An airport is a place where aircrafts of various sizes land and take off. These aircrafts may be Helicopters or other classes such as fixed wing aircrafts. It is in the airport that the aircrafts are refuelled and maintained. The plane might pass through a routine service check or a full maintenance check. An airport consists of a Helipad or a runway for planes to land and takes off. There are different categories of airports that exist. They are classed according to the sizes of planes that they can accommodate. Smaller sized airports which consist of the majority of airports worldwide have short runways and few of them are paved with concrete or tarmac. Their runways are generally constricted to being shorter than 1000 metres (Campbell, 1977). Bigger airports can accommodate bigger airplanes and thus have more facilities. For this article we will dwell on low cost airlines and the facilities needed to accommodate them.
The rise of low cost carriers
As the number of low cost carriers increases over time, Competition has affected the dominance of the large players. The issue of accommodating them has arisen as infrastructure built in many airports was centred on the main aviation players of the time. The way low cost carriers use the buildings is very different from the way the main players in aviation use their passenger buildings. Airports have been at pains to address this issue (Rodwell, 2003). One emergent view is that low cost carriers want to cut cost using the shortest and most effective way possible and if this means compromising on the buildings and facilities offered by them, then so be it (Campbell, 105). Low cost airlines have moved away air traffic from the main airports to secondary airports and this has forced the main airports to rethink their overall long term strategy. LCC’s (Low cost carriers) are quickly emerging as the replacement for national carriers. As National carriers continue to go bankrupt, the no frills airlines are raking in massive profits. Examples of these airlines include Easy jet and Ryanair which are beating all expectations to deliver to both the business and its clients. In South America Gol is rapidly becoming the airline of choice among many people in the region. This trend seems to be the same in Asia where Air Asia and Lion Air are attributed to carrying over 6% of the air traffic in the Asia region (Wells, 2008).
Planning and Management of Airports
Good planning of the airport and development is thus required in the face of the current environment. The way these airlines operate is different from the way legacy airlines. LCC’s seek to maximize the use of their planes as much as possible by restricting the number of wasted hours that the plane may incur on the ground or in the air. For example, the turnaround time for south west airlines on the ground was 25 minutes (Singer, 2008). This means that on average, each plane spent only 25 minutes on the ground. To achieve this, the airports chose secondary airports due to their lack of congestion. This doesn’t mean that they only operate in secondary airports, but they also operate in main airports when profits and traffic justify so. With the shrinking of the main players, low cost carriers are increasingly taking over facilities (De Neufville, 2007).
Secondary Airports
A secondary airport, by definition is any airport that competes for passenger traffic from the main airports. Such airports may be located close to the city or even some distance apart from the nearest main airport. They normally act as a bridge for the other cities or airports. For example Malmo airport in Sweden is the secondary airport serving Copenhagen (Wells, 2004).
Secondary Airport Facilities
LCC’s (Low cost airlines) use less expensive slot spaces in airports. These slots are mostly older and less costly facilities when compared to other slots in the airport. They further maximize the slot facilities by making sure that they are always busy leading to lesser use of them in the long run. When it comes to Airport fees, Low cost use of airport gates is another example of how they have managed to survive the downturn. For example the charges per gate vary greatly from carrier to carrier; because of the high turnaround experienced by LCCs they can process more passengers across their gates. They can easily beat main players as they are charged much less for each gate and they can process more passengers per gate.
When it comes to other auxiliary services such as airport parking and quality of shops, low cost carriers prefer facilities that do not cost much for their passengers and this choice will be reflected by the passengers’ preference to the airline. The main airports demand a lot in terms of parking fees and canteen services that may be offered at the airport. Where the ground costs such as maintenance facilities in major airports are high due to the high quality provided, low cost carriers can avoid these costs by using secondary airports that charge less expensive maintenance fees for the planes.
Conclusion
The catchment area of any airport is under increased competition as the number of airlines and alliances increase. The catchment area being served by low cost airlines is continuing to grow as the number of low cost airlines increase. This factor plays an important role when any airline is designing their route. Other facilities such as cost of fuel and baggage handling are also considered when the low cost carriers decide to plan any route.
AIR ACCIDENT – An occurrence during the operation of an aircraft, which entails:
A fatality or serious injury;
Substantial damage to the aircraft involving structural failure or requiring major repair of the aircraft; or
The aircraft is missing.
HARZADOUS WEATHER – Weather that exceeds the pilot/aircraft capabilities.
Introduction
Since the flight by Wright brothers early in 20th century, the aviation industry realized the close knit between weather and flying. Adverse weather has major impacts on safety, efficiency and capacity in aviation operations. Adverse weather includes low level wind shear, visibility, thunderstorms, icing turbulence in cloud and in clear air. The hazards reduce the safety margins and increase the occurrence of incidents which could result into accidents.
Even with technological evolutions, weather-related aviation accidents, in both commercial (i.e., commuter, transport category) and General Aviation (GA) industries still remain one of the most significant causes for concern in aviation safety today.
Weather strongly affects the entire air traffic control system. Accidents, flight delays, airport operations, and fuel economy are only a few of the more significant factors in air transportation that are affected directly by weather phenomena.
Problem Statement
Daily and globally, there are many aviation operations affected by weather including incidents and accidents Kenya has its own share of aviation accidents. Severally, accident investigation reports indicate weather to be a contributor to aircraft accidents. However, very few studies if any exist in Kenya which address the problems related to aircraft hazards, incidents and accidents related to adverse weather.
Problem- What users say
Develop and test an accurate and efficient aviation forecast system;
Avail precise and accurate weather observations/ forecasts for flight planning;
Provide more detailed en-route weather to General Aviation flight operators and create a mechanism for improved services delivery/
Justification
Studies to improve the availability of strategic and tactical aviation weather information and its presentation to pilots can enhance weather situation awareness and enable avoidance or preparedness of adverse weather conditions. The vulnerability of aircraft to weather related disasters in Kenya has not been dramatically highlighted mainly due to lack of related relevant studies by local research Institutions or weather/climate centers.
Objectives Of The Research
Overall – Quantify the significance of adverse weather in aviation operations and economics at JKIA.
SPECIFIC:
Identify aviation weather hazards that affect operations at JKIA.
Evaluate the aviation meteorological products acceptability and usability.
Review present forecasting techniques at JKIA in comparison to other global centres.
Examine the accuracy of the aviation forecasts at JKIA.
Area Of Study
There are several airports in Kenya. Three of them have international classification while others are either military or in General Aviation category.
This study will concentrate on JKIA due to its strategic importance locally, regionally and internationally.
Literature Review
The Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA’s) National Aviation Safety Data Analysis Center (NASDAC), in a study using the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) accident database discovered that in the 10 yr prior to 2003, there were 19,562 aircraft accidents. Weather was a contributing or causal factor in 4,159 (21.3%) of these accidents, with 41.2% of all weather-related accidents having no record of the pilot receiving a weather briefing.
Three aircraft accidents were examined for a span of one year using weather radar in United States by Fujita. In his analysis using the weather radar echoes; a manifestation of a thunderstorm activity was observed between five to fifty minutes before all the three aircrafts accidents. He also found out that all the accidents occurred as the aircraft were either descending or climbing, lost altitude while experiencing strong wind shear and inside downburst cells. (Fujita, 1997).
A quantative study of weather impacts on aviation in Germany was carried out to identify thunderstorms as the cause of aircraft delays. Days without thunderstorms were used for reference and the difference in delay time was determined (Hauf,2003).
Data and Methodology
Aviation Data
Ten year aircraft data which have been affected by adverse weather which will include Aircraft accident/incident data, Aircraft Delay due to Hold ups, Aircraft delay due to Diversion. Flight data will be provided by the Kenya Civil Aviation Authority which include, type of aircraft, flight number and scheduled flight data provided by the airlines. In case of aircraft accident/incident at JKIA, data will be obtained from Ministry of Transport, Air Accident Investigation records.
