Safety improvements in the cockpit and airport operations are important because they can help to prevent accidents from occurring. In the cockpit, safety improvements can include things like adding new technology that helps pilots to more easily monitor their surroundings or ensuring that all crew members are properly trained to handle any potential emergencies. In airport operations, safety improvements can include things like air passengers checkpoints, and installing new systems that help to manage traffic flow or detailed inspection to ensure that aircraft are in good condition to function. By making these types of safety improvements, they can help to ensure that everyone who travels by air is as safe as possible. Cockpit voice recorders, flight data recorders, crash-resistant airframe design, improved cabin-pressure systems, air traffic control systems, and aircraft safety inspections are the safety improvements that have been made in cockpit and airport operations.
Safety Improvements in Cockpit and Airport Operations
Cockpit voice recorders (CVRs) have dramatically improved aircraft safety by providing an accurate, real-time account of flight crew actions and decisions. Before the installation of CVRs, investigations into aircraft accidents were often hampered by a lack of accurate information. As a result, crucial decisions or mistakes that may have led to the accident could not be determined with certainty (Mitchell et al., 2007). In some cases, entire flights were deemed suspicious because no record existed of what occurred during the flight. Since the advent of CVRs, however, such accidents have been greatly reduced in number. Recording conversations and other sounds in the cockpit help accident investigators understand what happened, identify systemic problems, and make recommendations to prevent future accidents. The use of CVRs began in the 1970s, and they have become essential tools in aviation safety. They are now required on all commercial passenger flights worldwide (Mitchell et al., 2007). CVRs provide critical information to accident investigators that can help determine what happened and why. This information can then be used to make recommendations to improve safety and prevent future accidents.
Flight data recorders, also known as black boxes , have improved safety in aircraft operations by providing clear and concise recordings of all aspects of a flight. The first flight data recorder was introduced in 1963, and they have since become mandatory on all commercial aircraft. This information can be used to investigate accidents and improve safety protocols. Black boxes provide a detailed account of an aircrafts performance, from engine data to altitude and airspeed readings (Mitchell et al., 2007). This information can help investigators determine why an aircraft crashed or had problems during take-off or landing. Aircraft operations are also improved with the use of black boxes. In the event of an accident on the ground, investigators can review the data to determine what went wrong and how they can prevent it from happening again.
Since the 1970s, when passengers began flying in ever-increasing numbers, commercial airliner manufacturers have been seeking to decrease the probability of fatal aircraft accidents. They achieve this by building structures that were designed to better withstand the forces experienced during a crash. This means that in the event of an accident, there is less likelihood of the aircraft being destroyed, and passengers are more likely to survive. This buildup of safety redundancy came to be known as crashworthiness. As a response to crashes involving failsafe systems and crew resource management (CRM) deficiencies, newer generations of airliners incorporate even more versions of this standby equipment and procedures. As stowaways and hijackings increased in the late 20th century, cockpit doors were fortified and locked during flight (Mitchell et al., 2007). In addition, crash-resistant airframes have enabled operators to develop new procedures for evacuating aircraft in an emergency. These procedures are typically much safer than those that were used in the past, and they can help to reduce the risk of injury or death during an accident.
Cabin pressure systems play a vital role in ensuring the safety of aircraft. By keeping the air pressure inside the cabin at a constant level, these systems help to prevent crew and passengers from suffering from hypoxia, a condition where the body is deprived of oxygen. In recent years, there have been significant improvements in cabin-pressure system technology (Mitchell et al., 2007). For example, newer aircraft are now equipped with automatic pressurization controllers, which maintain a consistent cabin pressure regardless of the altitude at which the plane is flying. Cabin pressurization is achieved by pumping air into the cabin through an outflow valve at the back of the plane. This regulated inflow of air maintains a higher cabin pressure than the atmospheric pressure outside, providing a comfortable and safe environment for passengers and crew.
The air traffic control system (ATC) has greatly improved safety in aircraft operations by using a system of separation. This system uses time, distance, and altitude to keep aircraft safely separated from each other. Air traffic controllers use radar and radio communication to help pilots maintain their positions in the sky. Aircraft are also equipped with transponders that allow controllers to easily track them on radar screens (Mitchell et al., 2007). By using a system of separation, air traffic controllers can keep aircraft at safe distances from each other and avoid any potential collisions. Automated features such as collision avoidance systems and auto-landing capabilities help lessen the workload of controllers and pilots alike, reducing the chances for human error (Mitchell et al., 2007). ATC system tracks aircraft via radar; this feature allows controllers to keep tabs on where every plane is at all times and helps them direct traffic safely and efficiently.
Aircraft safety inspections are a vital part of ensuring safe aircraft operations. All aircraft parts and systems must be inspected regularly to ensure they are in good working order. This helps to prevent potential safety hazards from occurring (Mitchell et al., 2007). Many different types of aircraft safety inspections can be performed, such as visual checks, computerized scans, and physical testing of components. Each type of inspection has its benefits and drawbacks, but all of them contribute to a safer overall flying experience. Visual checks are perhaps the most common type of inspection and involve simply looking at the exterior and interior of the aircraft for any signs of damage or wear. This can be done by flight crews during pre-flight checks.
Conclusion
In conclusion, there have been several improvements that have been made in cockpit and airport operations to ensure aircraft safety in the past 50 years. Air traffic control systems help pilots maintain their position in the air as well as prevent aircraft collisions. Cockpit voice recorders and flight data recorders provide real-time flight accounts, thus helping the investigators in determining the accident causes and thus being able to propose safety measures in the future. Crash-resistant airframe design has helped in designing structures that greatly bear aircraft crashing forces. Conversely, aircraft safety inspections are essential in ensuring all aircraft parts are in good condition. Improved cabin-pressure systems prevent cases of hypoxia by passengers and crews.
Reference
Mitchell, K., Sholy, B., & Stolzer, A. J. (2007). General aviation aircraft flight operations quality assurance: overcoming the obstacles. IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, 22(6), 1-15.
As its name says rather explicitly, the cause-and-effect diagram (CAED) is typically used to identify the connection between the factors that contributed to a particular phenomenon and the occurrence thereof (Pyzdek & Keller, 2014). Reasonably enough, the specified tool has been used primarily for resolving specific project- or entrepreneurship-related problems by locating the existing solutions and helping choose the most efficient one. However, because of the links identified between the above factors and the possible outcomes, CAED can also be adopted to plan the further steps to be taken for a specific company or the leaders of a certain project.
Because of the numerous options that it provides and the outcomes that it helps identify, the specified tool can be applied to the process of planning in the context of an aircraft organization, particularly, at an airport.
Analysis
By definition, the process of security planning implies that three key steps should be taken. First and most obvious, the isolation of the factors that can be viewed as a threat to the stakeholders involved, including the passengers and the staff, should be carried out. Afterward, the analysis of the issues located needs to be conducted. The implementation of the solutions that seem to be the most fitting has to take place.
The application of CAED must be considered at the first and the second stages of the process. Seeing that the CAED framework is used for planning, it can be utilized to locate the factor affecting the security in a positive and a negative manner. Although the framework does not permit the immediate arrangement of the found issues based on the gravity of their threat, the outcomes may be identified comparatively easily. As a result, the framework will serve as the tool for viewing every single opportunity and evaluating its outcome. Although the CAED framework does not rank the threats according to their severity or the outcomes based on their significance, it still allows viewing every single option. Therefore, the process of choosing and making a decision makes less biased. In other words, the CAE diagram can be used to isolate the solution that will help secure not only the customers but also every single stakeholder involved and take the least damage in the process (Haviland, 2004).
It would be wrong to assume that CAED is an entirely flawless system. As it has been stressed above, it does not categorize either the results or the factors, nor does it serve as the means of improving the current situation. To put it differently, the specified system is rather rigid and offers only a limited set of tools for a detailed analysis. While certain suggestions can be made based on the outcomes of the assessment, the framework itself provides a restricted number of options.
Nevertheless, the effect of applying CAED as a tool for planning is obvious. Helping identify the outcomes with an impressive amount of precision, it will serve its purpose rather well in the airport setting. CAED will help pinpoint the dents in the security system and find solutions to the problems identified.
Conclusion
Although the adoption of CAED is primarily dictated by the need to develop an elaborate plan, the tool can and, in fact, should be used as a method of problem-solving since it allows identifying the existing options and the following outcomes in a rather accurate manner. The diagram, therefore, creates the premises for a careful and elaborate decision-making process. As a result, the most beneficial strategy can be identified.
Reference List
Haviland, P. (2004). Analytical problem-solving. Annual Quality Congress Proceedings, 58, 273-281.
Pyzdek, T., & Keller, P. (2014). The Six Sigma handbook (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
The title of the project was Refurbishing Heathrow Airport Terminal 1 (Project Management Institute n.d.). The manager of the undertaking was David Buisson. The project sought to refurbish and renovate Terminal 1 of Heathrow Airport with the slightest disruptions to passenger flow and within the established budget. The reason for modernisation was that the building had been in operation for over four decades without any significant improvements. Meanwhile, the introduction of international flights to the Terminal necessitated considerable technological and structural updates of the building. The following project deliverables were planned:
A renovated construction of the Terminal;
New floor and furniture;
Modernised integrated technological systems;
Upgraded environmental and health safety aspects for customers (Our projects n.d.).
The design of the project was approved by regulators and stakeholders. The stakeholders were Heathrow Terminal 1 passengers, David Buisson (project manager), BAA, Star Alliance, and a large variety of contractors and suppliers employed during the refurbishment. The main acceptance criterion was the successful implementation of all technological, structural, and environmental changes.
