current Situation of Atatürk And Its Potential Role in The Future

The revelation that Istanbul Atatürk airport was no longer handling passenger flights and would be replaced by the new Istanbul Airport was taken to mean the end of an era, not only for the old airport but also TAV holdings, the company responsible for running the airport because it would not be involved in the running of the new Istanbul airport (Keskin & Ulas 2017, p. 336). The company has, however, managed to remain operational and profitable through diversification of its operations and upgrading of local airports such as Antalya. Istanbul Atatürk has lost its place as a major income earner for TAV, with the most impact being felt in the loss of duty-free sales at Atatürk.

Since 6^th April 2019, Istanbul Atatürk airport only carries out cargo, general aviation, business flights, maintenance, air taxis, and handling of diplomatic and state aircraft. Before commercial passenger operations were moved to the new Istanbul airport, Atatürk had served more than 60 million travelers in the year 2015 (Anadolu Agency 2019). It was ranked 11^th among the busiest airports globally in 2015 in total passenger traffic (Anadolu Agency 2019). When the transition was made in April 2019, the airports had been operated simultaneously for five IST months (Anadolu Agency 2019). The airport, as of now, uses the IATA airport code ISL after its original code was transferred to the new travel hub. The facilities at the airport include now-defunct passenger terminals, a cargo terminal, and other facilities. The airport had two passenger terminals that were linked to one another. Other facilities on-site include the headquarters of Turkish Airlines and Onur Air.

Atatürk airport has lost its role as a commercial flight airport; however, there are still roles that it can play in the Turkish aviation industry (Anadolu Agency 2019). The airport may be used for local aviation functions, thus working as an airfield. Two of its runways are to be preserved and used for general aviation purposes. One terminal is also set to be preserved to be used for private jets. This terminal can be utilized by private individuals and VIPs who desire some privacy in air travel. Aviation schools can also use the terminal for training pilots, maintenance technicians, engineers, and traffic controllers. The hangars can be used for the support and maintenance of commercial and private airlines. The airport is scheduled to handle cargo operations for the next year before these functions are also fully taken over by the new Istanbul airport.

Several facilities available at the airport may be handed over to the military for use in training and also active use by the air force. This is a sensible consideration because the infrastructure present at the facility is capable of handling large volumes of air traffic. The large terminal buildings can be converted into the convention and fair centers (Favargiotti 2018, p. 91). Holding fairs and conventions at this location would have a positive impact on the local service industry, including hotels and other service providers around the airport. This is because the reduced domestic and international passenger traffic translates to less business for this industry.

Strategy for Athens to Make It a Domestic and International Hub

The airport should partner with other key stakeholders to encourage visiting the city. Athens International Airport, the city of Athens, and AEGEAN have partnered to form the Athens Tourism partnership. This partnership aims to market the city as an ideal destination for the world, especially during winter, spring, and autumn. This promotion of the city as an ideal final destination is a strategic move aimed at strengthening the city’s position in the global tourism market (Kim & Lee 2018, p. 431). It will see the city receive more tourists annually, therefore, translating to increased passenger numbers and business for Athens airport. The airport will also have an opportunity to increase its network of global destinations and the number of airlines that are served. Aggressive marketing is a key strategic consideration that will ensure the growth of Athens as a tourist destination (Font & McCabe, p. 870).

Conclusion

The global aviation industry is a highly competitive scene that requires players and other stakeholders to continuously improve their operations and explore new ways of carrying out their operations to ensure that their airports grow to become global hubs in local and international aviation. Athens and Istanbul are world tourist destinations offering beautiful attractions, mainly in the form of ancient culture. Their respective airports are thus poised to handle large volumes of passenger traffic as tourists travel in and out of these destinations. Both cities have responded by building new, ultra-modern airports to meet their obligations to travelers. However, growth has not been uniform despite these airports being similar to Istanbul growing to become a global hub while Athens is struggling. From the analysis, it is evident that other factors have a role to play, such as the Greek government’s debt crisis. Additionally, key stakeholders need to work together in aggressively marketing their destinations to ensure that they reach more travelers and establish new destinations.

Reference List

2018 Financial Results. Web.

Anadolu Agency 2019, ‘Air passenger traffic in Turkish airports rose 8.8 percent in 2018’, Hurriyet Daily News,. Web.

Ciommi, M, Chelli, F, Carlucci, M & Salvati, L 2018, ‘Urban growth and demographic dynamics in Southern Europe: toward a new statistical approach to regional science’, Sustainability, vol. 10, no. 8, p. 2765.

Dimitriou, JD, Mourmouris, CM & Sarzetaki, FM 2017, ‘Quantification of the air transport industry socio-economic impact on regions heavily depended on tourism’, Transportation Research Procedia, vol. 25, pp. 5242-5254.

Eren, F 2019, ‘Top government hands-on megaproject management: the case of Istanbul’s grand airport’, International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 666-693.

Facts and Figures 2019. Web.

Fasone, V, Kofler, L & Scuderi, R 2016, ‘Business performance of airports: non-aviation revenues and their determinants’, Journal of Air Transport Management, vol. 53, pp. 35-45.

Favargiotti, S 2018, ‘Renewed landscapes: obsolete airfields as landscape reserves for adaptive reuse’, Journal of Landscape Architecture, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 90-100.

Font, X & McCabe, S 2017, ‘Sustainability and marketing in tourism: its contexts, paradoxes, approaches, challenges and potential’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 869-883.

Keskin, B & Ulas, E 2017, ‘Does privatization affect airports’ performance? A comparative analysis with AHP-TOPSIS and DEA’, in D Prochazka (ed.), New trends in finance and accounting, Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 335-345.

Kim, H & Lee, TJ 2018, ‘Brand equity of a tourist destination’, Sustainability, vol. 10, no. 2, p. 431.

Kormuculer, G 2015, ‘Construction of new Istanbul airport officially starts under shadow of challenges, questions’, Hurriyet Daily News. Web.

McKernan, B 2019, ‘Turkish Airlines is switching to a new Istanbul airport – all in 45 hours’, The Guardian. Web.

Papatheodorou, A, Vlassi, E, Gaki, D, Papadopoulou-Kelidou, L, Efthymiou, M, Pappas, D & Paraschi, P 2019, ‘The airline–airport–destination authority relationship: the case of Greece’, in N Kozak & M Kozak (eds), Tourism, hospitality & event management, Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 27-41.

The Airport Company 2019. Web.

Introduction

The purpose of an airport is to facilitate aviation, which is also generally considered its primary source of revenue. However, due to pressure from competition and low-cost carriers, the profit margin on aeronautical income has been decreasing as airports tried to undercut each other’s prices. As a result, they have become increasingly reliant on non-aeronautical revenues such as rent from shops stationed in the facility. These cash streams are mostly dependent on the number and type of passengers that pass through the terminal. This essay will evaluate the reasons why airports increasingly focus on non-aeronautical revenues and their types. By doing so, it will demonstrate that the maximization of these types of income is necessary for airport survival but is not a viable survival strategy alone.

Discussion

The Rise of Non-Aeronautical Revenues

As mentioned in the introduction, LCCs are among the primary reasons for the decline of aeronautical revenues. Francis et al. (2004) discuss how, seeing their rapid growth, many airport managers started trying to attract them in hopes of capitalizing on the growing traffic. However, the new airlines proved to be unwilling to pay the same fees as traditional carriers and began negotiating for lower fees. Their market power, which emerged from numerous airports’ simultaneous competition for their presence, enabled them to secure excellent deals. As a result, airlines have begun trying to compensate by extracting revenue from the visitors directly (Francis et al., 2003). They began offering a wider and more comprehensive variety of services that evolved over time to incorporate new conveniences.

As a result of the various measures taken by airports to increase non-aeronautical revenues, their proportion in the overall income grew accordingly. Per Graham and Morrell (2016), among European airports, in 1984, the percentage was at 41%, but then it began growing steadily to become 50% in 1999. With that said, non-aeronautical revenue sources are still limited and contingent on the passengers that visit the location for flights. As such, there is a soft upper limit on their share in the airport’s overall earnings. Graham and Morrell (2016) confirm its existence, noting that airports have struggled to change the ratio since 2000, which averaged to 60-40 aeronautical versus non-aeronautical globally in 2013. Nevertheless, the airports have been successful in extracting additional income from their customers, doing so in a variety of ways.

Sources of Non-Aeronautical Revenues

Airports use a variety of non-aeronautical sources of revenue that work with customers both directly and indirectly. Dileep (2019) lists to rent, direct sales, catering, car parking, consultancy centers, visitors, and business services, but there are many other minor items that do not necessarily warrant a detailed mention. With that said, while they may not be significant when isolated, their massive variety can influence the overall figures substantially when they are combined. As shown in Fig. 1, direct retail, rents, and parking are the most significant categories, constituting approximately two-thirds of the entire figure. More than half of the remaining non-aeronautical revenues are miscellaneous and unnamed, presumably because each one produces less than 1% of the total income.

With that said, the three most important items still warrant a detailed discussion, starting with direct retail. The airport operator will typically operate some shops in the facility directly while also providing catering services. Consultancy centers and other services provided directly by the airports rather than a third party can also be considered part of direct sales. It should also be noted that people who work at the airport, such as employees and visiting airline workers, also have to use its services (Page, 2019). Sales made to them can also be considered a substantial part of direct retail income.

The spaces that are not occupied by airport facilities and services that are owned by it are generally rented out to third-party shops. These facilities will typically provide a fixed monthly or annual income to the airport. Vogel (2019) also describes a system where renters have to pay the airport a percentage of their turnover, which is likely designed so that the airport can further capitalize on the number of its customers. It should also be noted that the facilities within the airport use its electricity, water, and other utilities, which they then have to compensate. All of these items can be broadly classified under rent, as they deal with third parties rather than the airport directly.

Lastly, parking should be discussed, as it has an unusual relationship with airports. Many visitors (though not all of them) will arrive at the facility alone using a car and depart on an aerial trip, which can be lengthy. For that duration, they need to store their car safely, and many airports accommodate this need by providing large parking spaces of different types that suit diverse customer needs. The maintenance requirements of a parking lot are relatively minor unless it is being expanded, as Auckland International Airport’s 2005 parking earnings of $24.8 million and expenditures of $1.3 million show (Senguttuvan, 2016). As such, parking is highly profitable and may be considered one of the most effective sources of non-aeronautical revenue for an airport.