Weather Data
Ten year of adverse weather data will be obtained from Kenya Meteorological Department climatological section which include METAR and SPECIAL WEATHER REPORTS (SPECI). Ten year period of meteorological data will be used in order to provide the most current data as well as allow for sufficient sample size.
8 months Forecasts for TTF and TAFS will be obtained from JKIA Met Offices.
Methodology
Information of various aviation weather hazards will be analyzed including thunderstorms, Low level wind shear, heavy rainfall, visibility and ceiling. Each weather hazard will be correlated with aircraft’s (KQ) weather minimum operating limitations.
A survey instrument.
Standard verification methods (ICAO Annex3).
Use of contingency table.
Correlation Analysis.
Expected Results
Identify major sources of errors in aviation forecasting.
Recommend suitable ways of reducing the errors and increase accuracy.
Improve user confidence in the products.
Suggest follow-up studies.
Time Frame
Nov 2010 – Proposal presentation.
Feb 2011 – 1st Progress report.
May 2011 – 2nd Progress report.
Aug 2011 – 3rd Progress report.
Dec 2011 – Final Research Report presentation.
Budget
Proposal $700.00.
Data Retrieval including field surveys/assistance $1,500.00.
Data Analysis $7,000.00.
Report Preparation $5,000.00.
Total $14,200.00.
References
Clark T L, Hall D W, Kerr R M, Middleton D, Radke L, Ralph F M, Neiman P J, Levinson D. (2000): Origins of Aircraft-Damaging Clear-Air Turbulence during the 9 December 1992 Colorado Downslope Windstorm: Numerical Simulations and Comparison with Observations, Volume 57, Issue 8 pp. 1105-1131. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences.
Croft P J, Pfost R L, Medlin J M, Johnson G A. (1997): Fog Forecasting for the Southern Region: A Conceptual Model Approach. Weather and Forecasting, Volume 12, Issue 3 pp. 545-556.
Fujita T T, Caracena F. (1977): An Analysis of Three Weather-Related Aircraft Accidents. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Volume 58, Issue 11 pp. 1164-1181.
Politovich M , Marwitz J, Bernstein B, Ralph F , Neiman P , Ashenden R , Bresch J (1997): Meteorological Conditions Associated with the ATR72 Aircraft Accident near Roselawn, Indiana, on 31 October 1994, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Volume 78, Issue 1 pp. 41-52.
Rhodes S L (1992):Mesoscale Weather and Aviation Safety: The Case of Denver International Airport. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Volume 73, Issue 4 pp. 441-447.
The paper’s topic is the dangers posed by badged airport employees and the strategies to control them. The topic is important since it touches on security from an aviation perspective. The author has mentioned the continued hijackings in commercial aviation necessitated by the badged employees who pass through the security identification display area (SIDA) (Greco, 2017). The objectives of the article are to bring to attention the various security issues caused by the liberty of movement of workers within a given airport. The other objective is to enlighten the reader about the possible impacts of the security breach. The key finding contributing to the body of knowledge is deficiencies in airport security regulation that has broad opportunities for badged employees to misuse their privileges and breach the contractual terms. In this case, the author says that between 1968 and 1972, there was an increase in the number of commercial aircraft hijackings (Greco, 2017). Most of the incidents involved non-violent scenes, which depicts a problem with airport security measures.
Summary Leading to Conclusion
There are no specific hypotheses listed or mentioned during the article presentation. What can be spotted in the background gives major security concerns that require action to prevent escalation of the problem. The author’s fear is the key probe that motivates him to study the area and draw necessary discoveries. In terms of methodology, the article has used case reviews whereby various incidents on aircraft security have been mentioned. For example, the September 11, 2001 attack has been highlighted as the turning point that saw Aviation and Transportation Security Act (ATSA) implemented (Greco, 2017). The other case is about a PSA Airlines flight that occurred in 1987. These cases are all from the US, negatively impacting airline security.
The models used to follow the key findings depicted in the previous section. The author has expanded that by basing the security lapses that occurred. Through this aspect, he has given the audience the requirements airports must have, concerning aviation security regulation. All the projections are framed in a way that combats the problem from the mistakes realized in the other incidents. Their findings prove that the risks of aviation-badged employees have led to dangerous incidents (Greco, 2017). The evidence-based context citing various events shows that security measures were not implemented. The concussions in the article are derived from the findings. The reason is that the author’s summary of the study relates to major aircraft security threats discussed in respective sections.
Critical Evaluation
This article has rich content since the reader can read the background of the matter up to the mitigation methods. The author has given examples of concerns and how they have the potential to distort aviation security. The other important aspect that shows the paper’s strengths is the expansion of content by using footnotes that help a reader understand more about the subject matter (Greco, 2017). There are attributions to other works on the same issue, which is vital in further developing the knowledge.
Conclusion
However, the author has demonstrated significant challenges in the article’s prose. First, there is a lack of basic study elements such as the clear mention of hypothesis, statistical analysis, and literary criticism. Furthermore, the article has poor organization since the content seems to be more in prose form without conceptual figures or tables. The discussion part does not reveal the chances of curling the issues since technological advancements power security breaches that any malicious person can do (Greco, 2017). With the shortcomings mentioned, the paper requires an advanced presentation style to convey the message in a preferred way.
Reference
Greco, P. (2017). Insider threat: The unseen dangers posed by badged airport employees and how to mitigate them (PDF) (pp. 2-25). Kirstein & Young, PLLC. Web.
Al Maktoum International Airport is an international airport located in Jabel Ali, approximately 23 miles southwest of Dubai (Turner, 2017). The airport plays a critical role in ensuring that there is the ease of movement of passengers and cargo from Dubai to the rest of the world and vice versa. Constructed using state-of-the-art technology, the airport is meant to meet the rising demand for passenger and cargo planes regularly landing and taking off within the city of Dubai.
The airport is wholly owned and managed by the government of Dubai. Although the airport is still undergoing further improvements as per its original plan, it has already begun its operations. Cargo planes have been using the airport since June 2010. In February 2011, the airport received its certification to start handling passenger airlines. Since then, major improvements have been made at the airport to make it become one of the largest and best-equipped airports in the world. In this paper, the focus will be on the Al Maktoum International Airport Cargo Gateway project, which is one of the many projects initiated to transform the airport to modern-day standards.
Importance of Project Management
The project to expand Al Maktoum International Airport was very important in transforming it from a small port that handles domestic flights to a major international airport that is capable of handling over 260 million passengers and 12 million tons of cargo every year. According to Young (2013), it is critical to define the importance of a project to help justify the need to invest in it. Project management is important because it defines the activities that should be undertaken, the time available for each activity, individuals responsible, and the resources needed to complete them as per the plan.
In the project designed to expand this airport, the goal of the owners of the project (the government of Dubai) was to ensure that this airport is transformed to become a leading international airport that meets the modern standards to help in easing the pressure on the other international airports within the city. The strategic location of the airport also shows that one of the major concerns of the project owners was to promote international trade and to position the city of Dubai as a reliable global business hub where the movement of goods and people is made ease.
Project Planning
According to Kemp (2012), before undertaking any project, it is important to come up with a plan that identifies activities that should be carried out, timing, resources, and individuals that will be involved at various stages of the project. It involves the setting of goals, the definition of the project, and the organization of the team. The following were the goals set by the government when initiating the project:
To increase the capacity of Al Maktoum International Airport to handle 12 million tons of cargo and 260 million passengers;
To have a start-of-the-art airport facility that meets the needs of the modern-day travelers;
To promote Dubai as a global business hub by making it easy for cargo and passengers to move into and out of the city with ease.
The government identified several contractors who were awarded different tasks within the project based on their qualifications. One of the construction companies that were awarded a tender to help in the expansion of the airport was The Lane Construction Corporation, which is an American company. The following figure 1 shows the architectural plan of the airport.