The exception to this project was that the originally planned cladding system was not completed. Since the Terminal continued functioning during the refurbishment and modernisation process, there was no room for closure or delays. In spite of a variety of construction challenges, the budget was rather tight.
Any arising issues or unpredicted delays that might have appeared during work were assumed to be addressed via the software system and discussed with relevant contractors and stakeholders. In order to complete the project on time, bureaucratic and communication constraints were eliminated.
The work included 42 various phases the completion of which required 500,000 working hours. The project was to be finished in September 2008 (Project Management Institute n.d.). The budget was £57.6 million, and the management team did everything possible to keep within it.
In order to promote the success of the project, a speculative work breakdown structure (WBS) was used. The WBS functioned as an input for the projects budget and all the phases of work (Norman, Brotherton & Fried 2008). Thus, the WBS of refurbishing the Terminal was comprehensive and included a variety of elements. The three major components were planning, construction, and communication and management. Planning comprised the following features: consulting stakeholders, designing necessary parameters, calculating expenses, establishing deadlines and logistical details, and hiring a project manager who would finalise the details of the contract. Construction involved the following components:
Structural (replacing the floor, clearing and replacing the roof, and adding the passenger and commercial space);
Environmental (establishing a new water system, providing sustainability and energy saving, improving the lighting, and installing low-energy heating);
Technological (installing closed-circuit TV systems, office network systems, specialist flight systems, and regulatory systems).
Communication and management included human resources, communication with stakeholders, budget management, and collaboration and communication with contractors.
With the help of the WBS, all work was effectively organised and divided among the departments. Also, it enabled to assign people responsible for each stage effectively. The project manager arranged regular meetings to make sure that all components were developing by the plan.
Systems Used to Ensure Project Success
In order to guarantee favourable outcomes of the project, several systems were put in place, such as the project management office (PMO), project control system, change management system, and risk management system. The key role of the PMO was defining and maintaining the norms and standards for the management of refurbishment works. With the help of the PMO, Buisson was able to arrange the most accurate guidance and documentation of the project. Frequently, managers employ industry-standard guidelines to help them organise PMOs. Buisson consistently consulted A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (Project Management Institute n.d.). By arranging the PMO, Buisson became able to manage the project effectively and have full control of it.
Project control system (PCS) is another essential component of any small or large program. Without proper discipline, one may not be able to successfully implement even a well-developed and perfectly planned project. Thus, Buisson arranged a system of government and guidance at every stage of refurbishment and renovation of the Terminal. The PCS comprises three key elements: budget, time, and performance (Badiru 2011). There are projects that put emphasis on performance and do not pay much attention to time and budget. However, refurbishing the Terminal at Heathrow required equal consideration to each of the three components. Thus, all of them were controlled by the project manager who arranged regular meetings with contractors where issues related to time frame, performance, and budget were discussed (Project Management Institute n.d.). When any unexpected issues appeared, Buisson came up with an alternative plan to avoid delays or additional expenses.
Change management system (CMS) was no less significant in the project. It was necessary to make sure that every stakeholder realised the need for change and was able to accept the complications that were caused by adjustments. In order to minimise the negative effect of modifications on stakeholders, the work was arranged in such a way that did not necessitate closing the Terminal. Also, every possible effort was made to eliminate discomfort. The work was performed in several shifts to finish the renovation as soon as possible (Project Management Institute n.d.). As a result, changes that might have caused disadvantages for stakeholders were turned into opportunities by the management team.
The fourth system employed to ensure the success of the project was a risk management system (RMS). The RMS dealt with the unexpected challenges that appeared in the course of work. The biggest of them were of structural, technological, and environmental nature. Structural issues were concerned with the need to repair the floor that was forty years old. Technological challenges appeared due to the need for replacing the existing network systems. Environmental problems were associated with the adherence to sustainability requirements (Project Management Institute n.d.). There were also two risks encountered by the team: electrical and asbestos. During work, it was discovered that the East Linear check-in department had a greater electricity demand than it had been expected. Discovering asbestos in the ceiling necessitated an urgent plan of its safe removal (Project Management Institute n.d.). Due to the successful arrangement of the RMS, all risks and challenges were overcome, and none of them delayed the works or posed any danger at budget planning.
Collaboration in Different Project Management Structures
In huge projects like Refurbishing Heathrow Airport Terminal 1, the need for collaboration between many structures is a crucial aspect of reaching beneficial outcomes. Productive partnership requires mutual understanding of the culture and values of each team engaged in the project (Binder 2016). While arranging work on the Terminals renovation, Buisson had to take into consideration such aspects as human resource management and communications management (Project Management Institute n.d.). The manager had to do everything possible to arrange effective collaboration among all the participants of the project.
Each of the teams was highly dedicated and tried to do its work in the most effective way. Still, it was quite a challenge for Buisson to manage a variety of people and teams due to the size and scale of the project. There were eleven top-tier suppliers who presented the data concerning work directly to the project manager. Also, there were many more who reported some necessary information to top-tier suppliers. As a result, there was an intricate system of sharing information. Under such circumstances, it was vital for Buisson to keep the scheme accurate and efficient so as to avoid any misunderstandings and problems.
Another thing that could have undermined the successful collaboration was the planning of the project. There were many third parties engaged in work, which could have impacted collaboration in an adverse way. If the contractor had not finished levelling the floor on time, it could have led to the delay in work of the team responsible for furniture instalment, and each of such steps could have postponed the project. However, due to effective planning, no such delays took place.
The collaboration was also enhanced by successful communications management (Project Management Institute n.d.). Due to a large number of high-level stakeholders, Buisson had to arrange an effective system of informing each department and team of any updates. Then, owing to that system, it was easier for him to arrange all forty-two phases of work while keeping the Terminal operational.
One of the reasons why the project manager was able to arrange collaboration was that he maintained a collaborative approach to solving the issues that appeared during work (Project Management Institute n.d.). Such a method involves creating a shared vision and responsibility. It is not always possible to take into account the opinions of all stakeholders, but knowing that ones idea will be heard and considered makes employees feel more empowered. Also, collaboration presupposes sharing information at the early stages of a project so as to provide a better possibility for effective decision making. Thus, collaboration is a productive approach that allows leaders to find out what their team members think and choose the most compelling options.
During work on Terminal refurbishing, collaboration was achieved due to the efforts of the project manager. Buisson did everything possible to avoid misunderstandings and allow each stakeholder to feel that their opinions were important. He scheduled regular meetings every week and month where suppliers could express any problems or grievances. Whenever a problem appeared, Buisson personally dealt with it in order to guarantee that the issue was solved quickly prior to moving to the next stage (Project Management Institute n.d.). Because of such an attitude, project management was able to arrange work effectively and promptly.
Potential Resource Conflicts
Megaprojects such as the refurbishment of Heathrow Terminal 1 require much preparation and present a variety of challenges. The uniqueness of technologies used and design peculiarities are the greatest issues that may prevent the project from being fulfilled in time (Lehtonen 2014). Also, there may be problems with governance and control due to many levels of work and short time frame. Finally, a serious risk is the one concerned with resource conflicts. The major potential resource conflict in the case was concerned with the budget. There were many teams whose work was coordinated by the project manager. If one of the teams had failed to follow budget restrictions, it would have caused serious problems for the other teams. Everything was interdependent, and it was crucial to keep the situation under constant control.
Potential resource conflicts were minimised with the help of the iron triangle. It is a model of project management that establishes the projects constraints (Lehtonen 2014). The iron triangle consists of three elements: the scope of the project, its cost, and schedule. The major guidelines of this triangle are as follows:
The quality of the project is limited by its budget, scope, and time frame;
It is in the project managers power to make changes within the elements;
Alterations in one component lead to modifications in other elements.
The time constraint in the discussed case included such elements as creating a schedule of work, defining the activities necessary to perform, creating an effective sequence of activities, estimating resources, and developing and controlling the work schedule. The constraint of cost consisted of the following components:
Estimating the costs: evaluating the cost of resources required to complete the activities;
Budgeting the costs: accumulating the resource costs and activities to determine the baseline;
Controlling the costs: considering the factors that may have an impact on cost variance and can be governed with the help of cost management techniques.
Managers may resort to two kinds of effective resource allocation: loading and levelling (Schwalbe 2014). Resource loading is related to the extent of individual resources required by the existing schedule during particular periods of time. With the help of resource loading, project managers can establish a general understanding of the projects requirements concerning the resources along with individual peoples timetables (Schwalbe 2014). In order to determine staffing requirements, a project manager may use a histogram. A resource histogram is a rather helpful tool to identify the causes of overallocation. The concept of overallocation is defined as assigning more people to some task than there are available (Schwalbe 2014). Resource levelling is the method of resolving conflicts through postponing tasks. The major aim of resource levelling is creating a productive allocation of resource usage. A network diagram is a tool most frequently used by project managers to identify resource conflicts. For the discussed project, the following network diagram was suggested:
With the help of the diagram, Buisson was able to avoid resource conflicts. The use of the iron triangle method also ensured productive work on the project without any delays or issues. Although the project was huge and involved a large number of stakeholders, the project manager arranged work in the most efficient way. He averted possible conflicts and did not allow any delays or budget extensions.
Risk Management Plan
The project manager had to take particular care of risk management since the scope of work was rather large, and the appearance of risks was inevitable. In order to prepare the risk management plan, Buisson had to take into consideration such aspects as risk identification, risk assessment, and risk control strategies. In addition, he had to prepare a thorough risk communication plan in order to be able to resolve conflicts when they appeared.