Conclusion

The increase in the importance of non-aeronautical revenues may be considered a self-imposed change, as airports lowered their aeronautical charges to attract LCCs but found that their overall revenue failed to grow. As a result, they had to resort to using the increased passenger traffic to increase their income. Airports worldwide have introduced a large number of measures, such as retail, car parking, and rent, which constitute approximately 40% of their total revenues globally. However, non-aeronautical revenues still depend on passenger traffic, which can only result from aeronautical operations. There are limits to how much a visitor is willing to spend, and, therefore, while non-aeronautical revenues supplement the loss of their counterparts, they cannot replace them.

References

Dileep, M. (2019). Tourism, transport and travel management. Taylor & Francis.

Francis, G., Fidato, A., & Humphreys, I. (2003). Airport–airline interaction: the impact of low-cost carriers on two European airports. Journal of Air Transport Management, 9(4), 267-273. Web.

Francis, G., Humphreys, I., & Ison, S. (2004). Airports’ perspectives on the growth of low-cost airlines and the remodeling of the airport–airline relationship. Tourism Management, 25(4), 507-514. Web.

Graham, A. (2018). Managing airports: An international perspective (5^th ed.). Taylor & Francis.

Graham, A., & Morrell, P. (2016). Airport finance and investment in the global economy. Taylor & Francis.

Page, S. J. (2019). Tourism management (6^th ed.). United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.

Senguttuvan, P. S. (2016). Principles of airport economics. Excel Books.

Vogel, H. (2019). Foundations of airport economics and finance. Elsevier Science.

The problems BAE encountered in implementing the baggage-handling system for the Denver International Airport

The Denver International Airport project was not opened on the scheduled date because of delays caused by construction constraints. After the state of the baggage-system was assessed by Logplan a German firm hired by the mayor, it was noted that there were high chances for the project to succeed. But a report submitted by Logplan identified several problems hindering the implementation of the baggage-handling system. According to the report, mechanical and electrical problems were identified as some of the major hindrances to the implementation of the system. To revive the project once again, the assessors suggested that five more months should be allocated for that purpose only. Concerning restoring the backup system, the assessors recommended less than five months. Another dilemma that contributed to the problems in the implementation of this project was the overall design of the airport according to Gene Di Fonso who was the president of BAE.

The root causes of the problems

The project was marred with several risks that formed the ultimate problems which affected it in the long-run. The root causes of these problems were; the size of the project, its complexity, and the unfamiliar technology used. Other causes included too many resident entities that were served by a single system, uncertain definitions of the technicalities of the project, and the short deadline. This project was too big considering it was the first major airport in the region. Such a project had not been carried out in the region before. Therefore, the management lacked experience in the construction of such a big structure. In addition to the size, there were the complexities that emanated from the size of the project. The project was made more complex by the new technology that was to be used in the construction of the new baggage-handling system. This technology was new to the workers and the management as well. Therefore, there was a challenge in the general understanding of how to apply project management skills.

Steps to mitigate the problems

Problems facing the Airport’s implementation of a baggage handling system can only be mitigated through proper project management skills. I believe the company can be served better by foreign contractors who have technical experience in such a big project. Also, Denver should look into the issue of the airport’s design to see how the problem can be addressed to allow the implementation process. If the general design of the airport cannot allow the new baggage handling system to be effective, then a decisive decision on what to change between the two should be made.

The success factors underlying the Abu Dhabi New Airport project

One of the major contributing factors to Abu Dhabi’s success in the construction of its new airport is the immense experience of the region in structural engineering. Abu Dhabi as a region has sufficient experience in big structural projects and such Experience was lacking in Denver’s case.

The most important constraint for the Abu Dhabi New Airport project

One of the most important constrains is finding the appropriate technique to increase revenue and reduce the cost of operation. To mitigate this issue, the Airport has created a holistic solution by balancing its competitiveness through two very important measures i.e. Operational readiness and Transaction advice.

Introduction

Airport privatization has become an increasingly discussed topic throughout the end of the 20th century until the present. Many governments engage in the practice, finding investors and employing one of a variety of models to move away from public ownership. The practice has been particularly prevalent in Europe, with countries such as the United Kingdom being used as prominent examples of the practice’s success. As such, an investigation into the reasons why the idea emerged and spread throughout the world is warranted. Different nations have analysed the results of privatizing airports and found them worth considering or implementing. This essay will argue that airport privatisation can improve efficiency and relieve financial pressure on the government, though there are also some concerns regarding the matter.

Efficiency Improvements

The primary economic argument for the privatisation of airports is that private companies can reduce the costs of operating them and achieve other improvements. The basis for this assertion is the existence of a profit motive for a private firm, which is absent within most public systems. Scholars such as Chen et al. (2017) have found that privately controlled enterprises demonstrate superior technical efficiency to their government-owned counterparts. Moreover, businesses would be quick to respond to shifts in market needs due to the smaller bureaucratic delays their structure enables, such as increases in demand, as Graham and Morrell (2016) suggest. As a result, privatisation has the potential to create an agile and optimised airport industry, traits that can be highly valuable in the quickly-shifting aviation environment.

One essential aspect that differentiates private ownership models from public approaches is competition, which is a significant driver of innovation and overall improvement. Government airports would often be satisfied as long as there were enough flights for the passengers, employing the same policies because they share the same top management. They are also susceptible to the free-rider and moral hazard problems, which would contradict the profit motive and would, therefore, not be as prevalent with private ownership. With that said, it should be noted that private monopolies can have the same effect, and Forsyth et al. (2016) provide arguments both for and against selling airports in groups. One approach damages competition while the other creates the potential for uncoordinated overinvestment without necessarily improving the situation.

There is also a prominent problem surrounding the efficiency improvements created by private airports, one that has manifested recently. Bowyer et al. (2020) highlight how private airports abuse their local monopoly status to pursue profit at the expense of the surrounding community. Littlechild (2018) finds that privatised airports are resistant to changes in these rules and restructuring but also asserts that strict rules, which can change over time, are still necessary for the industry. Partial government ownership is not a viable solution to the issue, as Oum et al. (2008) find that such enterprises perform worse than either fully public or fully private airports in terms of efficiency. However, in the future, the situation may improve as private airport frameworks develop further.

Investment Sources and Fiscal Pressures

In recent decades, governments of developed countries have been under increasing pressure to reduce taxes that are seen as unnecessary. Per Poole (1994), public airports are seen as unnecessary monopolies that often lose money despite their approach of trying to be self-sufficient and can perform better when translated to the private sector. The free-rider problem arises in this context, as government subsidies to public airports to ensure consistent service can result in them having no motive to operate at or above the breakeven point. As a result, they become continuous drains on the nation’s budget, a problem that privatisation can remedy through adjustments aimed to increase profitability. Graham and Morrell (2016) also note that carriers are asking for reductions in airport usage fees, which are unlikely to take place in a public system. As a result, governments in these nations are under pressure to sell or lease their airports to businesses. Many have chosen to do so, leading to a variety of outcomes.

Meanwhile, developing countries are working to construct airports to meet the rising demand of an increasingly wealthy population instead of managing existing ones. However, as Poole (1994) highlights, they often lack the resources to do so and have to attract private investment to fund the effort. Said investment is only possible if the sources of funding retain ownership over the airport after it is complete. As such, nations can overcome the task of expanding their aviation infrastructure by partnering with private capital. Many governments will opt for this approach to improve the rate of the nation’s growth and serve the public better than they may be able to otherwise.

It should be noted that to resolve an airport’s financial issues through private investment, it is first necessary to find people or organisations willing to contribute the required money. Problems may arise in this regard that can affect the airport industry on a scale beyond that of a single facility. Graham (2018) notes how large airports are seen as far more attractive than smaller ones, particularly due to the emergence of low-cost carriers, which favour the latter and often negotiate aggressively for lower prices. A solution, such as extra benefits for orgnaisations that privatise less desirable airports, may be necessary to address these issues, depending on the severity of the problem in practical scenarios.

There are several key reasons for governments to consider airport privatisation, both theoretical and practical. Private airports can often be managed better than their public counterparts due to their profit orientation and competition between different firms. Additionally, private owners and construction investors take financial burdens off of the government, improving its ability to operate. As such, privatisation is happening worldwide, in both wealthy and developing countries, as different nations recognise the benefits. With that said, it is also necessary to consider the drawbacks of privatisation, such as the potential formation of private monopolies. By reviewing the experiences of countries such as the United Kingdom, countries can form a comprehensive framework for the process that maximises benefits and alleviates problems.

Airport Cost and Revenue External Factors

Aviation is an industry profoundly affected by external factors, as its various crises that have resulted from outside disturbances demonstrate. As part of the framework, airports warrant an investigation into the influences that determine their cash flow. They are affected by some of the same factors as airlines, losing money when air travel demand falls through the loss of customers. However, airports also have to contend with some influences that may have a more direct impact on them. In particular, this essay will review the impact of government regulation and airport competition on their costs and the relationship between the economy, passenger numbers and behaviours and their revenue.

Airport Costs

Airport costs are largely fixed due to prominent categories such as employee compensation and infrastructure maintenance and do not necessarily change significantly due to external factors. As Vogel (2019) confirms, they make the business model generally static and focused on expansion due to the high profit implicit in doing so. With that said, competition between airports can lead to innovation that saves costs in an effort to present the lowest-price, highest-quality offer to airlines that may choose to use one airport or the other. On the other hand, in the absence of competition, airports are less concerned with lowering their prices and, therefore, achieving cost savings. However, the influence of this factor is likely not as significant as that of government legislation, detailed below.

The security legislation that was introduced after 9/11 and various other attacks on aviation infrastructure can serve as a prominent example. Tyler (2017) cites an estimate indicating that airports in the U.S. were forced to spend approximately $2.3 billion on installing explosive detection devices after the TSA’s formation, with the FAA awarding them $561 million to compensate for the expense. As such, airports have had to contribute a majority of the costs mandated by the government, which likely had a substantial financial effect on them along with other damages that resulted from the Twin Towers attack.

It should be noted that different nations have varying laws and, therefore, expenses. Nahlik et al. (2016) estimate the environmental damage done by major U.S. airports in 2013 at $1.9 billion. With environmental policies in place, a business may be liable for such harm and have to adjust its operations and introduce potentially costly environmentally friendly measures. However, such laws are not present in every country, as Malaysia demonstrates with its lack of binding ecological laws (Lee, 2019). Janic (2017) highlights how the airport cost structures in the U.S. and the EU are substantially different, with the former having a 20% higher share of capital costs and the latter putting that 20% into labour costs. The difference likely lies in the different laws of the two nations, identifying them as a substantial external factor.