Figure 1. Plan of the Al Maktoum International Airport (Turner, 2017).
Project Cost
The initial budget for the project that was set out before the 2008/2009 global economic recession was affected by the global recession, and it had to be adjusted upwards to meet the rising cost of materials and labor. The cargo gateway project was assigned USD 125 million and was awarded to two different companies. The first construction company that was assigned 60% of the project’s activities had to work with a budget of USD 75 million. The second construction company worked with a budget of USD 50 million.
The Project Manager
The mega project of transforming the Al Maktoum International Airport was divided into specific tasks and then assigned to different contractors based on their approved qualifications. Although the operations of the entire project were under the watchful eye of the government through the Dubai Airports, each contractor worked semi-autonomously, only engaging other contractors in cases where it was necessary to share knowledge and ideas on how to deliver superior value to the customer (Dubai Airports Company). HH Sheikh Ahmed Bin Saeed Al Maktoum is the chairperson of the Dubai Airports, the company that owns Al Maktoum International Airport.
However, Paul Griffiths has been acting as a project manager, overseeing activities of various contractors, and ensuring that they deliver the value they promised. In each project assigned to a given contractor, the chief engineer assigned to the project by the contractor acts as the project manager. However, the desire to have consistency and uniformity has made it necessary for the chief executive officer of Dubai Airports to step in and enhance coordination of activities to ensure that the end of the project achieves the targeted goals.
Ethical Considerations
It is the responsibility of the project manager (PM) to ensure that ethical issues are taken into consideration throughout the project. The PM should ensure that the entire team works as per the expectations of the employer and other stakeholders.
Work Breakdown Structure
The project involved a series of activities that were assigned to different entities to ensure that the project is completed in time and as per the expectations of the government. The work breakdown structure helps in identifying individual activities that were undertaken when carrying out the project. The structure is always critical in knowing who to assign which task-based on expertise and how different teams will work in a coordinated manner to enhance uniformity in the project. According to Snyder (2013), having an effective work breakdown structure makes it possible to lay out how different individuals or entities will complete the entire project. In this project, the following work breakdown structure was relevant.
Figure 2. Work breakdown structure (Developed by the author)
Project Scheduling
One of the most important areas when undertaking a project is the process of scheduling the activities. After identifying the activities that should be carried out, the next important face is to schedule the activities in a way that would yield the expected outcome in the best way possible. Project scheduling must be done correctly, taking into account the degree of the complexity of each activity and the fact that some activities can only be undertaken if other activities have been completed. A critical path can be useful in understanding how to schedule various activities within the project.
Critical Path
Using a critical path, the project manager and the financiers of the project will understand how each of the activities will be done sequentially and the reasonable date within which the project is likely to be completed. The following figure shows the critical path that defines how the activities will be carried out in this project.
Figure 3. Critical path (Developed by the author).
The above figure provides a detailed summary of the activities to be carried out and the time that they are expected to be completed in line with the set deadlines.
Forward and backward pass
It is possible to find cases where the project manager or owner is interested in determining the absolute time that the project will undertake. In such instances, it is important to determine the early start (ES) and early finish (EF) using the forward pass technique (Kogon, Blakemore, & Wood, 2015). The backward pass technique is also useful in determining the late start and late finish. With this information, it is possible to inform the employer about the time that the project is likely to be completed.
Gantt chart
A Gantt chart is a visual tool that outlines the activities to be undertaken and the time they are expected to be completed. Using a Gantt chart, it is possible to outline the employer activities that should be carried out and the time within which they should be completed. The following figure 4 shows the Gantt chart for the project.
Figure 4. Gantt chart (Developed by author).
Project Controlling
According to Snyder (2013), project control involves observation of project executions to identify potential threats or weaknesses on time so that corrective measures can be taken to avoid any negative consequences. It involves gathering data, management, and analysis of the data and making necessary predictions concerning the time and cost outcomes of a project to help in making the right decision. The expansion of Al Maktoum International Airport is a megaproject that requires a proper project controlling mechanism. The figure below shows how that can be done.
Figure 5. Process controlling (Young, 2013).
As shown in the above figure, the entire process is cyclic in nature, starting with the identification of the small tasks within the project to the last stage of evaluating the method. It means that the process should remain continuous as long as the project is still in progress, until such a time that it is officially handed over to the owner.
Project Management Techniques
According to Kemp (2012), project management refers to a process of initiation, planning, execution, controlling, and closure of all activities involved in a project as per the client’s expectations based on specified success criteria. It involves conducting measurements to determine the current position, evaluating the desired position, and defining a path that can be used to reach the desired destination, as outlined in the figure below.
Figure 6. Project management process (Snyder, 2013).
Project management should start with the identification of specific milestones that should be achieved in the projects. The Al Maktoum International Airport project has all the activities lined out. PERT and CPM framework can be useful in project management.
PERT Framework as a Tool for Project Management
Using the PERT framework, it is possible to determine how long the entire project is likely to take, especially when handling a sensitive project such as the expansion of the Al Maktoum International Airport. The framework identifies six essential steps, which must be taken into consideration. The first step is to define the project and all the relevant activities involved (Young, 2013). In the case of this project, the activities are outlined in the figure above. The next step is to determine the relationship between the activities, as done in the figure above. A network should then be drawn that connects the activities. Time and cost should be estimated and then assigned to the activities before computing the longest path in the network (Snyder, 2013). The following figure shows the PERT Matrix that can help in evaluating reviewing the project activities.
Figure 7. PERT responsibilities’ matrix (Developed by author).
Probability of Project Completion
To compute a probability of project completion, the following formula will be useful:
Project standard deviation= √Project Variance
Activity
Optimistic a
Most likely m
Pessimistic b
Expected time t= (a+4m+b)/6
Variance {(b-a)/6}2
A
2
3
4
3
0.11
B
1
2
3
2
0.11
C
1
2
9
3
1.78
D
3
3
10
4
1.36
E
1
4
4
4
0.25
F
1
3
5
3
0.44
G
2
4
12
5
2.78
Total
6.83
Table 1. Project variance (Developed by the author).
Project standard deviation= √6.83 = 2.61
Network Diagrams and Approaches
It is important to understand the importance of the network diagrams and approaches when undertaking a mega project such as that of Al Maktoum International Airport. The diagrams help in identifying the pattern of activities within the project and how each activity is related to others. Snyder (2013) says that this is often done to avoid confusion and delays where one activity that must be completed before proceeding to another is not done on time, forcing other activities to come to a temporary halt. The project manager, using the network diagrams, can plan project members in a manner that will ensure that all activities are undertaken in a systematic.
Activity-on-Node
According to Kemp (2012), activity-on-node is a precedence diagramming approach where boxes are used in denoting the schedule of activities. The activities are related in a way, from start to finish. As shown in figure 3 above, some activities must be completed first before other activities can be undertaken. For instance, the management of Al Maktoum International Airport must first identify and then select appropriate contractors before the sub-projects in the entire project are identified. To ensure that individual activities in the project are undertaken, the company must allocate resources to facilitate the activities. With that knowledge, the project manager knows what to give priority at every stage of the project.
Activity-on-Arrow
Activity on the arrow is often used to specify the duration that each activity should take in a critical path diagram. The arrow between the nodes indicates the time that it will take to complete one activity so that the next activity should be undertaken. For instance, the time needed by the management to identify and select contractors must be stated as shown in the Gantt chart to help the project manager to plan project activities.
References
Kemp, G. (2012). The East moves West: India, China, and Asia’s growing presence in the Middle East. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Kogon, K., Blakemore, S., & Wood, J. (2015). Project management for the unofficial project manager: A Franklin Covey title. Dallas, TX: BenBella Books, Inc.