Risk Identification
The most commonly employed tool for risk identification is SWOT analysis (Sweeting 2017). Under the analysis, the following strengths of the project were identified:
Heathrow is a respected and well-known European air hub;
The airports location allows for the high transition of passenger traffic via flight transfers;
Heathrow has high passenger satisfaction scores;
There is a customer base of network carriers and global alliances;
The project is supported and funded by the government;
Project manager David Buisson has more than thirteen years of experience in similar ventures.
The weaknesses of the project are:
A short deadline to complete the refurbishment with the aim of avoiding massive disruptions to passenger traffic;
The lack of experience in such large-scale Terminal upgrades that may lead to the possibility of unpredicted complications that might cause delays or make the project go over budget;
Budget changes that were made late into the project development resulted in design changes.
Projects opportunities are as follows:
Making structural and aesthetic changes to the Terminal building;
Enhancing the information technology integration in the airport structure, making it innovative and modernised;
Increasing passenger flow and customer satisfaction with airport services;
Providing an opportunity to gain experience in Terminal upgrades.
Finally, the following threats were identified:
A large number of teams and third-party contractors working on the project might create a possibility of delays;
Health and safety risks regarding the discovery of asbestos in the Terminal roof;
The risk of electrical conduit problems that could cause power not to return after it was switched off for construction work.
Risk Assessment
Risk assessment helps to identify potential losses due to hazards in the process of work (Raydugin 2013). There were several levels of risk that needed to be considered. The known risk was the need to coordinate refurbishment works with the continuing functioning of the Terminal. The predictable risk was not managing the successful functioning of the Terminal due to delays in some contractors work. The unpredicted risks were the ones concerned with finding asbestos in the ceiling and electrical problems.
Discovering asbestos in the ceiling was the first unpredicted risk that could have delayed the project. However, with the help of primary risk management schedules, it became possible to avert the danger. The second unpredicted risk was concerned with electricity. Switching off the power posed a risk of not having it back at all. Thus, the project manager held a high-level meeting with the stakeholders and the major contractor to evaluate the risk and create a plan. Further, subsequent meetings were held with each party involved in order to discuss the responsibilities and review the risks (Project Management Institute n.d.). Due to the successful risk assessment activities, Buisson was able to manage all the risks adequately.
Risk Control Strategy
The defence strategy was employed for risk control. The strategy helped to avert the adverse outcomes appearing from vulnerable aspects during work on the project. Defence mechanisms used by Buisson were predicting the risks and suggesting alternative ways of managing challenges such as electricity or asbestos issues.
Risk Communication Plan
Risk management also involved a risk communication plan that helped Buisson to arrange a prompt and effective discussion of any arising issues with the stakeholders. As well as risk assessment, risk communication was performed in several stages. At first, the project manager met with the high-level stakeholders, and then, meetings with the subordinate teams were arranged.
Evaluation of Tools and Methods
Out of the variety of tools and methods available for project management, the ones chosen by Buisson were effective and provided the successful completion of the project. The following methods and tools were employed:
Risk management;
Budget planning;
WBS;
Network analysis;
Resource analysis;
Reports;
Iron triangle ;
Project management software;
Project management systems (Carstens, Richardson & Smith 2013).
The use of each tool and method presupposed collaborative work of different structures under the project managers guidance and control. The most helpful tool was the WBS since it helped to break down the responsibilities and enabled Buisson to arrange the work effectively. Budget planning was another crucial aspect that needed to be considered prior to implementing refurbishment and renovation. Through risk management, it was possible to avoid challenging issues that could have appeared during work. Project management software and systems were employed to set and control the objectives. Network and resource analysis helped to avoid potential resource conflicts. Regular reports were a great way of controlling the workflow and budget of the project. The iron triangle helped Buisson to create a solid interdependence between the projects scope, schedule, and cost.
Executive Summary
The project Refurbishing Heathrow Airport Terminal 1 was one of the largest renovation campaigns in the UKs industrial history. The major difficulty of the venue was that the Terminal had to continue working during the reconstruction process. Owing to the experience and managerial talent of David Buisson, the numerous challenges were averted, and the project was completed in time.
The mission of the project was to make one of the busiest Terminals of Heathrow airport more convenient for passengers. The vision was minimising the risks during work and reaching the overall aim of making the Terminal modernised. The values of the team were concerned with keeping all the stakeholders satisfied while providing quality services and averting conflict situations.
The work on the project was divided into 42 phases and involved over 500,000 working hours. The budget was £57.6 million, and despite unexpected complications, it was not exceeded. All the works were finished by the deadline that was set for September 2008.
The WBS was used to enhance the projects successful implementation. Its three key features were planning, construction, and communication and management. Owing to the WBS, the work was arranged and divided successfully. Notwithstanding the fact that there were many stakeholders, Buisson managed to complete everything within the set budget and time limit.
To ensure project success, the following systems were employed: project management office, project control system, change management system, and risk management system. A crucial aspect that enhanced the project was a collaboration in various structures. Minimising of potential resource conflicts was possible due to the use of iron triangle. Risk management plan helped Buisson to avoid adverse outcomes of expected and unexpected risks. Regular meetings with constructors provided a possibility of averting misunderstandings. With the help of effective planning and production methods and tools, David Buisson managed to arrange the work in the most successful way.
Reference List
Badiru, AB 2011, Project management: systems, principles, and applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Binder, J 2016, Global project management: communication, collaboration, and management across borders, Routledge, New York, NY.
In 2014, the Chicago Executive Airports (CEA) Board recognized a need for creating a new master plan because the old one has not been updated since 1984. The new master plan comprises three phases: phase I was developed in 2014-2015; phase II was created in 2017, and phase three was to be completed by 2019. This paper will summarize the first two phases since the report on the third phase is currently under approval.
The master plan was developed to identify the future planning needs of the airport. The CEA Board created four guiding principles on which the plan should be based: airport integration within local communities, fulfillment of the airports role, improvement of safety and compatibility, and maintenance of financial viability (CEA, 2015). The analysis conducted in phase I revealed that corporate operators were significant for the airports financial viability, and meeting the needs of corporate aviation users would lead to the maximization of revenues (CEA, 2015). The CEA Board identified an important compatibility issue, revealing that the airports noise levels had not changed significantly over 30 years (CEA, 2015). Thus, meeting noise compatibility recommendations became one of the main problems identified in phase I.
In phase II, CEA identified the constraints experienced by CEA tenants and users. It was discovered that the runway length was the priority for future improvements as its magnitude was insufficient (CEA, 2017). Additional constraints included a contaminated runway, additional hangar and corporate office space, airspace delays, and additional ramp space. Since the runway length was found to be a major concern, the second phase of the master plan was concerned with identifying factors affecting the runway length and providing recommendations for its extension. It was recommended that the airport should consider a minimal extension of 700ft and an ideal extension of 1700ft (CEA, 2017). Phase III of the master plan was meant to identify alternatives for airport development and create an airport layout plan as required by the Federal Aviation Administration.
Transport hubs and routes are in principle associated with particular safety concerns, as transport accidents are frequent causes of injury and death of passengers. At the same time, the airport administration is especially diligent in ensuring passenger safety. Numerous checks and security measures can cause anxiety among people, as they are perceived to be connected with increased danger. Therefore, airport operators are concerned about developing solutions to reduce passenger stress and create a calming environment. This paper analyzes the objectively required level of airport security and examines passenger anxiety factors and methods of reducing stress.
Necessary Security Measures
Several measures are required to ensure a minimum level of safety at airports. They aim, among other things, to prevent illegal border crossings or smuggling, but the main danger is the threat of terrorist attacks. In addition, some actions are intended to prevent aviation accidents, such as weight restrictions on baggage. Traditional measures include document examination, identity verification, luggage inspection, video surveillance, and the presence of security personnel. It should be emphasized that strict regulations were enforced after the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Wattanacharoensil et al., 2016, p. 325). First, the airport personnel began to investigate more thoroughly the reasons and purposes of the trip, as well as the motivation of the travelers and tourists. For this reason, airport checks may sometimes appear similar to interviews. Second, according to Hall (2015), individual scanning by surveillance technologies like full-body scanners or metal detectors have been introduced at airports (p. 123). These activities require more time and, most significantly, may cause increased stress levels in people.
It should be noted that various states and international airports have different security standards, varying according to the number and severity of measures implemented. All traditional measures, including video surveillance and verification of luggage and documents, are recognized by the vast majority of airport operators as necessary and reasonable. At the same time, activities such as full-body scanning are recognized by some professionals as redundant. For instance, according to Hall (2015), Belgiums secretary of state for transport described such measures as excessive, and Spain representatives doubted their necessity (p. 160). Moreover, these regulations cause anxiety among passengers who perceive them as a confirmation of the danger of this transport. Therefore, the stressful experiences of people require special consideration and appropriate response.
Passenger Anxiety
It should be noted that other factors also cause increased anxiety levels of passengers. Researchers point out that psychological pressure is amplified by the fear of missing a flight or losing luggage and concerns about weather conditions and flight safety (Wattanacharoensil et al., 2016). However, anxiety from facing a highly restricted/controlled condition both from the process and personal interaction such as at the immigration and security remains a major cause of increased stress (Wattanacharoensil et al., 2016, p. 326). For these reasons, the number of people who are willing to enjoy airline services is decreasing. This is particularly relevant at the current time, as, by the end of the official pandemic, the fear of contracting the virus will be added to the anxiety factors mentioned above. Anti-infection security measures adopted may increase stress levels even further.