Airport Revenue

Airport revenue is generally separated into two distinct categories: aeronautical and non-aeronautical. The former has traditionally constituted a majority of the airport’s income, as it directly pertains to the facility’s operations. However, as Freestone et al. (2006) note, non-aeronautical revenues have become increasingly important as their costs increase through infrastructure strain and shareholder pressure. Both of these types of income are subject to economic fluctuations, improving when the nation performs well and falling during crises. However, it may also have an indirect effect on non-aeronautical revenues by changing visitor behaviour.

Aeronautical fees are generated when a flight arrives at the airport or departs from it and paid by airlines, which pass on the costs to fliers. Karanki et al. (2020) find that more congested airports charge higher fees, exploiting the advantage they have to improve profits. However, in a situation where demand for flights drops, such as an economic crisis or an event such as 9/11, the inverse situation is likely to happen, with airports reducing their charges to retain business. It is still necessary to store the grounded aircraft, and the Boston Consulting Group (2004) finds that over two-thirds of airlines’ airport-related costs correspond to station and ground handling. These costs translate into revenues for airports as airlines have to pay them to keep their grounded aircraft there with few to no feasible alternative options. As such, while the losses are considerable, airports may be less harmed in this regard than airlines.

However, the reduction in flights would be associated with lower passenger counts, which result in lower non-aeronautical revenues. Retail outlets within the airport generate a large part of this figure. The local and global (for international passengers) economy has to be considered in this aspect, as its performance translates into visitors’ purchasing power and intentions. Wu and Chen (2019) find that flier personality traits, group versus individual presence, and time spent at the airport can all affect their intention to purchase a product. The last statistic is vital because it differs substantially for domestic and international travellers, with the latter spending longer there due to the need to pass customs inspections. Passengers such as LCC fliers or groups, on the other hand, will be reluctant to spend money or time on purchases. As such, international traffic can influence the non-aeronautical revenue of an airport significantly, as can general changes in the number of travellers.

Conclusion

An airport’s revenues and costs are affected by substantially different external factors, which can influence them both positively and negatively. Legislation can force them to spend substantial sums on specific aspects of operations, with only partial compensation. As such, airports that operate in different countries may demonstrate a diverse range of cost structures and expenses for the same services. However, laws affect their costs more than their revenues, which adjust to accommodate the new prices and change based on the state of the economy. Economic improvements or downturns correlate directly with growth or declines in revenue, though the effect may not be as pronounced as it would be for airlines. The economy also directly affects airports’ other revenues, though factors such as international travel also warrant consideration.

References

Bowyer, D., Jones, G., Bowrey, G., & Smark, C. (2020). Survival of the fittest? Challenges to regional aviation and regional communities from the privatisation of Australia’s airports. Australasian Journal of Regional Studies, 26(1), 1-28.

Chen, Y. H., Lai, P. L., & Piboonrungroj, P. (2017). The relationship between airport performance and privatisation policy: A nonparametric metafrontier approach. Journal of Transport Geography, 62, 229-235.

Forsyth, P., Gillen, D., Müller, J., & Niemeier, H.M. (Eds.). (2016). Airport competition: The European experience. Taylor & Francis.

Graham, A. (2018). Managing airports: An international perspective. Taylor & Francis.

Graham, A., & Morrell, P. (2016). Airport finance and investment in the global economy. Taylor & Francis.

Littlechild, S. (2018). Economic regulation of privatised airports: Some lessons from UK experience. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 114, 100-114.

Oum, T. H., Yan, J., & Yu, C. (2008). Ownership forms matter for airport efficiency: A stochastic frontier investigation of worldwide airports. Journal of Urban Economics, 64(2), 422-435.

Poole, R. W. (1994). Guidelines for airport privatisation. Web.

Freestone, R., Williams, P., & Bowden, A. (2006). Fly buy cities: Some planning aspects of airport privatisation in Australia. Urban Policy and Research, 24(4), 491-508.

Janic, M. (2017). The sustainability of air transportation: A quantitative analysis and assessment. Taylor & Francis.

Karanki, F., Lim, S. H., & Choi, B. J. (2020). The determinants of aeronautical charges of US airports: A spatial analysis. Journal of Air Transport Management, 86.

Lees, E. (2019). The Oxford handbook of comparative environmental law. Oxford University Press.

Nahlik, M. J., Chester, M. V., Ryerson, M. S., & Fraser, A. M. (2016). Spatial differences and costs of emissions at US airport hubs. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(8), 4149-4158.

The Boston Consulting Group. (2004). Airports – dawn of a new era: Preparing for one of the industry’s biggest shake-ups. Web.

Tyler, S. L. (2017). Airport security: Passenger screening and governance post-9/11. Rosedog Books.

Vogel, H. (2019). Foundations of airport economics and finance. Elsevier Science.

Wu, C. L., & Chen, Y. (2019). Effects of passenger characteristics and terminal layout on airport retail revenue: An agent-based simulation approach. Transportation Planning and Technology, 42(2), 167-186.

Introduction

Objectives & Scope of the Assignment

To analyze Changi Airport Singapore in terms of overall capacity constraints considering its master plan. This report presents a critical analysis of factors affecting the planning and expansion of Changi Airport, Singapore. With the Master Plan in place, the objectives of this analysis are:

• Study the background and development of Changi Airport, Singapore
• Review the existing facilities offered by the airport
• Analyze the current runaway utilization and identify issues related to physical design of airport, obstacles surrounding the airport, runaways
• Assess the airside infrastructure in terms of A380 compatibility
• Appraise the terminal layout and airport map and identify the possible solutions for better utilization of existing facilities to meet the continuously increasing demand
• Review the existing cargo operations and facilities available at the airport and advise on the possible ways of increasing the cargo capacity

Background & Overview of Changi International Airport, singapore

Changi Airport, Singapore is one of the major aviation facilities in Asia, more so in the region of Southeast Asian (Paylor, 1994). Before the establishment of Changi Airport, an Airport at Paya Lebar served the entire needs of Singapore as a country (Karamijit, 2007). Due to increased demand for traveling services, the government of Singapore initial had a proposal to expand the airport by building a secondary runaway at Paya Lebar, which was seen as a modest approach in terms of period for construction and costs for land acquisition (Airport Master Plan, 1985; Karamijit, 2007; Probert, 2006). However, there was the eminent problem of pollution considering the fact the airport’s increased capacity would have created a serious noise and air pollution to the residents of the City Airport (Operators Association, 2001). This prompted the government to change its strategies after several reviews with the final decision to build a new airport in Changi, with a definite higher cost (ACI, 1995). The planned cost was several times more than initially planned for expansion of Paya Lebar, and the planners failed to account for the access roads to the new airport from the city (AIP, 2009; Karamijit, 200). Out of the approximated 1,300 Ha of land that was allocated for Changi Airport, 70% of the land was reclaimed from the sea (Karamijit, 200).

Initially, the construction kicked off with first two runaways that were 1.6 km from each other and three terminal buildings as well as surface approach constructed in H-formation in the area girded between the two runaways (Dobbie & Hooper 2001). Terminal 1, built at a capacity of 22 mppa, was almost twice the size of the one at Paya Lebar (completed in 1981). It was until 1990 that terminal 2 was completed with a capacity of 46 mppa and later the need to upgrade terminal 1 to the standard of terminal 2 arose (Probert, 2006). This saw a massive project being carried out to upgrade terminal 1 to increase its operational capacity to cater for increased demand for services from both local and international airlines (Probert, 2006; Karamijit K, 2007).

To cement their dominance, Changi Airport management proposed development of Terminal 3. According to Thomas & Raper (2001) this would ensure the airport “maintained its premium as an uncluttered, anxiety free hub, maintained a layout known for its directional clarity even for the first time user” (p.14). It therefore meant that more space for modern floor layout was needed to not only generate the interest of the passengers but also increase the retail programs (Thomas & Raper, 2001). The other reason for the expansion was to have a facility that would be fit to accommodate the A380, which Singapore Airline and Airbus had planned to purchase in significant number (Research Board, 1987; Lee, 1995; Probert, 2006). These factors gave birth to the idea and subsequent implementation of building special facilities to handle the A380, hence reconstruction of 8 special gate-holds to accompany Terminal 3 specifically for A380 (Thomas & Raper, 2001). A similar service was done for Terminal 1 & 2 where eleven gate-holds were given a face-lift in order to accommodate A380 service requirements (Hong & Park, 1996; AIP, 2009). The landmark feature of A380 gate-holds was that they had to be spacious enough to allow them offer the parking of the huge A380 planes (AIP, 2009).

Terminal 3 was also meant to establish the growing concern over environmental degradation that derailed many businesses (Upham, 2001b; Upham, 2001a; UNEP/T&E, 2002). The authorities at Changi Airport had to make sure the new constructions were environmentally friendly. To adopt the efforts made by the government in conservation of important environmental features, Changi resolved to conserve important natural resources like water and wetlands to maintain sustainability (SCAN UK, 2000). Singapore as a country had adopted strong bilateral relations with its neighbors hence decided to be self-sufficient through conservation, recycling and expansion of water catchments (Rees, 1992; Pomeret & Mahlich, 1997). Earlier, the government had put in place the foundation for such conservations in its sustainable energy consumption initiatives in the 1980s, even though little was done in practice (Pomeret & Mahlich, 1997). Hence these changes were the culmination of a more sustainable approach when Terminal 3 was being constructed.

The final need emerged at the beginning of the implementation. During Terminal 3 project construction, the problems of September 11 attack and the SARs pandemic came into sharp focus (Coleman, 2008). The authorities of Changi Airport saw the need for reserves that would meet all the timeline contingencies in future (Edmonds & Wollenberg, 2008). The two events invoked the need to have more flexible layouts that would give room for the reconfiguration of internal spaces to allow for assessment of emergency cases arising with increased global insecurity and health threats (Edmonds & Wollenberg, 2008). Despite all these factors, the Airport still had to maintain the status as an icon among the Asian counterparts as well as compete effectively with other international airports (Edmonds & Wollenberg, 2008).

Airport in 2009

GENERAL

RWY: 02L/20R ——————– 4000 x 60m

——————— 02C/20C 4000 x 60m

D-ATIS: —————————- YES

PDC/DCL: ————————— NIL

OPERATION

COMMUNICATION:

Company: CIAS Ops (parking stand) 131.5 / CIAS Dispatch (other items) 131.5

Maintenance: SQ Engineering 131.22

Local EK Office: +65 65430001

Medical Assistance: SATS Ops 131.5 (Changi, 2009)

(See Appendix 1 for Table 1: Operational statistics)

Occupying space of 13 square kilometers, the airport is situated in about 7 kilometers to the North-East from Changi Commercial Center (Paylor, 1994). Changi Airport is reputed for its ability to host vast number of airline companies such as Singapore Airlines, Tiger Airways, Singapore Airlines Cargo, Jetstar Asia Airways, Jett8 Airlines Cargo, SilkAir, and Valuair (Probert, 2006). The airport also acts as the primary airline hub for Garuda Indonesia as well as secondary hub for Qantas Airlines (Probert, 2006). By 2008, the airport served 4,200 weekly flights to over 180 cities and has the ability to retain its powerful retail services to the standards of the travelers.