Snyder, C. (2013). A project manager’s book of forms: A companion to the PMBOK guide, fifth edition. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.
Turner, T. (2017). Dubai travel guide 2017: Must-see attractions, wonderful hotels, excellent restaurants, valuable tips and so much more. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Young, T. L. (2013). Successful project management. Philadelphia, PA: Kogan Page Limited.
While airport traffic volumes continue to increase historically, the United States aviation network cannot keep up with this tremendous pressure. As airports update their infrastructure to enhance the customer experience and increase airline competitiveness, they encounter unparalleled difficulties in acquiring the necessary funding. Airport architectural initiatives in the US are supported by federal funding through the FAA’s Airport Improvement Program (AIP), the Passenger Facility Charge (PFC), individual user tax, and tenant rents and charges (Raghavan & Yu, 2021). Revamping the PFC and sustaining a healthy AIP will provide airfields to do what they do best: provide clients with healthy, protected, and adequate amenities while also planning for the future (Raghavan & Yu, 2021). Without financing relief from PFCs and AIP, airports will fail to modernize the nation’s outdated aviation network. Therefore, this paper discusses the federal and local funding of airports and the AIP and its applications in the aviation sector.
Federal and Local Funding of Airports
Federal Funding
State-level spending varies significantly across the United States based on how government subsidies are funded and which entity administers the funds. Typically, transit agencies and airlines receive aviation funds. Airports may also be eligible for financial development assistance, depending on the building being conducted. Typically, state authorities fund aviation corporations by charging aircraft proprietors and airport passengers inside the state taxes and expenses. Therefore, this may include revenue generated from energy flowage fees. State funds are sometimes the only stream of capital funding for airports not included in the FAA’s NPIAS. Comparable to AIP subsidies, state subsidies frequently include guarantees regarding what airport donors must achieve to receive financing. These guarantees are intended to protect the state’s infrastructure improvements and maintain airport accessibility that is safe and effective. Generally, state funding is contentious, as there are more initiatives than available funds. States choose projects based on various factors, such as cost-benefit proportions, requirement and justification, geographical region, and a program’s potential to gain further funding.
Local Funding
Local financing will vary based on who owns and operates the airport. Nevertheless, most municipal support comes from tax income and usage fees received by the donor or airport administrator; however, this is not always achievable. Generally, regional airports supported by towns, townships, and legislatures do not produce sufficient income to cover their expenses; as a result, they get a portion or all of their operational budgets from the promoter’s general fund. Similarly, local financing can be utilized to offset capital expenses for projects that are ineligible or unlikely to get FAA and state funds or to fulfill a portion of the local match requirement for state and FAA grants. For income, airlines that rely on their promoter’s general revenue frequently contend with institutions, rescue services, and public works. Sponsoring decision-makers must be informed of the airport’s economic value, involvement in crisis and disaster management, and position within the nationwide transportation network.
Airport Improvement Program (AIP) and Its Uses
AIP offers airports government subsidies for construction activities and design. Members span massive, publicly run commercial airports to modest, privately held but fully available overall aviation facilities. The distribution framework of AIP funding mirrors legislative preferences and the goals of ensuring airline protection and reliability, improving passenger traffic, reducing congestion, assisting cover noise and emission expenditures, and subsidizing small state and neighborhood airports. Typically, AIP funding is restricted to building aircraft operations-related upgrades, such as taxiways and runways (Hubbard & Hubbard, 2022). Economic revenue-generating infrastructure and administrative expenditures are typically ineligible for AIP support.
As an assistance program, AIP provides funding for capital investments without the constraint of borrowed funds, although airports are obligated to contribute a minimal regional equivalent to the federal monies. AIP grant restrictions include the scope of eligible projects and the need that beneficiaries conform to all program procedures and grant conditions. In addition, an airport must be listed on the National Plan for Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS) to be considered for a subsidy (Hubbard & Hubbard, 2022). The NPIAS, compiled and released every two years, highlights public-use airfields that serve the demands of commercial aviation, public safety, and the postal offering and are vital to mass transportation.
Among the eligible projects are enhancements to airline security, infrastructure, protection, and environmental issues. In general, sponsors can obtain AIP funding for the majority of airport capital upgrade or rehabilitation projects, as well as, in some circumstances, gateways, maintenance facilities, and non-aviation enhancement. Specific consultancies can also be authorized, such as organizing, surveying, and architecture required for qualified projects. Donors of airports that obtain funding also acknowledge the conditions and responsibilities associated with the financial guarantees (Hubbard & Hubbard, 2022). These responsibilities include operating and maintaining the airport in a healthy and serviceable state, not granting exclusive rights, mitigating threats to airspace, and using airport money appropriately.
Uses of Airport Improvement Program
The sophisticated delivery network for AIP grants comprises formula awards, apportionments or entitlements, and discretionary funding. The remaining monies are considered discretionary money once all entitlements have been met. Airports submit funding requests for initiatives outlined in their grand schemes. Airports receiving formula funding may also request and be granted discretionary cash. First, entitlements are money allocated to airports according to a methodology and may be utilized for any approved airport construction or management project. These monies are categorized as follows: principal airports, freight service airlines, commercial aviation, and Alaska additional funding.
Second, the discretionary funds consist of unallocated entitlement funds and passenger facility fee (PFC) income not put into the small airport budget. The three significant set-asides and discretionary spending conditions apply to appropriations: Airport noise set-asides, in which at least 35% of discretionary resources are allocated to noise conformity preparation and sound mitigation and adaptation activities. At least 4% of discretionary expenditures are set aside for the transformation and dual usage of up to fifteen existing and former military runways (Mott & Bullock, 2017). The program permits funding for initiatives not ordinarily entitled to AIP funding. Grants for reliever airports where two-thirds of 1% of discretionary money are made aside for auxiliary airports in urban areas with canceled flights (Mott & Bullock, 2017). Finally, the AIP awards funding to governmental entities for the construction and development of airports included in the NPIAS that serve the general public. Among the initiatives qualified for AIP funding are enhancements to aviation protection, efficiency, surveillance, and environmental impacts. Airport donors can use AIP money for most runway capital projects or maintenance to enhance the airport’s health, throughput, and noise tolerance.
Conclusion
In conclusion, FAA’s Airport Improvement Program (AIP), the Passenger Facility Charge (PFC), individual user tax, and tenant rents and charges fund airport architectural efforts in the US. How federal subsidies are paid and who manages the cash affects government expenditures across the US. On the other hand, personnel who controls and manages the airport affects local funding. Most municipality support comes from tax money and usage fees; however, this is not always possible. Members range from large public airports to small private aviation establishments. Security, infrastructure, protection, and ecological degradation are suitable initiatives. Formula awards, entitlements, and discretionary financing make up AIP’s complex supply chain. Donors can use AIP contributions for airport capital upgrades or management to improve airport healthcare, capacity, and noise compliance.
References
Hubbard, B. J., & Hubbard, S. M. (2022). Tracking and monitoring technologies to support airport construction safety. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 1218, No. 1, p. 1-10). IOP Publishing.
As human beings, life journeys are usually marred with a constant flow of emotions and experiences. Everyone has a way of expressing whatever is happening in their surroundings. These circumstances place people in a specific state of mind and influence how they react (Serrano and Kazda 60). In the literary piece “Frustration at the Airport,” the author presents a unique and agonizing experience while at the airport. He/she offers some unique yet critical issues such as security, interviews, and the search for specific areas while at the place. Therefore, this paper aims to analyze the literal piece critically and present possible evidence of the challenges the passengers faced. Attention is drawn to the fact that the traveler’s experience was frustrating and full of anxiety. He/she had a hectic time that people should not be subjected to during their traveling period.