It should also be noted that the perception of an airport as safe differs in various transport points. Researchers have discovered that Americans generally consider national airports to be safe, including Hartsfield Jackson Atlanta International Airport, Miami International Airport, Chicago OHare International Airport, and Los Angeles International Airport (Bogicevic et al., 2016). Besides, measures taken by operators of Hong Kong International Airport and Suvarnabhumi Airport are reducing passenger stress (Wattanacharoensil et al., 2016). At the same time, it should be stated that the anxiety levels of Muslim and African passengers are higher than those European passengers (Ergun et al., 2017, p. 89). These findings may be due to both cultural peculiarities in the perception of passengers of certain nations, as well as differences in approaches of airport administrations. Therefore, researchers focus on investigating and identifying those activities that contribute to reducing anxiety and fear associated with airport security.
Stress Alleviation
Airport operators use a variety of methods to trigger calming emotions among passengers. It was confirmed that servicescape attributes have a significant effect on peoples perceptions and feelings (Bogicevic et al., 2016). It may appear to be counterintuitive that music does not have much effect in this regard, but researchers note that design and scent contribute most to traveler enjoyment. Bogicevic et al. (2016) state that the presence of hedonic stimuli is paramount, even in an extremely serviceable environment, such as an airport (p. 127). Environmental cues associated with positive feelings and sensations create an atmosphere of security and help passengers feel comfortable. Furthermore, functional organization, air, and lighting of the airport are essential factors of stress decreasing (Bogicevic et al., 2016). Functional organization refers to the convenience of navigation and orientation, as well as an intuitive system of signs that reduce the feeling of confusion.
It should also be mentioned that airport operators follow modern tendencies related to customer involvement and value co-creation. Maintaining passenger confidence in air transport safety requires establishing an open dialogue between professionals and clients. It is generally arranged through social forums, which can take place in the social media platforms set up by the airport (Wattanacharoensil et al., 2016, p. 328). In this way, passengers can get answers to all their questions in advance through direct communication with airport staff or Q&A services. Another significant factor in decreasing anxiety is face-to-face service encounters at airports themselves (Wattanacharoensil et al., 2016). Direct communication with airline staff allows passengers to deal with possible prejudices or concerns more efficiently.
Conclusion
It should be noted that most of the measures taken by airport operators to maintain transport security are appropriate and reasonable. Visible signs of safety concerns can cause anxiety to the passenger, which contributes to an increase in overall stress levels. However, airport administrations successfully use servicescape attributes and establish a dialogue with potential customers to trigger calming emotions for people at the airport.
References
Bogicevic, V., Yang, W., Cobanoglu, C., Bilgihan, A., & Bujisic, M. (2016). Traveler anxiety and enjoyment: The effect of airport environment on travelers emotions. Journal of Air Transport Management, 57, 122-129.
Ergun, N., Acikel, B. Y., & Turhan, U. (2017). The appropriateness of todays airport security measures in safeguarding airline passengers. Security Journal, 30(1), 89-105.
Hall, R. (2015). The transparent traveler: The performance and culture of airport security. Duke University Press.
Wattanacharoensil, W., Schuckert, M., & Graham, A. (2016). An airport experience framework from a tourism perspective. Transport Reviews, 36(3), 318-340.
The incident management system aims to guide all non-governmental, governmental, and private sector agencies to prevent incidences causing harm to the environment or loss of life. The National Incident Management System (NIMS) analyzes all possible risk factors causing damage to the environment, responds to threats, and manages the recovery from the actual incidences. The mitigation of environmental risks governed by NIMS comprises various components such as planning, logistics, command, operations, administration, or finance. The components of the national incident management system NIMS are effectively employed in Aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) or the airport accident event.
Branches of the Incident Command System
The incident command system organizes system responses to incidents and manages the rescue process. Command supports all four Incident Command System (ICS) branches by outlining incident goals, operational goals, and timelines. The ICS planning branch is responsible for overseeing the incident-related data, assembling and analyzing the incident-related data, and managing the response system by coordinating information. The logistics section supports the command branch by using their equipment, supplies, personnel, and executing technical activities (Samaras & Ferreira, 2019). The operation team enacts rescue strategies detailed with methodology and specific actions to achieve the goals set in place by the command. Additionally, it executes strategies to achieve the purpose of the response. The finance group supports command and operations by carrying out administrative duties of tracking expenses.
Utilizing the Incident Command System in an Airport Accident Event
Airport incident events include fire, active shooter, power outage, or snow emergency. An incident management system can effectively be integrated with ARFF in an airport accident event. The five branches of the ICS perform various tasks; it is essential for the airport staff to be well trained in ICS before any incident event and continuously be an ongoing drill among the airport staff. The operational section is responsible for strategic response and establishes strategic teams and forces to report to the central operational team for more coverage and a lesser workload. The task force includes the fire force, airport safety manager, medical, airfield, law enforcement, and airport maintenance. The logistics chief is usually appointed based on the available resources to support airport accidents (Samaras & Ferreira, 2019). Their main aim is to ensure all personnels safety, release and approve resource allocation, supervise and manage operations, and support all other sections. The logistics team provides transportation, medical emergencies, food, fuel, supplies, equipment, and communication channels to other teams.
The planning chief is assigned the post at the Emergency Operations Center (EOC) when the response is approximated to last for more than a few hours. The personnel is responsible for managing and analyzing all incident data, supervising, facilitating meetings, and providing predictions of the incidents. The administration/finance chief manages the financial matters in the airport, being responsible for supporting all the branches with the necessary financial needs. However, the costs of accounting and the processes are prepared before the incidence of ease of finance management.
In conclusion, continuous communication and status reports are vital for the incident command system branches to work as a team and ease the decision-making process. The operational, logistics, planning, and finance sections are essential parts of the accident event. However, airports require a strategic response and well-trained employees in place in case of an accident event to mitigate the risks.
Reference
Samaras, P., & Ferreira, M. J. (2019). Emergency communication systems effectiveness in an airport environment. Journal of Business Continuity & Emergency Planning, 12(3), 242-252.
The aircraft industry is one of the most highly-developed brunches in the contemporary world, so a considerable number of people use it every day. With the progress of the aircraft infrastructure, launching new routes, and applying the low-cost pricing policy, the number of airport users increases with impressive rates. As a result, the airports capacity is not enough to manage the heavy traffic volume, so the peoples congestions become the primary reason for flight delays. Jacquillat et al. (2017) claim, in the United States, air traffic delays reached an all-time peak in 2007, and their nationwide impact was estimated at over $30 billion for that calendar year, including $8.3 billion in costs to airlines and $16.7 billion in costs to passengers (p. 1). Since then, the airport congestion issue remains unsolved until nowadays. The purpose of this paper is to provide possible solutions to the problem of the massive group movement in the airport terminals.
The Problem
One of the most serious challenges airports are forced to deal with is the congestions caused by heavy traffic volume. The majority of airports throughout the world are incapable of overcoming the problem of massive overcrowding. According to Wells and Young (2011), the reason for the passengers congestions is the outdated airport engineering constructions. The authors claim, decades of years ago the airports were not predisposed to meet thousands or even millions of travelers every day. Therefore, the airports capacity was supposed to accommodate a fewer number of people. Nevertheless, the rates of passengers are continuously increasing, creating higher risks of congestion. Being unable to deal with the incredibly large groups of people, the airport workers cannot manage the enormous passenger flow within the airport efficiently. As a result, numerous obstacles occur, such as flight delays and congestions. Thus, the solution to the problem of airport overcrowding would make a valuable contribution to the development of the aircraft industry.
The Possible Solutions
To find the most effective solution, the origins of the problem should be examined first. The primary cause of the congestion is the incapability of the airport to deal with the vast passengers flow. The overcrowding occurs regardless of the location: in the check-in desk, during the passport control, duty-free shopping, security check, etc. However, some circumstances may increase or decrease the risk of congestion, such as the season, the part of the day, the day of the week, etc. (Byrne et al., 2019). Thus, while developing the possible solutions, the roots of the problem should be taken into consideration. The paper presents two major keys to the airport congestion issue: the implementation of the Next Generation Air Transportation System and the digitalization of the airport facilities.
Next Generation Air Transportation System
The Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) is a long-term program focused on improving the American air transportation system. According to the official Federal Aviation Administration website (2019), the FAA plans to continue implementing cutting-edge technologies, procedures, and policies that benefit passengers, the aviation industry, and the environment through 2025 and beyond (para 4).
NextGen works on the general improvement of the American aviation industry, taking into account the problem of airport congestions. The main focus of NextGen is the advancement of air navigation and communication. The critical upgrading of the navigation sector offered by NextGen is the implementation of the satellite-enabled navigation system. In comparison with the old ground-based navigation, the new system provides more precise data. Therefore, the passengers movement, both in the air and on the ground within the airport territory, is completed with the fastest rates under the methods of the NextGen (Federal Aviation Administration, 2019).
Besides navigation advancement, NextGen also focuses on the improvement of communication. The NextGen representatives work on the development of innovative means of communication that would allow the airport workers to exchange information faster and more efficiently (Federal Aviation Administration, 2019). From the perspective of the congestion issue, innovative communication technologies would significantly decrease the risk of overcrowding. Having immediate access to the recent updates regarding the flight statuses, the passengers overload, or the emergencies, the airport workers could wisely manage the people flow within the airport. Thus, NextGens innovative communication methods would help predict possible overcrowding and prevent them ahead of time.