There are other numerous services offered at Changi Airport. The taxi and the public transport transfer locations are strategically within an in-door climate controlled environment (Changi, 2009a). Edmonds & Wollenberg (2008) say that loading passengers boarding should be ready for the first baggage within a span of 12 minutes from the docking of an aircraft and most cases a passenger manages to disembark from the from the plane to the on-waiting taxi within a span of 20 minutes

The table 1(Appendix) clearly shows that there is a steady growth in the passenger throughput, cargo handled and the aircraft movements from year 1998 to date. In the year 1998, the passenger traffic was approximately 24 million and in 2008 it was estimated at more than 37.6 million, presenting over 55% growth. The cargo movement in 1998 was approximately 1.2 million, and by 2008 it had increased to an estimated 1.9 million mark, presenting a 58% increase. The master plan projected annual growth of the air traffic of 20%. This exponential growth means that the airport must work towards increasing its capacity to accommodate the future demand.

Taxiways.

Passenger terminal buildings. (Source: Changi, 2009).

In principal, Airport master plans are generally developed on the basis of forecasts. The forecast gives the basis in which the relationship between demand and the capacity of an airport can be established and the requirements for the airport can be determined (Rees, 1992). That is, the establishments of short term, intermediate and long-range plans are drawn (Rees, 1992). This normally takes about 5, 10, and 20 years respectively (Rees, 1992; Pomeret & Mahlich, 1997).

Analysis of Airside Infrastructure

Existing Airside Infrastructure

The existing passenger loading bridges are customized and operate from gate rooms with every PLB having 3 arms unlike the traditional two arms so that the passengers can get into the upper cabins of the plane directly from the gate-hold rooms (Changi, 2009a). The 90 m carousels where A380 airbuses load their baggage is significantly longer that the conventional ones which are standardized at 70 m; this is meant to give time for passengers to embark and disembark easily and quickly (Changi, 2009a; Edmonds & Wollenberg, 2008).

Use of the Runways & Optimization

Runaways. Runway 02C/20C. (Source: AIPORT-DATA.COM).

Runway 02L/20R. (Source: AIPORT-DATA.COM).

Runway 02R/20L. (Source: AIPORT-DATA.COM).

Current Utilization

There are two runaways currently in use: The Runaways, 02C/20C and East Rwy 02L/20R. However, they are too close to each other, and the pilots are likely to mistake one for the other. The other problem is that the runaways can easily be confused with the ones at Paya Lebar, thus instigating the use of aids available.

The airport is known to accommodate international and domestic airlines. It therefore follows that both large (e.g. A380) and small aircrafts (e.g. A320) are major clients of the airport; hence both the runways are used for takeoff as well as landing depending upon the traffic peaks. In short the airport has mixed mode runway operation.

The third runaway, Runway 02R/20L is mainly by the military. At present, plans are put to change the runaway into full usage (3^rd runaway) in the future. During thunderstorms, the wind speed can be relatively high derailing landing schedule

Weather Conditions

• The location is off tropical cyclone zone, hence does not experience any severe wind patterns. Furthermore, the monsoon wind is not strong enough to destabilize the landing pattern
• Other than wind pattern, the general weather pattern is not severe and the runaways are well lit with enough lighting system.

Additionally, runaway capacity in terms of operations per hour is a function of the aircraft size (Sanchez, 1976). The smaller aircraft can be accommodated at a higher rate at Changi (Sanchez, 1976; Schmucker, 1983). This is because of their lower runaway occupancy time and ability to perform tighter maneuvers in the air (Sanchez, 1976).

Aircraft Stands and Parking Requirements

There are visual docking guidance systems or marshaller that is a must for all parking. An existing stopping guidance at North-East and South-East piers and RLG visual docking guidance system installed at all fixed gates at terminal 2. There are also SAFEGATE visual docking guidance system installed at all fixed gates at terminal 1 & 3. Fixed yellow lights (ACFT stand maneuvering guidance lights: ASMGL) are provided along ACFT stands.

Limitations

• It is possible to confuse Paya Lebar AD for Changi AD located 4NM W,
• It is also possible to confuse Changi East for RWY 02C/20C. Changi East is for military use only,
• Birds are at the vicinity of AD hence limiting the full operations

It is important to build nose-in aircraft stands. Many airports with high density of operations such as Heathrow’s Terminal Four and East Midlands airport in the UK have been designed and constructed with nose-in aircraft stand types (Buchanan, 1993). Besides being space sufficient, they facilitate the use of passenger loading bridges, which may be apron drive bridges with 3-degrees of freedom or nose loaders (Club of Rome, 2002). At times more airbuses are used to speed up the movement of passengers, even sometimes reaching over the wings to the door, though IATA does not recommend this (Dobbie & Hooper, 2001). It is estimated that a third bridge to the A380 at Changi Airport will save 19 minutes on boarding and 12 minutes on disembarking (ECAC/CEAC & EUROCONTROL, 2001). IATA does suggest that a world class airport will serve 90% of passengers by airbridges (Dobbie & Hooper, 2001). Using push-back tractors allows closer spacing of this type of stand, thus reducing the apron size (BAA, 1999a; Dobbie & Hooper, 2001).

The height of the walls on the apron is limited and in most cases does not exceed 3 meters. Because of this, they are effective for under wing mounted engines only (ICAO, 2001; European Commission, 2002).

Much larger blast fences are often installed to protect public areas around apron, as at Heathrow or they may be in the form of a latticework rather than vanes, as at East Midlands airport in the UK (Lever & Dimitriu, 2001; Janić, 2001).

Strategy for Development of Airside Infrastructure

Airside Infrastructure Functionality

An aircraft’s take off performance is dependent on the elevation, obstacles in the take off path and runaway length available. The airside portion of an airport encompasses all facilities that support aircraft and aircraft-related activities such as runaways, taxiways, Apron, and hangers. Other than these ground facilities the surrounding airspace is also considered under this category (May, 1997). These airside facilities provide the infrastructure necessary for the operation of the aircrafts (Meadows, 1992; May, 1997). It therefore means that well operational airside facility needs proper planning and design to ensure safety of airport employees, passenger and the aircraft. The efficient movement of aircraft and support equipment on airport property ensures the overall safety and security of airport premises while protecting and enhancing airport environs (Meadows, 1992). However, the arriving aircrafts at Changi are forced to rely on hand signals and guidance of the aircraft marshaller. This becomes complicated especially when the aircraft marshaller is absent as pilots are not allowed to taxi into the stand.

Proper planning is necessary to ensure the development of the airport is methodological and comprehensive enough to meet the current demand as well as provide areas for future growth and development as demand increases for aviation services (Manchester Airport, 2000).

In constructing these airside infrastructures, it is important to establish runaway safety areas (RSAs), which are graded and or paved areas immediately surrounding a runaway that are free from obstacles and used to protect an aircraft from damage in the event it leaves the runaway (GRI, 2002). It is required that RSAs to drain sufficiently and in a dry weather can support snow removal, equipments, aircraft rescue equipments, and the occasional aircrafts (EEA, 2001; GRI, 2002).

Object- Free Areas (OFAs) are also important sections to be taken care of during construction (GRI, 2002; BAA, 1999a). They are normally centered on the runaway or taxi centerlines and must be free of objects except for those needed for navigation or maneuvering (GRI, 2002). Parked aircraft is an example of obstacles prohibited from entering OFA (GRI, 2002). Additionally, the Runaway Protection Zones are very important.

Environmental factors strategy

Other than meeting the regulations put in place by the government and international organizations like United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and other environmental regulatory bodies, it is important to take the initiatives of caring and protecting the environment for future sustainability (Dias-Sardinha & Reijnders, 2001; DETR, 2009).

What has Changi done? According Authority’s statements on environment, the Airport Group is “committed to the sustainable growth of Singapore’s aviation sector and addressing its impact on the environment” (Changi, 2009b). Some of the initiatives that the airport authority at Changi has taken are in areas of civil works, energy efficiency, water conservation and management, and recycling of the wastes (Changi, 2009b).

Recent IBM research revealed that corporate social responsibility has a capacity to yield some substantial financial rewards and at the same time offer competitive advantage to the firm in question (Changi, 2009b). In fact, the study established that it is not just pure attempt to achieve the set rules and regulations or to reach the red-tapes kinds of compliances, and even trying to please the public to satisfy their views; it’s the opportunity for growth (Airport Technology, 2009b).

In the beginning of last year (2008), the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore under its continuous desire to increase efficiency, awarded tender worth S$300million for a new modern air traffic control to Thales to be applied in long-range radar as well as display system III (Airport Technology, 2009b). This is a highly advance extra efficient system that features the most modern communication technologies, intended to assist air traffic controllers speed up the landing and taking off of the airplanes (Airport Technology, 2009b). According to Lim Choon, CAAS director-general, the equipment will help improve the issues of safety and efficiency in terms of fuel saving (Airport Technology, 2009b). However, Probert (2006) says that what Changi is implementing is just but “a small symptom of what happens everywhere” (Probert, 2006).

In the United States, many airports are applying Clean Air Partnership’s (CAP) Green Airport Initiative (GAI) as their guideline for initiating future development (Airport Technology, 2009b). This approach has seen many of their projects not only meet the standards set but surpass it as well speed up their sustained growth (Airport Technology, 2009b). Such airports are like Dallas Fort Worth Airport.

Unlike the non-specific Changi Airport environmental policy, DFW has gone ahead and identified specific areas where its emissions emanate, i.e. aircrafts contributes nearly two thirds, ground support equipments account for a fifth, and auxiliary aircraft power units- 2% (Airport Technology, 2009b). This prompted an ‘airport-wide policy’ to make airlines minimize fuel consumption as well as emissions (Airport Technology (2009b). In addition, the airport is considering the proposal to use renewable energy sources as away, and also trying to quantify emissions at its premises so as to enable them construct a baseline where they are able to assess emissions (Airport Technology, 2009b). If they are able measure the amount of emissions, they will be in a position to apply for emission credit for their efforts.