Throughout the paper, the traveler takes the opportunity to provide numerous examples of personal experiences at the airport. The narrator takes the opportunity to present a sequence of events that took place during that day. In the text first and second paragraphs of the text, the narrator indicates that he had already had a hectic time before moving to the airport. In the beginning, he/she provides possible reasons why he/she is reserved in the entire ordeal. For example, he/she says, “I had just spent the last three endless hours trying to get to the airport” (“Frustration at the Airport” 1). He/she was already nervous as this was the first visit to the international airport, and nothing was familiar. The security at the counter was tight, and every part of the language was checked. As confirmed by her narration, she had no idea where the immigration office was located. Further, she was tense and did not know where to catch the plane. All these vivid descriptions were aimed at presenting the challenges that the narrator faced during the short period.
In the third paragraph, the narrator uses ethos and logos to convince the audience that the situation is really awful. She presents the picture of his/her nervousness situation. His/her condition makes any reader overthink the actual scenario. The traveler is highly tensed by her actions and may not operate effectively at the airport. In the elevator, she is seen struggling to press number three, thus sending negative emotions to her experience. Finally, one of the employees helped him/her find the right flight. In this case, the use of ethos and logos typically aims to promote the understanding of the scenario that the traveler is experiencing.
Even though the idea of screaming is not new, the traveler uses the episode to promote the theme of frustration and anxiety. He/she presents a complex system that he/she underwent during the period. He/she sets a sober mood and presents several questions that present her inner thoughts, feelings, and his/her character as an impatient person (Serrano and Kazda 61). Her attitude is seen to be pessimistic and gloomy. The setting of the above standard makes her have frustrating inner feelings about the situation presented. Research studies suggest that such cases are quite common, especially when the traveler does not have confidence in the systems that have been put in place. Therefore, proper guidance is necessary to improve their experience.
Based on the case, it is evidenced that most airports across the globe have tedious and stressful procedures to accommodate travelers. Ideally, one such challenging situation at the airport is usually the queuing of passengers. Notably, whether one is an international movie superstar, business-person, or a winning artist, they are usually not provided with the chance to save time during international travel. That means these people are subject to some of the procedures that ends up delaying their programs. This trend has led millions of people who travel along these airports to have a long–day. Therefore, there is a need to create robust systems that can decongest these areas and make traveling easier. This trend will change people’s experience and make them enjoy international travel.
The traveler’s frustrations may have been promoted by the high level of security concerns that have been made in the aviation industry. Over the past years, this area has been a great target for terrorist attacks. One such typical case is the 11/9 attack, regarded as the most tragic and devastating terror attack in the history of America. The destruction of the Twin Towers created severe damage not only to the American economy and the global community. After this incident, the movement of the people and cargo has never been the same (Maliwat 596). Worst of all, the incident led to diminishing consumer confidence in the area, particularly in their security. This can perfectly be manifested in the narration of the traveler as he/she is subjected to a high level of security, review, and analysis before moving to other zones within the airport.
Despite these challenges, he/she further presents a case of a Good Samaritan who takes the opportunity to help her. She states, “He led me past all the lines of people and pushed my luggage to the inspection counter” (“Frustration at the Airport” 1). This part represents the well-established support systems that have been placed within the international airport to help people during their movement. These robust communication systems have continued to provide the necessary support and reduce the confusion people in the area always experience. Further, his/her help indicates the need to provide strong customer care within the airport system to help people who may have had a bad time in the areas (Al-Saad et al. 140). This trend will reduce the cases and make one enjoy their journey to people who may use these avenues to meet their personal or business gains.
In short, the analysis and understanding of the traveler’s plight are critical to evaluating the systems at all international airports across the globe. In simple terms, it is a wake-up call for the American government to put suitable structures that will promote the comfort of all the people while traveling. That means it is a voice that calls for the government to set laws that promote the structural development of these critical items in the nation. Applying these new policies will help the country attract new global customers. The provision of the right system will make America act as a perfect model to the entire global nation on the need to improve the infrastructural development of the airports. Therefore, the essay “Frustration at the Airport ” is a perfect wake-up call to the government and all other interested bodies.
Works Cited
Al-Saad, Saad, Abdelkader Ababneh, and Mohammad Alazaizeh. “The Influence of Airport Security Procedures on the Intention to Re-Travel.” European Journal of Tourism Research vol.1, no. 23, 2019, pp. 127-141.
Airports are some of the most important infrastructures in a country. It is through these facilities that passengers are able to engage in local and international travel. The safety of the airport is therefore of great importance. One of the hazards that the airport should be protected from is fire.
Fires can hinder the normal operations of the airport with major negative consequences. Most airports therefore have well equipped fire stations for use in case of an emergency. I had an internship experience at an Airport Fire Station. In this paper, I will highlight what I learnt from my internship.
Familiarization to Fire Station
The first step in my internship involved orientation with the airport fire station. My supervisor was responsible for ensuring that I was properly familiarized with the airport fire station. The airport served by the fire station is very large. It has many terminals and serves millions of passengers per year. Many planes land and take off from the airport each day. These planes range from very large to small ones. The frequency of traffic increases the chances of an accident happening.
The fire station was strategically located so that it could provide rapid response to the runways, taxiways, and even terminals. All the roads from the airport fire station had to be kept clear so that emergency vehicles could move as soon as an emergency was announced. There were frequent routine inspections of equipment in the fire station. The firefighters inspected the rigs and the fire apparatus. Routine cleaning and maintenance of equipment also occurred.
Extinguishing Procedures
The fire station had a number of fire engine vehicles. These vehicles carry extinguishing agents that are capable of putting out the highly inflammable aviation fuel. The airport serves aircrafts of different sizes. This includes small light planes and jumbo jets carrying tones of cargo or hundreds of passengers. The fire engines used therefore have extinguishing agents that include dry chemicals used to repress large volatile fires.
In the event of a fire, a vehicle carrying water and another one carrying the dry extinguishing chemicals are used. For small aircrafts with a length of less than 27m, only 100 gallons of water and dry chemicals are needed and one vehicle can be used. For midsized planes, ranging between 27m and 38m, two vehicles are used to put out the fire. One vehicle carries the water while the other carries the dry chemical needed to produce a foam of 1,500 gallons.
Large aircraft of between 38m and 48m require three vehicles with one vehicle carrying the chemical and two carrying the water needed to produce at least 3,000 gallons of foam. For airplanes between 48m and 61m, three vehicles are used and at least 4,000 gallons of foam is required. For aircrafts longer than 61m, three vehicles are used and the minimum foam to be produced is 6,000 gallons.
Radio Procedures
Communication is of great importance in the airport fire station. Two-way radio communications are the most effective form of communication for the airport fire station. Most aircrafts and ground vehicles operating at the airport have two-way radios. The fire company maintains surveillance of the radio frequency.
The firefighters are supposed to monitor the common traffic advisory frequency. The firefighters also use this frequency to identify themselves and state their intentions when they enter into the airport facilities. In addition to this channel, there is an emergency frequency reserved for general aviation aircraft. This frequency is 121.5MHz and it is used by a pilot when he is in trouble and unsure of whom to contact. The fire station should monitor the frequency to ensure quick response in the event of an incident.
The fire station has a number of portable aircraft radios. These radios are located on the command vehicles and the fire engines. The radios are programmed with the frequencies of the airport. Through these radios, the firefighters are able to communicate with the flight control tower, the pilots, and the ground crews. A sufficient number of qualified and trained firefighting personnel are always available at the fire station. These individuals are always ready to respond to a fire in the shortest time possible.
Airport Fire Alarm
The Airport has an elaborate alarm system for use in case of an emergence. An alarm can be raised from the control tower. This fire alarm is raised when a pilot is in distress and requires to crash land. The fire station is supposed to respond immediately and move into the runway where the plane is expected. There are also numerous fire alarm switches placed at strategic places all over the airport.