Generally, the Next Generation Air Transportation System is the new step into the world of the aircraft industry. However, it has certain disadvantages that make the program less efficient. For instance, the implementation of NextGen technologies is time and money-consuming. Starting its development in 2005, NextGen is supposed to complete the plan of aircraft industry advancement only by 2025 (Federal Aviation Administration, 2019). Nevertheless, the benefits of NextGen outweigh the drawbacks, so the implementation of its programs would make a tremendous contribution to the airport congestion issue resolution.
Airport Facilities Digitalization
Besides the NextGen program, the digitalization of the airport facilities would be a useful tool for managing the heavy traffic in the airport. Some of the aspects of digitalization are already implemented in airports. For instance, online check-in helps to avoid the long queues in front of the check-in desk. However, digitalization offers more opportunities for managing the movement of massive groups of passengers through airport terminals.
One of the most suitable examples of the airport facilities digitalization is the automatic passport control operation. Instead of waiting in a long queue, the passengers could go through the specialized cabins that would check the individuals passport and confirm their identity. This method of passport control would make the procedure easier and less time-consuming. Moreover, the automatic cabins would not require the person to perform the passport control operation. Thus, the airport workers could concentrate their forces on more complex tasks and increase the resistance to peoples congestion. The wise management of passenger flows raises the general airports welfare (Xiao et al., 2017). Consequently, the adoption of digitalization techniques would play an essential role in resolving the problem of congestion.
Conclusion
With the development of the aircraft industry, planes became one of the most popular means of transportation among travelers. Therefore, the airports capacity does not allow to manage the massive traffic volume that is common for the majority of the airports in the modern world. As a result, the problem of peoples congestion arises among aircraft field workers and creates a considerable number of obstacles for the airports proper operation. Therefore, innovative ways of managing the huge groups of passengers should be applied in order to optimize the airports performance. The implementation of the Next Generation Air Transportation System and the digitalization techniques would be effective solutions to the problem.
References
Byrne, I., Kanaoka, Y., Pollack, N. E., Rhee, H. J., & Sommers, P. M. (2019). An analysis of airport delays across the United States, 2012-2018. Journal of Student Research, 8(2).
Jacquillat, A., Odoni, A. R., & Webster, M. D. (2017). Dynamic control of runway configurations and arrival and departure service rates at JFK airport under stochastic queue conditions. Transportation Science, 51(1), 155-176.
Federal Aviation Administration. (2019). What is NextGen? Web.
Wells, A., & Young, S. (2011). Airport planning and management transportation. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Xiao, Y. B., Fu, X., Oum, T. H., & Yan, J. (2017). Modeling airport capacity choice with real options. Transportation research part B: methodological, 100, 93-114.
The biometric software application can uniquely identify or verify an individual using a comparison and analysis of features based on the contours of a persons face and behavior. This software can compare it with information in the database for subsequent identification. The authors thesis aims to identify the benefits of using these biometrics, such as ensuring the safety of passengers and the functioning of airport structures, as well as public concerns through privacy policies and cybersecurity.
Supporting a Thesis
The author uses four ways to support his arguments in the article: statistics, expert opinion, example, and research evidence. In the beginning, the author cites the technologies used today in many countries, describing the process of check-in and boarding in the airport. The first is the verification of the document, in which the staff checks the 2D barcode of the passenger to determine the validity. The second is scanning passengers and baggage through a metal detector and an X-ray machine (Zhang, 2019). However, information is provided without citing any source, demonstrating that the conventional technologies part is taken from an example of its own experience.
These devices are not enough to maintain the safety of transportation through the aircraft system. Thus, the interest in facial recognition systems is considerably high due to the full range of tasks that it solves. The author provides information about this systems operation by research evidence, starting with testing the device held in Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport (Zhang, 2019). The Custom and Border Protection (CBP) system verify an individuals identity based on the state database of passport photos and the person himself (Zhang, 2019). Based on this test, the author concludes that the automation of the inspection increases the systems efficiency, eliminating queues and simplifying maintenance by refusing passports and boarding passes.
The authors second argument is about the advantage of using technologies associated with imaging and computed tomography (CT). These technologies significantly increase security efficiency, passengers convenience, and decrease the time consumption for the whole process. Precisely, millimeter-wave advanced technologies are much more powerful and harmless than metal detectors according to radiation exposure study (Zhang, 2019). Therefore, CT depicts a 3D image of baggage content without pulling some items from the suitcases.
Along with the advantages, the author points out that these technologies still require refinement using statistical data. Behavioral Biometric technology analyzes facial expressions and actions to elaborate on whether a passenger is lying. However, the success rate of using such technology is only 76 percent, which is increased to 85 percent when using algorithms. The method of synthesizing a social model is based on artificial intelligence.
The authors last way of reinforcing his arguments is the experts opinion. The author has already moved from the advantages to the disadvantages of the system. The expert of the Electronic Privacy Information Center stated the danger of using the Recognition for other purposes without the permission of the citizens (Zhang, 2019). Like the privacy problem, there is a chance of hacking all the data from the database. Despite these worries, the author provides information that passenger privacy is preserved since all data is immediately deleted after identification, and hacking will be prevented in advance by more secure software. The author used eleven resources, most of which were within three years, and only two resources of 2012 and 2014. The author used a range of resources: news articles, academic journals, government resources, and thus, sources are recent enough and relevant for this topic.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The strengths of this article are that the author describes outdated, modern, and future technologies, showing the development of a control and security system at the airport. The author provides a detailed description of the techniques that increase passenger comfort and the effectiveness of the test. Besides, the information is supported by another source which shows that the collection of passenger data is more important to improve work efficiency. Identifying passenger behavior, making more profit, tracking passenger gathering places, calculating average passenger waiting times, and other personal passenger behavior can be determined based on intelligent data processing (Rajapaksha, 2020). Passengers expect their convenience during final formalities without any hindrance to travel. Sensors provide information on the shortest line, parking space, and baggage self-test.
Nevertheless, the author of the article is biased in supporting emerging technologies. Even though he explains that the privacy of people will not be violated, about cybersecurity, he gives only an argument about the need to create a more secure system. In conclusion, he leads to the fact that the extensive use of automation entails only minimal problems, although cybersecurity remains the biggest threat to this program. The modern application process, which is open to open data and big data, is open to cyberattacks because these systems work independently (Rajapaksha, 2020). Therefore, Rajapaksha pays excellent attention to exploring the flaws of the system, while the author of the article is silent.
Moreover, privacy remains concerning because a database is at the center of any biometric information; their removal will lead to a gradual loss of data. There are programs such as US-VISIT and CAPPS II that require the personal information of an individual (Haas, 2019). Therefore, deleting data after identification contradicts this system. It shows that there is a possibility of faulty reasoning in the authors argumentation.
Conclusion
The possibility of significantly improving passenger services, reducing the cost and time of servicing airlines, reducing the risks of flight delays, and improving several other essential indicators of aviation logistics are shown. This task showed the high relevance of creating a new generation of multi-agent systems explained in Zhangs article. The analysis resulted in the fact that report is current and credible enough, having evidence supporting the main idea about airport security.
References
Haas, E. P. (2019). Back to the future: The use of biometrics, its impact on airport security, and how this technology should be governed. Journal of Air Law and Commerce, 84(4), 459-489. Web.
Rajapaksha, A., & Jayasuriya, N. (2020). Smart airport: A review on future of the airport operation. Global Journal of Management and Business, 20(3). Web.
Zhang, Z. (2019, October). Technologies raise the effectiveness of Airport Security control. 20(3). 2019 IEEE 1st International Conference on Civil Aviation Safety and Information Technology (ICCASIT). 431-434.
The airport is the most important strategic facility, linking a number of air, railways, and highways into a single network. It forms a transnational hub, handling huge flows of passengers through its terminals. The airport plays the role of an air gate not only for a single city but sometimes for an entire region. The airport as a transport hub looks the most attractive to terrorists. An act of terrorism at an airport or on an airplane has the most profound effect on the minds of people. Due to their special importance and attractiveness to terrorists, airports have long been equipped with security systems, and this is a continuous process requiring constant modernization.
Augmented reality is one of the promising areas of technological development. It has the potential to make peoples relationships with information related to security more ergonomic. Data will be automatically delivered to users in the required context for various everyday situations, thus, the technology raises the interaction of a person with information to a fundamentally different level, which is critically important in security systems of such strategic objects as an airport.
State of the Art
The vast majority of airport borders are protected by multiple layers of security, which consist of walls, fences, barbed wire fences, video surveillance systems, security structures, and patrols. These measures can be effective, but they are mostly passive barriers that can be easily bypassed by attackers and criminals. For the most part, perimeter security remains fairly low, and as a result, many airports try to unsuccessfully detect perimeter violations and fail to stop intruders. Despite the combination of different technologies in airport security strategies, it would be right to say that an airport needs to further digitize its perimeters in order to defend its borders more effectively. Thus, the main focus of airport security operations should be on the investment, implementation, and integration of technologies such as artificial intelligence systems, distributed acoustic scanning, and other innovations in digital technologies to improve airport management and security.