Aerodrome Obstacles & Performance Limitations

Aerodrome with proper dimension has the capacity to influence all parts of its system in its approximate equilibrium, thus there is no critical bottlenecks in the system (Zadeh, 1995). In principle some portions of aerodrome can bear a short term overload, other cannot. Zadeh (1995) says that the apron should be dimensioned in such away that peak hour delay is an acceptable minimum, usually no more that 2% of flights. To cope with these small number of movements, and to ensure that delays do not back up into taxiways or into the air or capacity of the apron, Changi has establishing parking ramps away from the terminal building. Such stands are usually not equipped with any technology (Zimmerman, 2001). In most cases, they are used for charter flights and for aircrafts waiting for an on-line repairs, but are extremely useful to accommodate aircrafts that would otherwise block taxiways while waiting for specific stands to become available (Zimmerman, 2001; ACI, 1998).

A380 Compatibility Issues

The A380-800, with a wingspan of 79.8m falls under the ICAO Annex 14 Code F category.

International Civil Aviation Organization’s Airside Infrastructure Recommendations for Code F aircraft:

Runways:

• The minimum runaway width is 60m
• Runway shoulders should be at least 7.5m on each side, with a total minimum width of 75m
• Precision approach Category I, II and III runway-holding positions should be located at least 107.5m from the runway centerline

Taxiways and Taxi-lanes:

The following are the minimum recommended dimensions for the A380 compatibility

• Width of a taxiway: 25m.
• The clearance between an outer main wheel and the taxiway edge: 4.5m
• Taxiway shoulders and grading of the taxiway strip width of 60m
• Taxiway/ Instrument Runway centerline separations: 190m
• Taxiway/Non- Instrument Runway centerline separations: 115m
• Parallel Taxiway centerline separation: 97.5m
• Taxiway centerline and object separation: 57.5m
• Aircraft Stand Taxi-lane centerline and object separation: 50.5m (ICAO, 2009)

Even though the current airport infrastructure has the capacity to host A380 category, it is apparent that A380 operations would lead to a surge in passenger traveling in peak hours, thus bringing about constraints at the available passenger terminal processing facilities. Typically, Airbus A380 has a carrying capacity of 555 passengers in three-class configuration, representing a 30% more than the 400 capacity B747-400 (Berglund & Lindvall, 2005).

Construction of Third Runway

At present, the airport is equipped with two parallel runways, 02L/20R (4,000m) and 02C/20C (4,000m) (Changi, 2009a). The 02L/20R started operating in 1981 as part of the planned phase 1 (Changi, 2009). The phase 2 project saw the second runway 02C/20C being constructed on a reclaimed land (Changi, 2009a). The completion of another parallel runaway 02R/20L (2,748M) measuring 1.8km to the east of 02C/20C was opened in 2004 even though until now, only Singapore Air Force uses the facility (Changi, 2009a). The plans are underway to turn this facility to third runaway for the future use and plans for expansion (Changi, 2009a).

As was noted earlier.

Analysis of Landside Infrastructure

For any proposed airport planning project, a review of how such expansion would impact depending on the landside infrastructure is necessary. It is therefore important to analyze the landslide infrastructure at Changi and to look into what it should look like.

Passenger Terminals

Basically, the principle goal of the terminal area is to reach the desired equilibrium by reducing all the obstacles that would bring: (i) inconvenience to the passenger, (ii) inefficiency in operation, and (iii) limit investments in the airport facility (British Airways, 2001). Buchanan (1993) explains that the physical and psychological comfort characteristics of a terminal area should give the passenger an opportunity to for orderly and convenient progress from automobile or public transportation through the terminal to the aircraft and back again.

One of the most important factors affecting passenger is the walking distance (Buchanan, 1993). It all begins when the passenger leaves the ground transportation vehicle. The building of the terminal is a rather complex major public-use facility serving the needs of passengers, air carriers, visitors, airport administration and operations, and concessionaires (Buchanan, 1993). Clearly, a different objectives and space requirements are sought by each of these groups of users. It therefore follows that conflicts in the objectives and space requirements often arise in planning passengers handling system (Wilhelm & Parsaei, 1991).

It has been realized in Airport planning that two sets of space criteria are needed (Grayling & Bishop, 2001). One is a set of criteria that can be used for general concept evaluation (Grayling & Bishop, 2001). This entails general considerations that the planners use to evaluate and select among the alternatives in a primary fashion prior to any detailed design and development. The other set of space criteria is the actual criteria for design and development (Grayling & Bishop, 2001). In this set, specific performance measures are needed in order to evaluate the likely operation of well-developed plans.

However, even though general concept evaluation criteria can be developed on the basis of experience and observation of existing terminal buildings, the more specific design and development criteria requires use of some analytical techniques (Grayling & Bishop, 2001).

Terminal Capacity Optimization & Construction of New TPS3

The advent of large airbuses has changed the capacity problem from the runaway to the passenger processing terminal. Basically, this has led to problem in areas such as: Apron requirement, location of the airbridges, baggage handling, and handling large batches inside the terminal. Luckily, Changi has ensured these facilities are strategically placed to facilitate its future expansion plans and current operations

Cargo Operations

The layout of the facility for handling cargo is influenced by all the parameters that determine the airside design to the passenger handling terminal (ICAO, 2001). However, the increasing average size of aircraft is influencing the degree to which cargo can be considered separately from passenger handling (Berglund & Lindvall, 2005)

According to Berglund & Lindvall (2005), the cargo industry has always looked forward to the day when it would be able to commission its own dedicated freighter aircraft design. They says that such an aircraft do not exist n quantity because its so much cheaper to use the surplus carrying capacity in the holds of scheduled passenger services (p.88)

Development Plan for Cargo Operations

Changi Airport has a Cargo Division situated at the north of the airport and is under the management of the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (Changi, 2009). The airport’s airfreight has been boosted by Chinese economic prosperity especially from the beginning of 2005 when they managed to handle 1, 854,610 tonnes of air cargo, an improvement of over 3% in the previous year 2004 (Changi, 2009). The cargo business has uplifted Changi to be one of the busiest airports in terms of cargo handling, having been ranked number 10 and 5 in the world and Asia respectively (Changi, 2009). The airport specializes in the electronic cargo, which is one of Singapore’s main sectors (Changi, 2009). However, the growing need for perishable cargo have not been taken care of, despite the latest attempt to initiate the cargo handling diversification to meet the growing demand.

Summary

From this analysis, it is important to present some critical inferences as follows:

Inferences

• It is evident that there is consistent growth of passengers, cargo and aircraft movements at Changi Airport. The Airport is located in a relatively spacious land that would allow expansion. However, the existing space is not fully utilized.
• There is lack of diversification in the ability to handle different types of cargo, hence limiting the airport’s ability generate more revenue
• Although Changi Airport has put in place a good plan to take care of the global increase of passengers, it critical that environmental issues have not been given much priority.
• The master plan has no section that clearly states the protection zone of the runaway rather than to increase the size of the runaways for Terminal 1 and 2 in anticipation of big operators.

Future Directions

The global predictions indicate that the number of passengers and cargo will continue to rise with the increase in globalization. Precisely, it has been predicted that the world passenger volume is to approximately grow by 5% annually. Similarly, the freight business is also expected to continuously rise at an approximate annual growth of 6%. It is thus critically important to note this increase in activities at the airport will require more advanced approach to management of all areas of the airport operations, and these activities must be sustainable at long run.

Impact of Privatization and Deregulation

Privatization and deregulation impact airport development and planning

Privatization has increased the competitiveness of the airline industry. The increased competition and passenger traffic means that airports all over the world try to find ways of keeping up with the challenge (Changi, 2009). One such way is through upgrade of the available infrastructure. The impact saw Singapore complete S$240 million upgrade of Changi’s second terminal (Terminal 2). Later, in 2008, it opened another Terminal 3 that cost S$ 1.75 billion, to keep up with the new capacity requirements. A new plan is in place to build terminal 4 (Changi, 2009).

With the privatization and deregulation of major regions’ major airports like Dubai, Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok, Changi had to find ways of withstanding this level of challenge (SCAN, 2000). These airports threatened to dislodge Changi’s dominance on the Kangaroo route (the busy route between Asia and Europe) (SCAN, 2000). This was the idea that gave birth to Terminal 3 towards the end of 1990s to increase the operational size of the airport in order to gain competitive advantage (Worldwatch Institute, 2002).

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Appendix 1

Table 1: Operational statistics (Source: Air Traffic Statistics, 2008).

What is security airport?

Airport security refers to the process of ensuring that passengers do not carry harmful, prohibited, or dangerous luggage during the journey. The process of ensuring airport security is made possible by the determination of the items accepted during the journey and the items prohibited during the journey. Some of the items prohibited during the journey include harmful drugs, military weapons like bombs, guns, and flammable items like petroleum and among others. There are many dangers associated with these items. For example, harmful drugs may interfere with the health of the passengers during the journey due to the exposition to a different altitude that causes different air pressure. Secondly, flammable liquids like petrol may catch fire during the journey hence resulting in unnecessary explosions during the journey. Many airport workers impose different regulations to enhance security in the airplanes. Generally, ensuring airport security benefits the passengers because they are protected from external dangers like fire and unnecessary diseases. Globally, different airports impose different airport safety measures.¹

Some weapons may be allowed in one airport but banned in another airport. For instance, in some countries like the United Arab Emirates, there is a minimum weight that goods should weigh before considered for the journey. Therefore, there should be clear and accurate procedures at the airport to ensure that airport security is upheld. Airport security has taken space in UAE airport due to cases like prevalent cases of terrorism during the journey, explosions during the journey and diseases due to the effects of harmful drugs. Also, airport security as a throbbing heart of revenue collection in UAE, regulation must be imposed to maximize revenue collection in the nation.

Who is responsible to control security?

Airport security in the UAE is maintained by emirates group security that provides security training to the individuals. This company is charged with responsibilities that relate to the airport security. Some of the responsibilities include investigation of theft cases, misuse of airport facilities, and detection of fraud cases within the airport as well as maintenance of the general conduct of the passengers. Secondly, this group offers training services to the staff members of the airport in the UAE. The group is also linked to the Edith Cowan University of Western Australia in ensuring the effective delivery of security services. For the group to consider the trainees, they observe certain qualifications that the trainees must meet before becoming valid for training. For example, the person must have self-motivation and possess a little background in aviation security. Secondly, the team also accepts people with experience from the military department.

The team has various departments to guarantee efficient security delivery services. One of the departments is a trans-guard that provides facilities like systems, equipment, and trained experts. Trans-guard has helped the team to develop in terms of the development of providing security services. Other services provided by this department in the aid of supporting airport security include the provision of warehouses, surveillance equipment, and courier services.² In essence, there are activities within the airport that requires security services. For instance, the delivery of cash is one of the activities that require an escort from the security team.