When a person identifies a fire, he/she is supposed to set off the alarm to alert the other people of the fire. When the alarm is sounded, the Airport fire Station receives a message and the firefighting personnel act immediately. When the fire alarm is sounded, the fire department responds immediately. The fire chief takes over command of all the rescue operations in the airport. It is responsible for all fire fighting, search and rescue operations that are to be carried out.
Conclusion
The airport fire station Internship experience was very educative for me. I was familiarized with the operations of the fire station and the equipment used to deal with a fire. I also learnt how to make use of radio communication in the event of a disaster. There was no accident while at the airport during my internship. However, the fire station personnel were always prepared to handle any emergency that could occur. The high level of preparedness ensures that any accident is resolved in the shortest time and with minimum damage.
Smart cities are the pathway to the future. Dubai is amongst the leading metropolitan areas in the world to implement ambitious projects and strategies which would transform the way that private and public services are provided to the residents. A city can position itself on the global socio-economic landscape through the provision of smart technologies. Airports which serve as a key gateway and transportation to Dubai, are an essential priority to adopt smart technology to ensure safety and accessibility.
Dubai’s Vision
The Dubai 2021 vision is a framework introduced to develop the city with a holistic and comprehensive perspective.
It is a plan to deliver the aspirations of the city, society in order to set and achieve necessary goals for the growth of the urban environment.
It is focused on improving the living experience of residents, their interaction with the environment, as well as economic and social services that are provided.
Also, the plan is meant to improve and diversify the economy as the mechanism which drives city growth (Government of Dubai, 2016).
Figure 1: Dubai’s 2021 Vision Framework.
One of Dubai 2021 key themes is “The Place: a smart and sustainable city” (Government of Dubai, 2016, p. 7).
It focuses on a smart, connectable, and integrated infrastructure and services. The infrastructure should ensure mobility for residents and tourists by providing access to economic and social centers in the city.
Furthermore, Dubai’s growth should be sustainable, adhere to regulations, and seek to preserve natural resources.
Figure 2: Dubai’s Smart City Aims.
Income Breakdown
Dubai has radically redefined its economy in recent decades. It has used the strategic geographical location to become an important tourist destination and economic center.
To survive the volatility of global oil prices and lowered demand, Dubai chose to diversify its economy. Oil production which used to contribute upward of 50% to Dubai’s GDP, now contributes less than 1% (“Dubai economy,” n.d.).
Unlike most Middle Eastern cities, since 2003, company equity and real-estate share prices no longer depend on the price of crude oil. This has led for the seven major companies of Dubai’s real estate and construction sector to produce a 789 percent total return (Winkler, 2018).
In 2004, the Dubai International Financial Centre was built which propelled the city into a global hub for IT and finance. The city has become a major center for IT companies and services in the Middle East, serving as headquarters to leading global technology firms and media organizations.
One of the sectors of the economy that Dubai is developing is tourism. It has seen significant success as tourist rates continue to increase year over year. In 2017, the city welcomed 15.8 million tourists, which is a 6.2 percent increase from the year before. Analysts expect the number to reach 20 million by 2020. Meanwhile, the hospitality sector is valued at $5.9 billion currently and is expected to reach $7.6 billion in 2022 (Mallinson, 2018).
Airport Rankings
Airports have rankings assigned to them based on a variety of factors.
Some rankings focus on architecture, infrastructure, and quality of service.
Meanwhile, other rankings promote performance and passenger traffic.
The prestigious Skytrax World Airport Award is handed out each year to top airports, most often based on quality and luxury rather than objective numbers. Dubai’s airports are not currently included in that list, led by Singapore Changi Airport (Hardingham-Gill, 2018).
However, Dubai International Airport (DXB) holds the world’s top position for the largest annual traffic for international passengers.
In the 2017 calendar year, DXB traffic reached 88.2 million passengers (averaging 7.35 million per month), an increase of 5.5 percent from 2016 (Gulf News Aviation, 2018).
Smart Technologies
Smart technologies affect people’s lives, professional industries, and the function of services in cities. Recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) can help with an array of operational tasks.
Figure 3: The flow of how AI can impact operations.
Dubai International Airport should focus on adopting AI as part of its technological infrastructure. It can be used for everything from improving efficiency to communication with passengers, answering any potential questions they may have.
Some AI platforms, developed by major tech giants such as Apple and Google, have conversational capabilities. Therefore, these AI-powered bots can contextualize and personalize services depending on the request (Hippold, 2018).
Another smart technology which has significant potential is known as beacon technology.
These are relatively low-cost pieces of hardware that can be attached to practically any hard surface.
They run on batteries and have low environmental impacts.
Using a Bluetooth connection, it can transmit to any electronic device.
It helps to receive a signal while a person is indoors, which is usually difficult with walls blocking cell phone reception.
Furthermore, facilities can use beacons as a system of organization, sending information and enhancing the experience (Danova, 2014).
The beacon technology can be used for everything from navigation and payment services, to issuing announcements and warnings in the airport.
Finally, the Dubai airport can adopt comprehensive smart information technology systems into its network.
One of the largest corporations that offer this service is SITA.
The technology it seamlessly integrates into the airport infrastructure ranges from airport operations such as safety and security to passenger communication and processing.
The technology can also be used for operational communication with aircraft, cargo management, and baggage processing (SITA, n.d.).
This type of smart technology can effectively manage day-to-day operations as well as large-scale projects and processing.
Accessibility
Airports worldwide are evolving and adapting to accommodate the needs of its passengers, particularly those with disabilities.
The range of disabilities can be managed through innovative technology implemented in the airport.
Resourceful initiatives in the industry can make air travel and time at the airport a manageable and enjoyable experience.
Dubai International should focus on adapting some of the assistive technologies that have had success in other global airports, thus being able to improve its quality of service.
Assistive technology is any product, service, feature, strategy, system, or device that is focused on enhancing the abilities or functional capacity of any person with a physical or cognitive impairment or disability.
It is meant to overcome limitations for physical and social participation.
Assistive technology has a wide variety of uses, including helping with daily activities, establish communication, enable the use of digital devices, structural modifications, and control of public environments.
Furthermore, it can provide physical postural support, reduce visual or hearing impairments, and provide mobility solutions for transportation.
Figure 4: Seven universal principles for the design of assistive technologies.
Assistive technology is a powerful tool to provide autonomy to people with disabilities, as well as ensuring welfare and social inclusivity (Campese, da Silva, da Silva, Figueiredo, & Menegon, 2016).
Airports worldwide have implemented various technologies, devices, and mobile phone applications for passengers with disabilities.
An application was introduced by the Edinburgh Airport, which allows creating a personalized profile, outlining their needs and request assistance from the airport’s specialized service so that any mobility issues can be addressed (Gallagher, 2018).
Canada’s Toronto Pearson also introduced an app which has specific guides for people with special cognitive needs. Several airports in the United States, have introduced smart-glasses which offer guidance. These smart glasses can live stream what the passenger views to the company agent, which directs the patient via audio (Grey, 2018).
Other services to aid passengers with impairments include providing identifying lanyards, introducing assistance security lanes, providing easily accessible information, and enhancing staff disability training (Whitehead, 2018).
It is critical to focus on improving disability-friendly services and accessibility in the Dubai airport.
More adults with disabilities are choosing air travel each year, spending approximately $17.3 billion annually (Grey, 2018).
However, airports and air travel remain some of the biggest accessibility barriers for these individuals.
Better service to disabled passengers should be a collaborative effort between airlines, airports, and private service providers.
This will improve the quality of assistance and increase the level of support.
In turn, this will increase passenger satisfaction, directing more traffic through the Dubai airport and increase its rankings on the list of best airports in terms of quality and safety.
Conclusion
Dubai has set a vision for itself to become a global and smart city by 2021. As the city’s economy becomes more business and tourist-oriented, it is critical to modernize the Dubai International Airport as it becomes a gateway hub to the city. Smart technology can greatly improve service quality and efficiency of the airport. It is particularly important in accommodating and addressing the needs of passengers with disabilities. By doing so, Dubai fulfills its vision by integrating smart technology as well as providing a safe and accessible environment to its residents and visitors.