Augmented Reality Technology: Specifics, Possibilities, and Advantages
Augmented reality (AR) is a technology for real-time superimposing text, audio, or graphics information and other virtual objects on real objects. It is interesting to note that the authorship of the term augmented reality belongs to Thomas Preston Codell, an engineer at the Boeing Research Laboratory. In 1992, he applied the principles of the technology in a system designed to help workers install electrical cables on airplanes (Aukstakalnis, 2016). The augmented reality technology market is young and still small; it is currently dominated by startups pushing this innovation forward. However, the market has high potential and will be characterized by high growth rates over the next 5-10 years (Deloitte, 2019). The global AR market is projected to reach $60.5 billion in 2023 (Tromp et al., 2020). In AR, a person can interact with a three-dimensional, computerized environment, as well as manipulate objects or perform specific tasks. Achieving the effect of complete immersion in virtual reality to a level where the user cannot distinguish between visualization and the real environment is the task of technology development.
The general scheme for creating augmented reality in all cases is as follows: the camera of a computer device takes an image of a real object, the software scans and identifies the resulting image, and creates its virtual model using various sensors and databases. Thus, it builds a visual complement of a real object, combining its real image with a visual complement on the screen of a visualization device smart glasses, smartphones making the change in the completed visual image a digital superstructure dependent on changes in the characteristics of the physical object in real time (Schmalstieg & Hollerer, 2016, p. 26). Since the virtual and real worlds coexist harmoniously in the digital space, users are able to perceive and interact with a more informative version of reality, in which virtual information is used as an additional tool to support the user. Moreover, almost any modern smartphone or tablet can become an augmented reality device; one has to install an appropriate application that allows recognizing objects using QR markers, generated points, logos, and using computer vision and face recognition.
Augmented Reality Technology in Safety Sector
AR is becoming an increasingly popular trend in various fields and the security industry is not an exception. The emergence of a hardware basis for AR solutions and the provision of application programming interfaces by augmented reality hardware manufacturers made it possible to introduce AR technologies in the security industry. In particular, for system integrators, modern AR developments can be very useful. Security experts predict AR in the safety and security industry as a promising tool for improving effective response time (Zhu & Li, 2021). For example, S3 Security and Defense Consultants recently purchased VuZix M100 goggles for testing during security assessments, for example, to call up the floor plan of a building, as well as to build the fastest and safest route to travel around the facility (Tromp et al., 2020). In addition, the use of augmented reality provides advantages in the installation and maintenance of security systems. Experts also mention the advantages of quick photo and video capture, in order to reduce the response time to an alarming event (Chen et al., 2019). Experts cite X-ray vision and accurate GPS positioning as the technology development potential in the security industry (Shinde et al., 2020). Augmented reality can be used to reduce incident response times. The effect can be achieved by faster assessment of the situation at the scene of the incident and the elimination of false alarms. Decision-makers in the security management center will be able to quickly send employees to the scene of an incident.
Augmented Reality Technology at the Airports
Unlike many IT inventions, AR does not work independently, but works well with a person, and supplements the human mind with valuable and accurate information, which can only be remembered and reproduced without error by highly qualified specialists with extensive work experience. The user of the AR device sees the virtual and the real at the same time. A prerequisite for combining the real and virtual worlds is knowledge of the spatial position of the observer, which makes it possible to form images of virtual objects with the required angle and scale. Several main features can be distinguished with the help of which it is advisable to classify AR systems for use at airports in order to control passenger flows and continuous monitoring of the situation (Eschen et al., 2018):
A way of positioning the observer and virtual objects
Positioning method using special positioning systems. Such systems allow obtaining 3-linear and 3angular coordinates of the objects spatial position. They are built on the basis of different physical principles of functioning electromagnetic, inertial, acoustic, optical, using navigation satellites; often the end result is obtained by combining several subsystems of different types. Their main disadvantage is the need to use additional equipment with stationary placement and its high cost.
Positioning method using graphic markers, when special graphic markers are used, the image of which is entered using a video camera. Further, the marker image is highlighted in the general video image and processed to determine its position in space, and the obtained coordinates are used to bind the virtual object. The disadvantages of the system are that it is operational only if the markers are in the field of view of the camera and they are clearly distinguishable; in addition, there is the need for special placement of markers on real-world objects.
A positioning method by recognizing images of real objects. Determination of the position of the observer in space is carried out according to the same scheme as in the previous case, however, instead of special graphic markers, ordinary objects known to the system are used, which complicates the recognition algorithms and requires much higher processor performance. The approach is viewed as promising for AR systems.
Positioning method by combining data from built-in sensors of mobile devices without using markers. This method is used in mobile devices, which are characterized by a relatively low processor power, which does not allow the use of advanced pattern recognition algorithms. For example, tracking points are selected in the image, and then the position of the camera is determined, taking into account the accelerometer data; another version involves the use of the accelerometer and the cameras autofocus mechanism to determine the distance to the object (Eschen et al., 2018). The approach does not require any preparation of the environment but does not always provide reliable and accurate positioning.
A way of displaying the real world
Display method using video cameras. The simplest and most widespread method today is to display the real world using a video camera built into a computer. Stereoscopicity is achieved by using a virtual reality helmet and two video cameras placed in front of each users eye, the signals from which are transmitted to the corresponding helmet microdisplays. The main disadvantage is associated with the cumbersomeness of such a solution and the problems of compact video cameras. This method is of little use for effective airport security control.
A way of displaying with transparent or translucent panels used in helmets or special glasses. A large number of developments in this area with the use of projections onto translucent surfaces, holographic and other methods have been known for more than 20 years, but none of them has been accepted by the market due to shortcomings, both technical and economic (Tromp et al., 2020). However, since 2011, several proposals for compact devices of this type with acceptable consumer properties have appeared on the market.
A display method by projecting an image of virtual objects directly onto the retina of the users eye. This method is often used in mobile military applications where high-quality photorealistic images are not required.
A way of displaying using special contact lenses. Experimental samples of such contact lenses include built-in means of displaying virtual objects.
The work of markerless systems capable of recognizing real objects is implied in a similar way. The main difference is that the problem of recognizing the image of a real object is much more complicated than recognizing a highly characteristic image of a graphic marker. In particular, the selection of image features becomes a very difficult stochastic task, however, Sonys SmartAR technology, announced in 2011, looks promising.
A wide and intensively developing class is composed of AR algorithms that provide positioning and scaling based on built-in sensors of mobile devices, which do not require any special preparation of the environment in the form of markers placement or computationally cumbersome image recognition procedures. The three-axis accelerometer, which has already become the standard for smartphones, in principle, allows linear coordinates to be obtained by double integration of its data during movement, and the existence of gravity makes it possible to calculate the roll and pitch angles (Zhu & Li, 2021). The yaw angle can be obtained from the digital magnetic compass and, in the latest smartphones, from the built-in laser gyroscope.
However, the accuracy of the coordinates obtained in this way turns out to be insufficient due to the accumulation of the zero drift error during double integration, the influence of the magnetic field of the external environment, and the reactivity of gyroscopic devices. In this context, one can mention the Japanese development, where positioning is implemented using an automatically generated database of environmental objects and a laser rangefinder. Such developments are the most promising for ensuring security at airports, since they allow monitoring passenger traffic with high accuracy and unnoticed by others, identifying suspicious persons, and continuously assessing the situation in the buildings and premises of the airport and on the runways.
The task of the display device in AR systems is to combine the real and virtual worlds in the picture presented to the user; therefore, such a device has a dual character, which includes means for reproducing real and virtual objects. The simplest and most widespread version of such a device is a combination of a built-in video camera and a display of modern mobile computers in the form of laptops, tablets, and smartphones. AR display devices using contact lenses are actively being carried out at the University of Washington in conjunction with the research division of Microsoft (Shinde et al., 2020). This solution involves the use of contact lenses, in the center of which there is a small area that transmits and focuses only the image from the display and is surrounded by an area that filters this signal, but at the same time transmits the image of the surrounding world.
The expediency of using such systems is also justified by the need to monitor the airfield. Air traffic controllers working at the aerodrome tower receive information about what is happening at the aerodrome mainly through direct observation of the airfield, while instrument data play an auxiliary role. It should be noted that experiments are underway on the less obvious application of AR. For example, to improve passenger safety and comfort, replacing aircraft portholes with flexible OLED displays is proposed (Shinde et al., 2020). They can broadcast current views overboard, supplemented by flight parameters and entertainment content.
Conclusion
The most obvious advantage of augmented reality is the ability to decouple the operator from the workplace and the potential abandonment of centralized control posts for video surveillance systems. AR allows binding any digital data to objects of physical reality and controlling their output using intuitive gestures. At the same time, the data output is carried out on a personal basis, which simplifies the implementation of security measures for data access. An important feature of augmented reality hardware is the tracking of the users gaze direction with special sensors. The data of this tracking directly affects the content and form of presentation of the data provided to the user.
The fact described above itself significantly affects the organization of security processes: for example, it makes no sense for a security guard wearing an augmented reality helmet to inform the central post about his location by radio communication. The operator of the central post can transmit operational orders in the form of text messages, which is extremely important for quick response that is invisible to an attacker in the event of a threat of a terrorist attack at an airport. In addition, machine vision, on which augmented reality systems are based, lies on the transmission of spatial images this allows not only to effectively embed elements of virtual reality into the operators field of view but also to transmit the picture to other users, for example, for expert assessment of the situation. Thus, AR technologies represent a promising area of airport security in todays environment of growing threats from national and international terrorism.
References
Aukstakalnis, S. (2016). Practical augmented reality: A guide to the technologies, applications, and human factors for AR and VR. Addison-Wesley Professional.
Chen, Y., Wang, Q., Chen, H., Song, X., Tang, H., Tian M. (2019). An overview of augmented reality technology. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1237(2). Web.
Eschen, H., Kotter, T., Rodeck, R., Harnish, M. (2018). Augmented and virtual reality for inspection and maintenance processes in the aviation industry. Procedia Manufacturing, 19, 156-163.