What are the security threats at the airport?

Cyber terrorism civil aviation

Terrorism by the use of computers has been prevalent in various airports. Cyber terrorism results in massive losses to the airport of UAE. The cyber terrorism has various effects on the airport. For example, it confuses the operation of the airport, reduction in the profit margin and causes fear in the operation of the airports.³ Recently, there have been cases of hacking through the internet hence imposing fears within the airports. Another serious influence of the internet includes air traffic that may cause an airplane crash. The situation is possible because the entire management of aircraft depends on the interconnected international infrastructure hence connecting the world through the internet. These effects affect the global economic power.

Plane spotters

UAE security crew arrested three middle-aged English plane spotters. They were considered major security threats to the country. The three names were Conrad Clitheroe, Gary Cooper and Neil Munro who were found near Fujairah Airport observing the aircraft take off.⁴ UAE authorities reported that the three men used a telescope to write down the details of the aircraft. People concluded that they were plotters hence the government took an action of arresting them. The men are still in the prison after signing a document with an apology on spotters.

What kind of system do they use to check people and backs?

The security team uses various instruments to check the illegal and prohibited items.

Detection of harmful Drugs

UAE has policies that condemn the use of harmful drugs at the airport. Only the prescribed drugs from the doctor are allowed in the aircraft. They use various gadgets to detect the weight of the goods at the airport. For example, the weighing machine detects the appropriate weight required by the aircraft to prevent the overloading of the aircraft. Secondly, the goods are inspected using electrical gadgets to detect the illegal goods.

Also, airport check-in makes good use of the service counters to take care of the air travelers. In most cases, the airline handles the process of check-in. the travelers are directed to place their luggage at the cabin of the aircraft then wait for the boarding pass before boarding the aircraft. UAE airport take the check-in process serious to warrant airport security to the aircraft and the travelers. Travelers report early at the airport before the departure time to create enough room for checking the passengers and their luggage.⁵ In the UAE, there are specific towns that offer the checking services to the passengers. For example, Abu Dhabi is a town that employs this method. These towns are equipped with facilities that enable them to perform the task of checking the passengers and the luggage.

Airport checking procedure

Passenger identity registration

The airport security team performs this primary task of confirming the valid documents. Airport security team verifies passengers’ documents such as visas at this stage, as a way of enhancing security. Other details checked at this stage are the specific destination of the passengers. The security team also checks the advanced passenger information including the details of their exact destinations.

Bag registration

At this stage, travelers hand over their bags to the security team to determine the weight of the luggage. The security crew selects only luggage of the required weight and isolate goods that weigh high for the safe journey. To meet this condition, the airport security team sets a maximum weight a passenger should weigh plus his/her luggage.⁶ However, the weight of the luggage a passenger should have varies due to differences in class. For example, economy class, executive class among others.

Online check-in

Is the use of the internet by passengers to ascertain their presence. The passengers are required to provide details like the meals they may take, the quantity of the luggage and the appropriate seating position. This process has been considered faster and convenient for the passengers since it does not require physical appearance.

The application of CT scanners in UAE airport

UAE airport uses a computer tomography scanner to crisscross the items of the passengers to ensure security at the airport. A CT scanner refers to the pipe with a hole found next to the luggage of the passengers. This scanner functions in the presence of the X-rays that move around the scanner to produce a bombarding effect with X-rays to record the data.⁷ The data is used by the security to produce a complex tomogram of the luggage. Also, this scanner can find out the density and mass of the luggage. Therefore, if the density and mass are within the range of dangerous materials, the scanner will alert the operator about the danger of the luggage. However, the scanners are not used frequently because they are slow compared to other luggage scanners. They are not used to check all the bags at the airport due to their slow speed. They are suitable for the luggage suspected to have dangerous items. Computer flag is the term used to describe the items that should undergo the scanning. For example, when a traveler, purchases a one-way ticket and uses cash transactions, the situation is said to flag the passenger hence scanners will be used to check the luggage of the passenger at the ticket counter.

What did eye print help in the security?

Airport security teams use passwords for identification purposes at the airport. This process is one of the processes that are not effective and slow the operations at the airport. As a result, scanning of the cells from the eye was identified as one of the new technologies that would hasten the process of detecting passengers at the airport. Printing the cells of the eye helps in the storage of the passengers’ details. The advanced technology uses software that identifies the passengers with their respective eye prints. The use of the software is possible because every individual has four eye prints of which two of them are found on either side of the iris.⁸

The technology has been recommended because it does not require the use of hardware in the printing of the eye cells. The technology was invented in Kansas City to identify people who want to use smartphones. The technology is used by the airport to confirm the passengers who own the luggage at the airport. The eye-verify technology is used to enable the passengers to access the facilities at the airport. For instance, when a passenger pays for the journey, the details of the eye prints will be used to identify the exact passenger on the day of the journey. Also, the eye prints are used as the password to store the items of the passenger to prevent illegal possession of the goods at the airport. The eye print software can process the pictures, marks the veins of the eye, and compares it with the details of the eye print when verification of details is required. According to scientific research, this technology can differentiate the real person and the image of a person.

The technology has features like changes in the exposure and able to balance the colors of a person and have cameras with high resolution. However, the technology may not be appropriate in the future because of the damages that are likely to be in the eye. The changes in the make-up of the eye may alter the information of the person hence posing a major challenge in the identification of the passengers. For instance, a burst at the veins of the eye may give a wrong interpretation of the details of the passenger because the details are given as per the original details of the eye. Most of the airports have confirmed that this technology is more accurate than fingerprints at the airport.⁹ As a result, scientists are working around the clock to improve the efficiency of the technology. Preferably, the technology works with a regular video camera that can detect the movement of the eyes of the passengers. The whole process is driven by external stimuli but the shape or pattern of the eye. Research has compared the efficiency of this technology with that of advanced biometric system which requires a separate and special hardware during the operation at the airport.

What are the plans to increase or control security?

Dubai Expo 2020 is one of the projects aimed at increasing the economic level of the UAE. Indeed, the project will offer employment opportunities for the people of UAE. Also, the project is aimed at increasing the revenue of the country. In this regard, there should be appropriate security plans to safeguard the properties of the airport. For example, security to the travelers should be dealt with by the policies that protect the lives of the passengers. Some of the measures set aside to protect the passengers and visitors during expo2020 include having policies that regulate the behavior of the passengers for maximum protection of life and properties. Secondly, the country is to provide certain regulations that will allow for the checking of the documents under screening taking part in the exporter. Secondly, there will be provision of safe transport facilities that will ferry people to and from the expo from pickup places. These places will be hotels and other social places in the country.

The country has also improved the infrastructure of the area to hasten the movement of people. For example, there are initiatives to improve the road networks and the provision of the sustainability facilities. The improved infrastructure is aimed at reducing the causes of terrorism along the roads. To achieve this, the government has given the project a major concern hence the formation of collaboration with RTA, Dubai municipality and Air authorities.

There have been forums to discuss the security amid hosting the international exhibition expo2020. The police should come up with regulations that will maximize the security of the visitors both at the airport and outside the airport. The Brigadier reckoned that there is Effective Corporation between the police security committee and the Expo 2020 to generate or come up with safety regulations that will ensure security in the airport.¹⁰ As the largest event in the country, the Brigadier said that the police department is laying down the security plans to protect the event that will offer education, promotion of development and tighten the corporation between UAE and other countries. “We will do what it takes to beef up security during the major event in the country of UAE,” he emphasized. The purpose of the meeting was to provide updates on the security amid hosting the international event.

Finally, the Dubai may employ security lessons from the 2012 Olympics at world expo 2020. According to the intersect Dubai 2013 security and safety exhibition held in Dubai in the year 2013, the UAE will hire security experts from the UK on the day of expo2020. This is because the UK holds the record of having the experience of handling the security threats. Therefore, the UK has various approaches to dealing with security threats. The country have form partnership with Britain to assist the country to maximize security on the big events like expo2020. In this regard, the country is preparing the financial overview that will accommodate security experts from the UK. For instance, the country has set aside more than $550 billion to cater for the security expenses during expo2020 invent. The arrangement of beefing up the security during the event follows the prevalent insecurity cases in the world. There have been many cases of terrorism attacks and theft cases the forces the UAE to ask for security experts from foreign countries like the UK. Equally, the country is still coming up with strategies to ensure maximum security during the event.

Bibliography

Abu Dhabi International Airport, Security Regulations: Airport Security. 2013. Web.

Dubai Airport Freezone Authority, DAFZA attracts international investors ahead of Expo 2020, Web.

Dubai Police Discusses Security Arrangements for Expo 2020. Web.

Gale, I, Dubai has its eye on new security. 2010. Web.

UAE General Civil Aviation Authority. 2015. Web.

Footnotes

1. UAE General Civil Aviation Authority, 2015. Web.
2. Ibid., para. 8.
3. Abu Dhabi International Airport, Security Regulations: Airport Security, 2013. Web.
4. Ibid. para. 10.
5. Ibid., para. 5.
6. Dubai Airport Freezone Authority, DAFZA attracts international investors ahead of Expo 2020. Web.
7. Ibid., para. 6.
8. I, Gale, Dubai has its eye on new security, 2010. Web.
9. Ibid. para. 6.
10. Dubai Police Discusses Security Arrangements for Expo 2020. Web.

Introduction

Airports are being understood as enterprises rather than just public services (Poole, 1994, Para 1). Airport privatization is spreading globally since 1980 covering Australia, Britain and Canada (Neufville, 1999, Para 3). It has become the topic of more concern all over the world (Bardallis, 1998, Para 1). In early 1994 more than 50 countries had airport privatization on their agenda. In developed countries, the government tries to sell partial or sometimes all interests in existing airports but in developing countries the government tries to have long-term franchises for major expansion and modernization. Here private sectors support finance to develop new terminals or whole new airports (Poole, 1994, Para 5).

Government fiscal interest also influences airport privatization that grows interested in this area. In developed countries, the government considers airports as assets and businesses. The traditional views of an airport are mainly public service whose target is to arrive and depart its users at the same time as its costs to be covered but the airport as an enterprise has different views that take airport as entrepreneurial business. It targets the needs of different clients. It takes care of not only airlines and private pilots but also passengers, greeters, staff etc (Poole, 1994, Para 6-7).

Airport privatization is spreading fast in other countries except United States. Developed countries generally avoid investing limited resources in airports that can be financed by other sectors. On the other hand, developing countries look for finances for creating modern and efficient airports (Poole, 1994, Para 8).