References
Campese, C., Da Silva, T. N., Da Silva, L. L., Figueiredo, J. P., Menegon, N. L. (2016). Assistive technology and passengers with special assistance needs in air transport: contributions to cabin design. Production, 26(2). Web.
On March 17th 2009, the Transport Security Administration (TSA) inadvertently posted on a Federal government website, sensitive security document outlining airport screening procedures. The online release made key security procedures available to members of the public. It wasn’t until Dec 7th 2009 that the 93 pages document was removed after TSA, with the help of bloggers realized the blunder. Although TSA posted the document in a federal procurement website, specifically FedBizOpps.gov, the document was, and still is, available online in many websites including Scribd.com and Cryptome.com. Variety of other sites, including major news outlet have provided link to the document. As of December 10th 2009, Lawmakers has come forward asking the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), who oversees TSA, to take legal action to bar or institute criminal penalties against websites that continue to repost the document.
The Document
A closer look at document and its contents at this early stage would be of great help in understanding the whole scenario. The document, titled “Screening procedures: Standard Operating Procedure” provides standard procedures for TSA screening personnel in US airports (airsafe.com, 2009). According to Transport Security Administration, the document was outdated, unclassified and was not “the everyday screening manual used by TSA officers at airport checkpoints” (Transport Security Administration, 2009). The document contained a broad range of information, with the sensitive information blacked-out through electronic reduction by TSA. The problem was, bloggers and everyday computer user could easily go around the reduction and have a full copy of the document.
Electronic reduction: Laid out Procedures
A closer look at the source of the problem reveals a fundamental misunderstanding of how digital data work on the TSA personnel part. TSA personnel blacked out the original word document by putting black rectangle over sensitive information, before converting the document to PDF format. Anyone who has access to the redacted PDF document and some basic knowledge in computer can easily convert it to Word document by copying it to a word processor like Notepad or Microsoft Word, and thus have access to full copy.
In the past, US agencies including the White House, US Military and Department of justice has faced similar situation that TSA is facing, where sensitive document was improperly redacted and released to the public, only for the blacked-out sensitive information to be unearthed later. It is along this line that National Security Agency (NSA) came out with very specific step by step procedures for dealing with documents containing sensitive information. The procedures have been available to all US government agencies for several years. (National Security Agency, 2005)
The procedures are contained in a report titled “Redacting with Confidence: How to Safely Publish Sanitized Converted from Word to PDF” (National Security Agency, 2005). The document is available to both the US government agencies and the general public. That means that the current problem facing TSA could have been avoided had TSA staff involved bothered to check existing procedures.
Highlights of Redacted Section
To have a full understanding why the US congress is outraged with the continued reposting of the TSA Airport Screening manual, it’s important to have a closer look at the document, specifically at some of the ‘redacted’ information.
One of the key sensitive information contained in the 93 page manual is the explosive detection screening protocol. According to the manual, of all checked bags, 40 percent are screened using closed bag search, 40 percent using limited open bag search and 20 percent using full open bag search procedures. Transportation Security Officers are barred from handling any explosives or weapons found in checked luggage during the screening process.
Screening procedures for different categories of passengers and law enforcement officers is also part critical information that is now known to the public. The procedures exempt screening of TSA officials, special screening of foreign dignitaries escorted by CIA, and passengers exempted from closer scrutiny. Also posted in relation to ‘who is to be screened how’ is the sample graphics and photos of CIA employees, Federal Air Marshals, and Members of United States Congress. The manual also gives specific procedures to follow when checking the credentials of armed government employees and law enforcement officers.
In relation to criminal and suspect identification, the Transport Security Administration has issued guideline on how to handle passengers from different countries. Passengers who hold passports from twelve select countries are subject to extra screening unless exempted by the airline. These countries are North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, Cuba, Afghanistan, Yemen, Algeria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Syria and Libya. The manuals also provide alternative procedures for checking travel documents.
Potential Impacts
According to Bernie Thompson, the US Congress Homeland Security Chairman, the release of sensitive document to the public “raises potential security concern across our transportation system”. Senator Susan Collins, the ranking member of Senate Homeland Security Committee also expressed outrage calling TSA action ‘reckless’. According to Collins, “This manual provides Road map to those who would do us harm”. Republican Sheila Jackson, democrat from Texas also expressed concern in a letter to the current TSA Administrator Gale Rossides, terming the TSA action as ‘shocking’.
Both former and current security official has also added their voice saying the breach was troubling to. It is important to realize that most of the practices and procedure set out in the screening manual were established and implemented after the September 11, 2002 terrorist attacks. They were later expanded in 2006 when security officials in Britain disrupted terrorist attempt to blow a transatlantic airliner using liquid explosives. Besides the procedures of how TSA officials screen passengers, and rules applied when handling CIA staffs, diplomats, members of Congress and Law enforcement officials, the manual also outlined technical tolerance and settings of explosives and metal detectors used in commercial airports in the United States.
The reason why both the law makers and security officials are alarmed by this breach is because most of the sensitive information was not known outside the TSA circle before the posting of the document. Terrorists who may want to harm the United States Air Transportation System are likely to use the information to attempt pass prohibited items through TSA security system or fraudulent entry into secure airport terminal and airliners.
The Department of Homeland Security has come out to address the concern saying the manual that was posted was outdated, and that it was never implemented, with of the document done six times. The DHS failed to elaborate on the specific sections that were revised. According to TSA “while the documents do demonstrate the complexities of checkpoint security, it does not contain information related to the specifics of everyday checkpoints screening procedures”(Department of Homeland Security,2009) Former assistant secretary for DHS, Stewart Baker seems to refute DHS claim saying that “the manual would become a textbook for those seeking to penetrate Aviation security, and its loss was serious”, Baker expressed that fact that there are so many different holes in relation to aviation security and that while TSA can fix any one of them by changing procedures and making adjustments in the process, “they can’t change everything about the way they operate”(Johnson, 2009).
The TSA is likely to make major overhaul of security procedures and/or introduce new technology system to avert any danger posed by the information already released to the public. And because security details related to Aviation industry are never released to the general public, no one outside Transport Security Administration likely gets to know if any changes will ever be made.
Legal Implications
In the wake of the security breach, five employee of TSA have been sent on administrative leave, that’s according to the Homeland Security Secretary Janet Napolitano (Transport Security Administration, 09). While the action on the staff DHS part can have a legal dimension, this is not the legal implication that I would like to address in this paper. My concern is the recent letter sent by republican law makers to Secretary Janet Napolitano. In the letter, Peter King, US House of Representative wants the Department of Homeland Security to show how it was addressing the continued reposting of the sensitive security manual by other websites, long after TSA has removed the document in question online. In the letter, King sought to know “what legal actions, if any, could be taken to compel its removal” (airsafe.com, 2009).
To have a better comprehension of what the lawmakers are asking DHS secretary to do, let first look at the extent toward which the public have access the document. Currently the document is hosted on websites of major Media organization, document sharing organization like scribd.com and sites that specialize in releasing restricted and secret corporate and government documents like Cryptome.com. Quick searches on major search engine give many links to the document. In one site alone, airsafe.com, the document was downloaded over 4,000 times in two days alone. (airsafe.com). This means that even if all online copies were to vanish from the web overnight, the document is already in the hand of millions of people around the world.
No single entity or nation has power to control the internet, or eliminate access to documents that have already been posted online. Once downloaded, it is very hard to control what the general public can do with it once they have it in their procession. The DHS and law makers may have a genuine concern but using legal means to attempt to remove the TSA security document from the internet is likely to bear no fruits.