Shinde, G. R., Dhotre, P. S., Mahalle, P., Dey, N. (2020). Internet of things integrated augmented reality. Springer.
Schmalstieg, D., & Hollerer, T. (2016). Augmented reality: Principles and practice. Addison-Wesley Professional.
Tromp, J., Le, D., & Le, C. (2020). Emerging extended reality technologies for Industry 4.0: Early experiences with conception, design, implementation, evaluation and deployment. Wiley-Scrivener.
Zhu, Y., & Li, N. (2021). Virtual and augmented reality technologies for emergency management in the built environments: A state-of-the-art review. Journal of Safety Science and Resilience, 2(1), 1-10.
Service quality refers to the perceptions that customers have on the expected quality of services provided. In most airports, service quality is a necessary tool as it enables the assessment of the level of satisfaction that customers have (Johnston 2005, p. 1304). Heathrow airport is the largest and busiest airport in the whole world. In the past few years, the airport had been operating beyond its designed sufficient capacity, which implies that the limit that had been previously set had been raised through the airport had not yet adjusted to fit the new requirements (Project Management Institute 2008). However, the fact that the airport was able to operate beyond its capacity simply means that it was working more efficiently than expected based on its situations. Despite the airports ability to meet the passenger requirements, there were some facilities with bottlenecks that had been stretched to their limit, which had lowered customer service (Chase, Jacobs, & Aquilano 2007).
Consequently, the airport has been continually improving their services to meet the customers expectations and also improve on the service quality gap, that is, the gap that exists between the customers expectations and the level of quality in the airport (BAA 2008). In this paper, the service quality of Heathrow airport is critically evaluated and methods of improving the service quality discussed. The implementation of such services would result in the improvement of services provided by the airport as well as improvements in service quality (HAL 2011).
Objectives of the study
The main objectives of this study are:
To critically evaluate service management at Heathrow airport to determine areas that need improvement in service quality
To evaluate actions and measures that have been taken to improve the service quality at Heathrow airport
Methodology
The study explores various service operation management aspects of airports in the UK, including Value of Time (VOT), passenger demand forecasts, and capacity management. The study then narrows down to an assessment of Heathrow Airport Limited quality of service, based on the implementation of a Service Quality Rebate (SQR) Scheme, which provides an insight on the inexistent need for the expansion of HAL. The final section of this study involves an analysis of various methods employed by Heathrow airport to improve its quality of service.
Evaluation of UK airports service quality
Value of time (VOT)
The appraisal of various South East and East of England Regional Air Services (SERAS) packages, as well as the evaluation of the broader economic benefits of increasing the capacity of airports in this region, is influenced by multiple factors such as Value of Time (VOT). Studies in the economic impact of business aviation show that the working VOT for business travellers is £62 for each hour during work, while the value for non-working time is £31 (Civil Aviation Authority 2010). These values are dependent on the income of the traveller, which are used to estimate the worth of the air traveller to the economy.
Additionally, the increase in this value is in direct proportion to the rise in GDP per capita, since personal incomes for work flights determine trips. Non-working VOT, on the other hand, is assumed to be half the value of working VOT since it involves flights that are not business or work-related, such as those taken on weekends, and are not compensated. The elevated figures used are based on the assumption that most business travellers are upper-rank management, with massive salary packages. The European Organization for the safety of air navigation for business passengers recommends an average VOT that is lower than that of Heathrow airport (SASIG 2003).
Table 2.1 Average VOT recommended by Eurocontrol.
These values are useful in the analysis of costs and benefits for a period of up to 30 years following the last investment in the expansion of the airport, such as the construction of additional runways, or terminals (DETR 2000).
Passenger Demand forecasts
The passenger forecasts were determined by the DETR in Air Traffic Forecasts for the UK in 2000 (DETR 2000). These values were then entered into an analysis system that assigns air travellers to current and prospect airports based on the current costs, travel-routes surveys, and services provided by each airport. The model used provides for increases in demand over the appraisal period, and the value is maintained when the airport reaches its effective capacity. The system estimates a minimal air traveller increase rate of 3.6% and a maximum rate of 4.9% until 2020 with unconstrained demand growth (DETR 2000). The distribution of passengers among the UK airports is dependent on their overall expenses including road access costs, several flights, flight times and fares for different routes, exchange rates, and economic growth (DETR 2000). The predictions according to the type of travel arrangements are shown in table 2.2:
Table 2.2 passenger predictions by category in millions per annum.
1998
2005
2010
2015
2020
1998-2020% change
UK leisure
50.1
71.6
84.1
98.1
114.1
128%
UK business
10.9
14.6
19.4
25.7
34
212%
foreign leisure
23.6
35.4
44.3
54.9
67.2
185%
foreign business
12.6
18.1
22.9
31.2
40.6
222%
low-cost airlines
6.9
18.7
21.5
24.6
28.2
309%
misc
21.2
28.1
32.8
38.7
45.7
116%
domestic
33.6
42.2
50.2
59.8
71
111%
total
158.9
228.7
275.2
333
400.8
152%
Source: DETR (2000).
The table shows that the number of air passengers in the UK will be at 500 million passengers per annum (mppa) by 2030, with a majority of these travellers using the South East airports. The increase in trips implies that the passengers will spend more time and money in flight. However, the strategic aviation particular interest group (SASIG) claims that these figures are too high and unrealistic (SASIG 2003). The Air Transport Movements (ATM) proposed by DETR are considerably higher than those made by Eurocontrol. The former predicts an ATM growth in the range of 2.6-3.9% and the latter 1.6-1.9% increase in the period beginning from 2003 and ending in 2025. The data does not take into consideration a change in demand to other European airports such as those in Paris or Amsterdam, as well as alternative means of transport besides air travel. However, the effects of these changes are expected to be minimal (Eurocontrol, 2005).
Airfare changes and income elasticity
These two factors are essential in the prediction of passenger demand over time. Income elasticity is taken at a factor of 1.5 to the elasticity for airfare, with no consideration of the possible change in elasticities with time. Income elasticity is exaggerated in the long-term since it is expected to decrease as the market ages, leading to s subsequent decrease in the demand for air travel. Another consideration of the model is a 1% annual drop in airfares based on multiple factors, including variation in oil prices, changes in aircraft technology, competition, and deregulation. The cost reductions may be offset by increments in environmental taxation due to issues of carbon trading (Cook, Bowen, Chase, Dasu, Stewart, & Tansik 2002, p. 166).
Capacity Constraint
The capacity levels of different airports and the constraints posed by exceeding such limits cannot be determined definitively. As such, the estimation of an airports capacity needs can be influenced by airport personnel, resulting in skewed assessments of the current and long-term terminal and runway capacities. Regulated airports show a directly proportional association between the effort made in enhancing infrastructure and proceeds acquired. One of the shortcomings of estimating the capacity of an airport is that it is effortlessly understated. This shortcoming was experienced in HAL when its maximum capacity towards the end of the twentieth century was valued at 50 million passengers. In contrast, it currently operates at a capacity of 68 million passengers per annum. The same problem was observed in the estimation of Stansteds capacity in 2002 at 18 million, though it is currently operating at 21 million passengers (GLA Economics 2006).
The assessment fails to consider various operational alternatives to the capacity dilemma like demand management or enhanced use of accessible capacity. Another shortcoming of the model is its failure to adjust for larger aircraft to manage increasing demand. In a comparison of wake vortex related aircraft separation requirements to extra seating capacity per aircraft, the former would lead to a decrease in the need for additional runway capacity. The increase in aircraft size has led to a lesser increase in passenger ATM compared to the increase in the number of passengers (Davidow 2003, p. 238).
Appendix 1 contains three tables that show the relation between load factor and air travel passengers. The tables show that there would also be an increase in the number of passengers who can travel through the key London airports by over 12 million. Another interesting finding is that raising the mean aircraft size would raise the number of possible air travellers. One shortcoming of such an analysis is that markets do not necessarily support the use of the largest aircraft on all routes, especially when both volume and variety of destinations served raises concerns (Martin, Surridge, & Roman 2011, p. 265). The service quality rebate scheme provides an insight into the assessment of services provided at the Heathrow airport and the impact of congestion on profitability.
The third table in appendix 1, table 2.5, gives an analysis of the additional capacity of all the airports if they attain their maximum ATM, under an assumption of 85% average load factor and larger aircraft size. The analysis of Heathrow airport takes into consideration an enhanced capacity with the implementation of multiple runways, as well as the environmental implications. Based on the figures, there is an estimated total of 80 million additional passengers going through the London airports with no provisions for an extra runway. Based on the assumption that the number of UK air travellers using the London airports is kept constant, then the need for an expansion in the South-East would be postponed to 2013, based on high point demand forecasts, and 2019, based on the low point demand estimates. However, there would be a requirement to accommodate the increasing passenger throughput by enhancing surface access, and other investments (Halcrow 1999, p. 13).
Implementation of the Service Quality Rebate Scheme at Heathrow Airport
Introduction to the SQR scheme
The implementation of the Service Quality Rebate Scheme (SQR) by Heathrow Airport Limited (HAL) is defined by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). The SQR was implemented as a means to determine the quality of service provided by the airport, and in turn, influence BAAs revenue from airport charges. The implementation of SQR provided HAL with a financial incentive to meet a set standard of service quality across a range of services , and motivation to increase its performance for the benefit of the passengers. The scheme is characterized by the existence of incentives to the airport to meet set standards of service quality, monthly rebate payments to the airlines, a maximum amount of rebates paid that is set at 7% of airport charges, and payment of rebates based on individual terminal performance (Heathrow 2100). The latter feature implies that different terminals have different performance targets. The Quality of Service monitor (QSM) is used in the determination of passengers perception (Heathrow 2011). The implementation of the scheme is divided into three component activities, as shown in the diagram below.