Definition of Airport Privatization

Privatization means reducing the government’s involvement in providing services (Airport Privatization: Issues Related to the Sale of U.S. Commercial Airports, 1996, Para 1). Airport privatization is the transfer of airport ownership from the public sector to the private sector (New Interest in U.S. Airport Privatization: Recent and Political Changes, 2007).

Airports and Airlines have been important components of the national aviation system. That is why operational activities have been considered essential for the development of airport business. Here commercial activities do not play an important role. Bearing in mind all these aspects airport property is handled publicly and commercial activities are outsourced to private companies (Frost & Sullivan, 2006, Para 2). The old airport management model has become weak and the government has become considerate about the burden of airport financing. Nevertheless, many airports all over the world are following this model. Presently, governments are understanding airports as profit-making enterprises rather than taking into account them as infrastructure suppliers (Frost & Sullivan, 2006, Para 2).

Descriptions of current situations of airport privatization

In the beginning, airports were managed by states through some government agencies that had sufficient human and financial resources. Over a period of time, most of the airports are still owned by government (state, municipal or provincial government) but some are managed by private sectors. States can ensure safety of aviation where airport authorities directly control airports (Rao, 1999, Para 2).

Such kinds of airport authorities are increasing in great number. The experience from such worldwide developments of airports shows that efficient finance and management have improved. This current situation is clearer where management of airports has been given to autonomous authorities but air traffic services are being controlled by governments. ICAO generally suggests that States are concerned about setting up authorities to manage airports and air navigation services where some improvements could be noticed in finances and efficiencies (Rao, 1999, Para 3).

Autonomous airport authorities are managing things very well since they have financial freedom but their freedom varies according to making decisions related to their activities. On the other hand in absence of such freedom many authorities look for governmental funding. This situation has an extra demand for the governmental resources that may result in delays in development and maintenance activities due to insufficient funds. That is why private sectors are coming forward to take ownership of airports where they can do their operation and management (Rao, 1999, Para 4).

Privatizing major autonomous airport authorities and government-operated airports partly or wholly has become a trend (Rao, 1999, Para 5).

Advantages and disadvantages of airport privatization

Currently not a big percent of the World’s commercial airports are managed by the private sector. Still, the success gained by the private sector pushed others to invest in this venture. There are many factors responsible to make this industry attractive for investors (Frost and Sullivan, 2006, Para 5):

• During the last seven years strong growth prospects in air traffic have been observed.
• Growth in passenger traffic has improved profit margin.
• Strong commercial opportunities still remain to be exploited.
• Certain difficulties in entry for new companies in this market that gives chance to existing participants to improve their earnings.
• Fewer risks in exchange rate fluctuations as airports revenue is in hard currencies and the dollar or the euro dominate the travel and tourism industry.

Following are some potential benefits of airport privatization (Poole, 1994, Para 32):

Increased Operating Efficiency: The biggest benefit of changing a private operator for a government department is more efficiency in operations. Both private and public sectors have different incentives at work. Private sectors managers are generally analyzed or paid off in part which is on the basis of the economic performance of that sector but public sector does not have such cases. The public sector is considered as civil service where it is difficult to fire an inefficient staff or to reward an outstanding performance given by a staff (Poole, 1994, Para 32).

A private sector can get advantage of economies of scale. A firm that owns many airports can purchase supplies in bulk and operate accounting to support services to all the airports (Poole, 1994, Para 33).

The private sectors are willing to give contracts of functions that can be performed more cost-effectively by other firms. For example the contract of airport fire and rescue service at privately managed Burbank (CA) Airport is given to a private firm (Poole, 1994, Para 34).

Additional Operating Revenues: nowadays airports are being taken as economic enterprises that can generate more revenue than was expected traditionally. Privatization has the potential of turning unprofitable airports into profit centers. The larger airports with greater revenue potential under private management can lead to bigger returns to the current governmental owners. These returns could be either via lease payments or sale proceeds (Poole, 1994, Para 35).

For general airports increased revenue comes from instituting landing fees, encouraging fixed base operators for developing offerings of goods and services and developing airport real estate (Poole, 1994, Para 36).

The revenue opportunities for air carrier airports are bigger. At some points landing fees or rental charges may be below market. A privatized airport firm will have more liberal retail approach having a bigger collection of goods and services that targets not only passengers but also the airport, its neighbors and airline staff. New business opportunities contain conference facilities, providing business services, hotel accommodations and developing airport real estate (Poole, 1994, Para 37).

Most of such activities ask for specialized knowledge and entrepreneurial corporate culture that is not necessarily present in the public sector. There could be a great risk of failure in converting civil servants into entrepreneurs rather than hiring indisputable entrepreneurs to do such activities. Also, competitive process can generate new ideas for cutting costs and increasing revenues (Poole, 1994, Para 38).

Improved Customer Amenities: Privatization can bring a new approach to airport retail activities. London’s Heathrow or Gatwick airports which were privatized via sale in 1987, the new International Terminal No 3 at Toronto which was developed by BOT/LDO (long term franchises for infrastructure facilities are called BOT projects and LDO is lease-develop-operate) in 1991 and the new Pittsburgh Terminal that is managed by BAA have given different experience to their users since they have found that airport retail is different from US airports. Such airport retails are different from US airports in three ways: i) The retail space can be compared with other terminals many times as the size is comparable; ii) the retailers have lots of national and international brand name outlets; iii) the prices are not very high like airport charges but they are like those local shopping malls (Poole, 1994, Para 39).

The new privatized retail approach presents a situation in which all the parties are taken care of. Air travelers go for lower prices and they like variety of goods and services, which result in good sales that are generally two to three times higher than in traditional terminals. The airport operator is satisfied as the higher sales volume brings higher net revenues and the airlines also have good time since concession revenue can cover total airport costs (Poole, 1994, Para 40).

Reduced Risk of White Elephants: The World Bank is now also concentrating on privatization of major infrastructure that includes the airline industry as well for the reason that developing countries can reduce risky investments, like ‘white elephant’ projects which are which are more expensive than their revenue generation. Privatization makes a difference in new project development as it shifts many risks from the taxpayers to private investors. Privatization takes care that project decisions should be made on economic and financial basis, not on political basis (Poole, 1994, Para 41).

Lease or Sale Proceeds: The city or county can recover its investment of land in the airport by selling or leasing the airport, which is done through the lease payments or sale proceeds (Poole, 1994, Para 43).

Disadvantages

• Loss of Public Control: It is expected that privatization, through sale or long-term lease, can raise issues about potential loss of public control (Poole, 1994, Para 81).
• Economic Regulation: If privatization has monopoly power then there will be an issue of dealing with that power. Any form of explicit economic regulation entails costs and that is why it will not attract potential investors to invest in airports so monopoly problems should be dealt with in less restrictive way (Poole, 1994, Para 92).
• Safety: Some have doubts whether privatized airports will be as safe as publicly owned airports. It has to be remembered that regardless of privatization, the FAA will be the airport’s safety regulator (Poole, 1994, Para 93).
• Noise: Like the case of safety same rules and regulations related to airport noise will be applied similarly on a private buyer or lessee (Poole, 1994, Para 94).
• Liability: Some have doubts whether a private firm can cover the large liability exposure of owning and managing a major airport (Poole, 1994, Para 95).
• Bankruptcy: the lease and franchise agreement should have default provisions if the original firm can provide airport services due to bankruptcy (Poole, 1994, para 97).

The trend of airport ownership

Worldwide governments are making policies for owning and managing their airports. Most of the airports around the world were owned and managed by federal governments except in the US. In the mid of 1980s the policies related to ownership started changing. There is a good growth in airline industry. The number of passengers taken by airlines grows at a double rate that of world economic growth. The rate of cargo is more than triple. It has become challenging for the owners of the airports as this situation asks for continual investment. If the airport is owned by a government then there will be an unlimited need for increasing amounts of investment (Tetheway, 2001, Para 1).

1980 was the period when the governments around the world faced loss of pressure from their taxpayers which was to control government deficit (Tetheway, 2001, Para 2).

The United Kingdom became the first country to sell its federal airport system by adopting a new policy. BAA was formed from the three major airports. Now it has become entirely a privately owned sector (Tetheway, 2001, Para 3).

Since 1990s governments from all over the world are following this trend and privatized airports (Tetheway, 2001, Para 4).

Relationship between airport privatization and management styles

As this industry is experiencing rapid changes coming from government policies of privatization, airport managers should have sufficient capacity to fulfill the needs of the customers (Regan, n.d., Para 2).

List of References

“Airport Privatization: Issues Related to the Sale of U.S. Commercial Airports” 1996, Web.

Bardallis, D, 1998. “Airport Privatization is Taking Off”, Web.

Dr.Neufville, R D, 1999. “Airport Privatization Issues for the United States”, Web.

Frost & Sullivan, 2006. “Airport Privatization”, Web.

“New Interest in U.S. Airport Privatization: Recent and Political Changes”, 2007, Web.

Poole R W, 1994. “Guidelines for Airport Privatization” Web.

Rao, A K R, 1999. “Privatization of Airports- Role of the Regulatory Authorities- A Safety Perspective” Web.

Regan P, “The relationship between Entrepreneurial Orientation, Organization Structure and Ownership in the European Airport Industry”. Web.

Tretheway M, 2001. “Airport Ownership, Management and Price Regulation” Web.

Abstract

Developments of computer software and hardware have resulted in e-gate; these gates have been adopted in some airports. E-gates are program-regulated gates used to clear passengers getting in or out of an airport. The system has numerous securities, efficiency, and revenue benefits to airports using them; however, the innovation is still young and requires more upgrading and development (GHAFOUR, 2010).

Introduction

The invention and innovation of computer applications has resulted in the development of electronic gate used in airports; the innovative electronic passport control system is used to boost security and facilitate the flow of people and commodities from and to airport.

The most successful e-gate has been installed at Dubai International Airport and King Khaled International Airport; the system has facilitated the flow of traffic in the airports; the innovation has attracted praises from frequent travelers and the staff operating the e-Gate system (Ghafour, 2010). This paper discusses how e-gates operate as well as the benefits they have brought to airports.

Methodology and structure

The report will approach the topic from a case referral point of view; it will do a literature review on the issue and will keep referring to the Dubai International Airport for review of their e-gate system that happens to be one of the most efficient systems in the world.

The first part of the report will cover introduction and methodology of the paper, then the body will consist of literature review and discussion section detailing what has been learnt from the literature review.