Figure 1: the components of SQR scheme.
Data Collection
Queuing measures
The three queuing standards used across the airport include passenger queues for transferring and departing passengers, staff search queues, and vehicle queuing at control posts. The determination of passenger queue times can be conducted manually or automatically. The manual process involves the staff monitoring passengers as they pass through a search area using CCTV, at regular time intervals of around 15 minutes. Deductions are then made to account for start and end times, as well as unimpeded walk times. The automated method used at HAL uses two technologies, namely a laser solution, and Bluetooth detection. The first method uses lasers positioned at the entrance point to check the number of passengers who entered or exited a search area every 5 minutes. The Bluetooth method uses Bluetooth detectors placed at the ceiling of a search area and exit point. The detectors capture the unique Bluetooth signature ID from passengers mobile devices (when set to discoverable), and the averages are obtained in 15-minute intervals.
Figure 2: representation of the passenger queue times.
Staff search queue times are collected by an operator in the Operating Monitoring Centre observing CCTV. The operator manually records the time taken for a member of staff to move from the back of the security queue to the roller bed at the front of the x-ray machines (Elias 2007). Control Post queue times are measured to determine the time taken for a vehicle to move from the back of the vehicle queue to the start of the control post-process without including the time spent by the vehicle within the search area. The periods are captured automatically using a number plate recognition system in 15-minute intervals. Data from the three queues are documented daily and collated before being sent to the finance team for calculation of any rebate due.
QSM measures
The Quality of Service Monitor (QSM) is a BAA customer service monitor implemented in all BAAs UK airports to provide the management with information regarding the performance of the airport. QSM involves face to face interviews with arriving, transfer and departing passengers, to find out information regarding cleanliness, wayfinding, queuing time, and availability of seating. The data is recorded using computer aids such as PDAs. This allows for monthly weighting of data using Statistical Report system based on departure data (country of destination) and arrival data (country of origin). The standards for QSM measures and rebates payable due to failure are indicated in appendix 2.
Asset Availability measures
The methodology employed for data collection of the asset availability measures is dependent on the asset being measured, such as pier service, stand availability, and track transit system. The performance time for various assets is captured using the fault management system. These assets include passenger sensitive equipment such as lifts and escalators, fixed electrical ground power, stand entry guidance system, pre-conditioned air, and arrivals baggage reclaim (HAL 2011).
Aerodrome congestion
Aerodrome congestion is measured on an event by event basis. Rebates are payable when a material event occurs. Material events refer to occurrences that are the responsibility of the airport or its agents, leading to material operational impact in terms of the number of air transport movements lost or deferred. These include staff shortages, critical air traffic control equipment failure, industrial action by staff members, closure of runways, and failure of the taxiway lighting system, among others. The airport maintains a log of these events and calculates the difference between the actual and expected cumulative movements in the determination of rebates (Heathrow 2011).
Rebate Calculation, payment and reporting
The results of all SQR measures are gathered and reviewed for approval by the airports operational management on a monthly basis. This information is then passed on to the finance department for calculation of results and rebates. The calculation of rebates is based on forecast airport charges since non-passenger flights charges are not included. Monthly reports based on the scheme are published in the BAAs website and posters around the terminals. Changes to the rebate scheme can only be effected by agreement between the airport and airlines and approved by the CAA or through revision by the CAA.
Improving the service quality at Heathrow airport
Managing disruptions
Events such as volcanic ash, snowfall, hurricanes, typhoons, bombings have all been found to cause significant disruptions that result in airport closures and flight cancellations. Heathrow airport has been subjected to numerous disruptions, which have lowered their efficiency in the delivery of quality service (Colgate 2001, p. 219). For example, in December 2010, Heathrow airport experienced many flight cancellations due to the fall of snow on the airport (Gremler & Gwinner 2000, p. 85). The impact of such disruptions can be reduced by developing contingency plans (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2004). Such contingency plans must document the need for additional staff and capacity that may be required to handle the increased number of stranded travellers. Also, additional aeroplanes need to be deployed during such incidences (Tanger & Clayton 2009).
Timely arrivals and departure
At Heathrow airport, the predictability and reliability of the schedules are quite complex due to the numerous flights that arrive and depart from the airport. Currently, most of the flights slightly delay due to unavoidable circumstances, and this has a significant impact on service quality. It is imperative that the punctuality in at Heathrow is improved to achieve over 90% flight punctuality. This can be achieved if the flights are within 15 minutes of their scheduled time. To improve punctuality, accurate scheduling is important to ensure flights arrive and depart as expected (Le Boutillier 2005, p. 28).
Personnel training
Personnel training programs should be well-tailored to target each department and impact on all airport employees (Franceschini, Galetto, & Maisano 2007, p.23). The human resource department plays a vital role in identifying training needs for this personnel to ensure tasks are efficiently run and coordinated. This personnel are drawn from a pool of well experienced and trained personnel to provide relevant training (Franceschini, Galetto & Maisano 2007, p. 23). Each employee in the whole organization should be actively involved in making improvements by reducing the response time to customer inquiries and complaints (Hansen & Danaher 1999, p.232).
Capacity management
Changing the rules
The determination of capacity enhancements in UK airports, and specifically in Heathrow airport, was influenced by the analysis performed by SERAS at both the national and European levels. The values used to guide the decision were VOT, demand forecasts, and income and fares elasticity. Another factor that influences Heathrows airport capacity is the impact of operational responses to capacity-related challenges. The rules and regulations that influence various airport attribute impact on the allocation of slots, landing and air traffic control charges. The effect of these rules has been minimal on facilitating effective usage of Heathrow airport capacity, as well as the reduction of congestion. Permitting changes to the current legislation is likely to assist in rectifying the challenge of future demand for air travel and capacity in congested airports such as HAL.
Single Till versus dual till
The single till principle has contributed to reduced landing charges in Heathrow airport compared to smaller airports in the UK. These charges are also influenced by economies of scale and are under the control of CAA. The single till approach implies that airport charges are dependent on both aeronautical and non-aeronautical services provided by the airport. This mode of calculation helps to reduce the landing fees for large airports like HAL since non-aeronautical profits are included in air charges, which makes them more attractive to smaller airports, and also significantly more congested. The approach taken by CAA promotes the use of a double till structure in HAL and other large airlines to raise the landing charges and consequently, reduce congestion and increase service quality provided by the airports (General Aviation n.d).
Role of Single European Sky
One of the components of the single European sky is the functional airspace block (FAB), whose role is to integrate airspace across borders and significantly enhance the use of airport capacity (HAL 2011). The system allows airlines to reserve slots annually as long as they use them 80% of the time, which is a rigid framework that does not adjust effectively with variations in demand conditions of other airports. Changes to this administrative approach would involve the establishment of a system that allocates slots based on airline and passenger demand, causing a bigger supply of flights to be assigned to higher demand airports such as Heathrow. This can be achieved by permitting an exchange of slots between airports. This would imply that value would be set to the slots, allowing the exclusion of numerous marginal flights provided by smaller planes in large airports such as HAL. This would, in turn, free up the capacity of large airports such as Heathrow (General Aviation n.d).
Taxes on air travel
The aviation industry enjoys tax-free services on fuel and tickets, as well as other products provided to air travel passengers, which makes this mode of transportation appealing. An introduction of taxes and duty to some aviation services would reduce passenger demand, hence reducing the need for additional capacity in Heathrow airport and other large airports in the UK (Rowe 2007).
Price regulation
The regulatory framework of UK airports such as HAL by the CAA is aimed at allowing for the efficient and economical operation of airports by setting five-year price caps and discretionary trading conditions. However, price capping does not yield the intended objectives since additional profits are absorbed in the next round of price setting. As such, price capping should be abolished to allow airport operators to set prices based on market trends. Such a strategy would see the prices at Heathrow increase and divert their attention to premium-rate business. This would, in turn, lead to a re-distribution of demand to other airports and decongest the airport with minimal effort (Rowe 2007).
Inclusion of aviation in the EU Emission Trading Scheme
Such a scheme would give aircraft operators the responsibility of complying to the regulations, which would increase airlines costs and fares, leading to less demand for air travel. The trading scheme would lead to a decrease in low volume marginal routes and smaller aircraft flights, and a subsequent focus on high-density routes (HAL 2011).
Conclusion
This study has revealed various challenges faced by airports to remain profitable by ensuring the continued provision of quality service. The study has also shown the factors that influence the value of rebates for BAA airlines, based on the case study of Heathrow airport. Based on the assumption that the demand for air travel will continue to grow, it is necessary for airlines to polish their service operation management to attract a large clientele and increase their profits. The automation of various systems, including passenger check-in systems to reduce congestion, enhanced control systems to increase the number of plane movements and better process management to reduce material events are some of the measures in place to enhance service operation management at Heathrow airport.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Table 2.3 Additional capacity arising from enhanced load factorsTable 2.4 Additional capacity due to 85% load factors and larger aircraft size.Table 2.6 Additional capacity with maximum ATM, 85% load factor and larger aircraft sizes.
Appendix 2
Table 3.1: standards for QSM measures and rebates payable due to failure.
Appendix 3
Table 3.2: standards for asset availability measures and rebates payable in the event of failure.