Literature review

Technology has been used in different section; the invention of e-gates has offered a breakthrough in security and quality service provision in airports. The system is integrate with

Business information system involved in e-gates

Airports need to have high security all the time, they are terrorists target points thus they need to be secured. On the other hand, they need there is need to have fast and efficient services as they are points of entry and exit of goods and services.

Electronic gates are computer-regulated gates, which interpolate input information offered by a person or luggage seeking opening or closing of the gate. The system operates like normal computer were information given are interpolated to trigger some action. In the airports, the gates use e-cards, barcodes and finger prints to function.

The program operating the entire system is set to interpolate information, contained in a chip, fingerprint, bar code or any other accepted access means. When the input at is passed through the system, the operating system functions as per the information that trigger a certain function; the system adopted is called dataviellance technology.

In Dubai International airport for example, passengers and staffs are given an electronic chip, which has information stored in the data base of the system; when someone want the gate to open, he swaps the card on the peripheral devise at the gate; in matters of micro-seconds sends the information to the operating system.

In the operating system, the information from the card is interpolated and compared with the fed action in the database; then it functions as it has been programmed. The technology adopted at Dubai International Airport e-gate allowed the system to have a pre-registered users where after giving their chip or finger print, the system can learn their information and make a decision to open the gate or not (Brain, 2011).

Advantages of e-gates

The main components of an e-gate is the operating system that is fed with some information and command codes to trigger a response after receiving information fed by the e-card, barcode or finger print. Every card is integrated with the system so as the system can recognize the command given by the card. The process of integrating the e-card, bar code and finger print is called “creating an account,” the duration of the card, the barcode and the finger prints is defined by the system such that after an expertly, a person cannot get access.

The system is made in a way that it can sense any effort to tamper with its operation and raises an alarm; as technology develops, the system is expected to be improved further to facial recognition technology where someone only need to come across the system and the fed data can tell the action that the person want.

When using e-gates, visitors in an airport will be cleared fast; the e-card that comes with the system has some information that the system can verify then allow accesses or deny; previously visitors had to wait for fiscal verification of their legality in a country; this called for long hours of queuing.

Airports are entry points of people with different intentions in a country; when a foreigner is getting to another country, there is need to have valid documents like passport, visa and other legal documents, these documents needs to be verifying and the receiving country be certain that the intention of the visitor has been known.

When swapping the cards, the time taken is minimal and saves space on passports; traditionally when a passenger was being cleared, the immigration officer had to stamp the passport to clear the passenger, with the invention, this move never will happen.

The system has the ability of reading carious intergraded databases and verifies all the documents that need to be verified within some minimal time; this benefits the receiving country in making sure they clear people within minimal time. Immigration department is the one that stands to benefit from the goodies stated above.

The customs and revenue collection department has a share of benefits from the system; before one is cleared by the system, the system checks with the revenue department if there are any dues that the visitor has not settled; this facilitates collection of taxes and revenue.

Security is another area that the company has looked into, the fed data that the system is verifying determines the response that the system will have, the system offers an advanced, reliable and fail-safe screening system; if the information cannot be verified, then the system denies the person at hand access.

With the current satellite integration for world surveillance, the international data collection centers have the chance of getting information of terrors attacking different countries; they will be able to offer the system with some information that when they come across the information, it raises alarm for easy capture of the person at hand.

Access and departure at airports of great importance to a country, the country needs the data for decision making, when using the system, it can be integrated with the national data collection for security reasons. International security forces want some people, they are likely to use some airport to access different places with well-integrated system, and such people can be arrested easily.

According to Worldroom Travel Digest, passengers who have used Dubai international airport had said that the system was efficient, secure and reliable; the passengers and staffs felt that the system was efficient in facilitating quick access to the airport to those people rushing to board a plane as well as those returning to Dubai.

Addressing the milestone that the company had gone because of the system, Colonel Saeed bin Belailah, Director of DNRD said, “e-Gate has come as a blessing to regular travelers through Dubai International Airport, going by the extremely positive feedback we have received from registered users,” (Worldroom Travel Digest, 2003).

The above statement was an indication of the breakthrough that the airport has gotten from the invention; the manager went further to clarify that the invention has reduced queues at passport control a move that has facilitated transport of goods and people.

When using the system, passengers whether getting back to a country or coming to the country for a visit, makes them feel privileged and welcome; the efficiency and the friendliness of the system make people feel comfortable with the country and probably a promise for better things in the country. Having efficient and quality services right from the entry of a country offers a welcoming, peaceful environment.

Management methods, measures, and techniques

Security and business information departments in an airport manage the gates, with the assistance of information and technology department. The management ensures that the gates are safe and they are operating in the most appropriate manner. In case there is a problem, the issue is handled with urgency since their failure can result to massive loss in the airport in the form of revenue and reputation (Dubai International Airport Official Website, 2011).

Discussion and observation

E-gates have offered a breakthrough in security and clearance issues in airports that have adopted them; they are efficient and reliable systems that assist a country to control the accumulation of queues waiting for clearance at the airport.

When using the system the main areas that are facilitated are security, customs and revenue collection departments, the immigration and customer service departments. The efficiency of the system has made them reliable and has continued being used to facilitate the flow of people and goods into and out of airports.

When someone is arriving to a country for the first time, the reception that he gets from the airports goes a long way in shaping the attitude, and perception that the person holds for the country: with an e-gate, visitors feel welcome and immediately creates a positive attitude and perception towards the country (Dubai international, 2011).

Conclusion and recommendations

Scientific innovation and invention of computer hardware and software have resulted in e-gate system in airports. The gates use pre-fed data to accept command input via e-cards, fingerprints or bar codes.

E-gates are effective, fast, and accurate; they are able to clear passengers getting into or departing from the airport in a matter of seconds. Although the system is young, more research and development need to be done to incorporate other data capture methods like eyes, face, and scent recognition; when such developments are done, the system will be more efficient and reliable.

References

Brain, M. (2011). How Electronic Gates Work. Web.

Dubai International Airport Official Website. (2011). Dubai International Airport. Web.

Dubai international. (2011). Departing. Web.

Ghafour, A. (2010). E-gate system introduced at two airports. Web.

Worldroom Travel Digest. (2003). E-Gate earns praise for simplifying passport control. Web.

Introduction

The peculiarities of air traffic and passengers’ expectations from airport services create a significant basis for competitions between different airline companies. In the past century, it was the government that used to own and operate the airline industry. Nowadays, a number of changes occur because of the process of privatisation in this sector that leads to the creation of certain improvements and challenges in custom services (Ostrowski, O’Brien & Gordon 1993; Morash & Ozment 1994; Oliveira 2013). Airline companies have to solve many questions in order to meet customers’ expectations, promote changes, and introduce the effective performance. The idea to measure the quality of passenger waiting time at airports is frequently discussed by many companies as one of the main issues in customer services that have to be improved to make an airport competitive and preferable among customers.

Importance of Custom Services in Airports

Airport managers have to measure the level of performance in airport terminals in relation to the expectations of customers and the possible quality of services offered. Passengers have different opinions and attitudes to airport customer service (Fodness & Murray 2007). It has been recognised that the assessment of the capabilities in airport passenger terminals and the possibility to handle passengers and their baggage is not enough. The introduction of new techniques to study the requirements and expectations of passengers has become essential (Park, Robertson & Wu 2004; Tolpa 2012). Several models of airport passenger terminal assessment have been introduced that measure factors such customer comfort, convenience, and the ambience at airport passenger terminals (Zidarova & Zografos 2011).

Attitudes to Waiting Time in Airports

Passengers and visitors may have different expectations in regards to the services they could get in airports. Still, the majority of people believe that waiting time at check-ins is a crucial factor in airports (Wiredja, Popovic & Blacker 2015). It is necessary to admit that departing and arriving passengers face different problems when they have to wait in airports (Kamarudin 2015). On the one hand, departing passengers may consider waiting time as their priority to solve their possible immigration issues or baggage problems. On the other hand, arriving passengers may not like waiting time because they have already passed certain check points and want to leave airports as soon as possible. There is also the division of passengers in regards to the purposes of their travelling. There are business passengers and leisure travellers, who may demonstrate different attitudes to airport services and the waiting time concept. Finally, there are regular and occasional passengers, who also demonstrate different attitudes to waiting time and the services offered by airports (Lubbe, Douglas & Zambellis 2011).

Waiting Time Peculiarities

Comfort while waiting is an important aspect in airport passenger terminals. Such comfort includes proper seating arrangements, clean washrooms, ample eating joints, ambience, and easily visible display boards (Fodness & Murray 2007). Another area where waiting time is considered to be important for departing passengers is the passport inspection counter. Waiting time and courtesy of the inspecting staff are the two factors that play an important role for passengers (Kramer, Bothner & Spiro 2013).

Techniques to Evaluate Waiting Time

There are several techniques used to evaluate the waiting time at airports. For instance, in many airports, the psychometric scaling technique is used to evaluate the waiting time at baggage claiming points. Passengers are subjected to experiences of being handled during boarding and alighting. The passengers are requested to rate their experience based on various factors (Falcão 2013).

Another technique that is used to measure customer satisfaction at airports is the method of successive categories. It allows the user to convert qualitative data into quantitative data. Passengers share their perceptions of airport services offered to visitors from different perspectives. As a rule, a category that has to be rated is chosen by a passenger (Falcão 2013).

In addition to check-in and managing baggage, various service-oriented procedures, such as the waiting time reduction, need to be followed at airports. Managers should consider the cost of providing service in comparison to the waiting time (Olapiriyakul & Das 2007). Passenger security screening is a typical model that aptly demonstrates the actual problem. There is no other alternative except to accept it in a larger perspective of customer services. Passengers have to stand in queues in order to be screened and enter the terminal (Saidi & Barros 2013).

Factors to Reduce Waiting Time

The factors to reduce waiting time are based on the theory of demand and supply. Supply means the capacity to manage the passenger flow, and demand means the number of incoming passengers. If there is less checking staff at an entrance gate A, people have to wait and create a long queue. In such a situation, people should have a chance to use another entrance gate B where the queue is not that long. Such approach would apparently increase the inflow at the gate B. However, this decision cannot solve the problem if there is enough staff at gate B. Therefore, the real problem is rooted in the existing infrastructure, staff, and the level of performance (Felkel & Klann 2011).

Conclusion

Ongoing competitions in the airline industry make airline companies introduce new strategies to meet the expectations of their customers. Waiting time at airports is one of the most crucial factors that can annoy passengers and influence the reputation of an airline company. It is necessary to adopt statistical measures and evaluate their customers’ satisfaction. There are several statistic software products that airlines can use in order to assess the comfort of their passengers. Airlines have to identify the needs of passengers and their own possibilities to find out the required balance.

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