Conclusion
The Transport Security Administration (TSA) mistake of posting sensitive security document outlining airport screening procedures may affect aviation security negatively. The online release has exposed key security procedures to the public. The document which was posted in a government websites was removed by TSA after the mistake was detected, but it is still available online through private and major news outlets websites. Department of Homeland Security and lawmakers attempts to force website to remove the document from internet may bear no fruit because of the nature of the internet.
Works Cited
airsafe.com. (2009). TSA Releases Extremely Sensitive security Information Online.
Johnson, C. (2009). Security fears after airport screening manual was released online.
National Security Agency. (2005). Redacting with Confidence: How to Safely Publish Sanitized Reports Converted From Word to PDF. FT. Meade: Information Assurance Directorate.
Transport Security Administration. (2009). TSA Statement on Posting of Operations Document.
After America suffered a terrorist attack in 2001, drastic changes were introduced in commercial airports across the world. In the U.S Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and use of full body scanners at airport checkpoints was introduced by the government.
Since then, passengers have to be scanned for threat items thoroughly before boarding a plane. The introduction of these new measures brought about mixed reaction from passengers. Although, most of the passengers approved the body scanning others felt it was violation of their privacy right. In the paper, how scanners work, has been discussed. The problem of violation of pivacy and strategy to solve it has also been discussed.
Introduction
After the terrorist attacks of 2001, the US government had to respond on security measures done in airports (Chad, 42). In response to this the federal government developed new legislation, that is, Aviation and Transportation Security Act (ATSA). This act led to the establishment of Transportation Security Administration which was to boost security within the US airports.
TSA had to recruit employees to supply all commercial airports with staff to improve security. Initially, TSA officials started with the use of private security screeners. During these initial stages of implementation, TSA was faced the problem of few staffs to screen passengers and their baggage.
After a few months, TSA officials started using fully body scanners on passengers. These scanners improved the security checkup efficiency greatly as they could scan things which cannot be identified by other scanners. These scanners show the image of a person naked without clothes.
These scanners thus have made it easier and quicker for TSA security officers to carry out thorough checkups on passengers. These fully body scanners have thus reduced significantly the long waits and queues experienced by passengers in commercial airports before.
Although, these scanners have with them a lot of advantages on bases of time and accuracy, a great concern on privacy of passengers have become an issue. The issue of privacy on passengers has become a major problem against the full body scanners. Although, majority of the passengers agree on use of full body scanners, a number still perceive it as violation of personal right.
This is because it portrays the naked features of a person. Another problem associated with full body scanners is the health risk of getting cancer. Although, there is not enough evidence to support the scanners to cause cancer, the radiations emitted from them pose a great risk. In the paper, discussion on how scanners work, problem of privacy and strategies to solve it are done.
How body scanners work?
There are different types of full body scanners used in the US commercial airports. The mainly used two include those based on backscatter X-ray technology and those which are based on millimeter wave technology. Backscatter uses X-ray scanners apply low power X-rays to illuminate a person’s body, forming an image from the generated reflection energy (Brain, 1).
This scanners work on the basis of the lower the atomic number, the stronger the reflection. This is because our human bodies contain low atomic number, the results is a bright image.
The other full body scanner type is the millimeter-wave technology. These scanners use short wavelength radio signals which are of a few millimeters (Brain, 1). The secret behind these scanners is that, these wavelength signals reflect strongly from conductive objects.
This makes metallic objects reflect strong as compared to our bodies which are relatively weak in moderating reflection. Thus, if a person is carrying a gun, the gun will show a more bright image as compared as to his body. This millimeter-wave technology is better than the backscatter X-ray scanners when it comes to health risks (Brain, 1).
This is because the millimeter-wave scanners expose people to very low radiation as compared to the backscatter scanners. This makes them not to likely cause skin cancer as compared to backscatter scanners. Though, their effectiveness in scanning metallic things, full body scanners have some negatives. It is feared that it is hard for them to detect liquid matters or things hidden below the skin.
Privacy Violation Problem
Introduction of full body scanners in commercial airports, though effective and quick have led to the problem of personal privacy violation. The full body scanners portray a person’s appearance which is hidden by clothes. They expose the private features and appearance of an individual which some people strongly feel is violation of their privacy right (Chad, 53). This has become a big challenge for TSA officials especially when passengers refuse the full body scanning to be done on them.
Those people, who oppose use of full body scanners to stripe passengers without any probable reason, see it as a violation of human right by the government. They argue that the government has no right to trespass the privacy of a person just to prevent the unknown (Bart, 5). These passengers feel that the government has gone too far when it made it a routine to be scanned in commercial airports.
Although, over 50 percent of passengers think it is a good idea and feels comfortable, a certain percentage of passengers feel uncomfortable and thus dislike the idea (Bart, 5). In some cases, it has been reported of some passengers opting to travel to evade the full body scanning.
The violation of privacy right is evident in some commercial airports where some TSA officers have been reported to use the scanned images as a form of pornography. When passengers get to know such kind of information, they will try to avoid the full body scanning by evading flying.
TSA officers have also been reported to harass passengers who want to retain their privacy by refusing to undergo through full body scanning. These passengers are given the option of pat-down procedure but which has become more intense and goes further not to exclude private parts.
Pat-down procedures have been changed so that those passengers not willing to undergo scanning will also be checked thoroughly. These pat-down are done by TSA officials of same sex as the passenger (Bart, 6). This is to enhance even checking of private parts for hidden weapons. These pat-down have gone too far such that TSA officials are allowed to use front part of their hands to check private parts of passengers. This has led to violation of a human right and seems as sexual assault.
Petitions against full body scanners have been taken to court with no avail. The courts have characterized routine checkups at airports as warrantless and which are not prohibited by the constitution (National Research Council, 23). This airport checking have been made no optional thus for those not willing to undergo them they should avoid flying. The court recently ruled the airport searches as reasonable and a passenger should not be allowed to avoid them.
This is because such a rule would encourage terrorists to attempt to penetrate security scanning. Thus, the court has allowed for no exception for passenger who do not want to undergo the full body scanning or the extensive pat-down. The courts have thus ignored the constitutional rights on personal privacy when it comes to checks in airports.
Strategy applied by TSA to stop violation of human right
Privacy issue about full body scanners has become a major problem for TSA with petitions against the scanners going to courts regularly. Airports have even reported a decrease of passengers in airports as they opt to travel and avoid the full body as well as baggage scanners.
These scanning processes and checkups by TSA consume a lot of time forcing passengers to arrive even two hours before departure. TSA has thus been forced to adopt the strategy of using burled images. This is enabled by use of millimeter-wave technology and pat-down searches (Bart, 6).
These millimeter-wave scanners have been developed not to show clear images of a naked person. They have been developed such that blur distinctive features like facial features are not recognized by scanners (Bart, 6). These filters also hinder a clear appearance of the passengers’ nakedness which prevents clear vision of their private body parts.
These millimeter-wave scanners are thus offering privacy to passengers as TSA scanners can only see burled images of passengers undergoing scanning. On the other hand, X-ray backscatter systems have been developed to apply computer algorithms. These computer algorithms portray images of passengers in a sketch form and still detect concealed weapons. These sketch images do not show body features of passengers clearly thus preventing their privacy.
The TSA has also set the scanners in a way that the screener checking on passengers cannot see the individual that was imaged. The screener is also based in an enclosed space which cannot be accessed by the public. The screening system is also set in a way to have no capacity for image storage or sharing. The screeners are also prohibited to have with them any image recording items like cameras. Therefore, images are deleted immediately a passenger has passed the screening process.
Currently, TSA is developing scanners which have the capability to identify threat items and respond automatically to them without necessary use of the whole body image (National Research Council, 87). Improvements on current scanners are underway with testing been done first.
These modifications will enable scanners to show images of generic figures with boxes identifying threats to screeners instead of portraying actual body images. TSA is thus making a big progress in ensuring passengers privacy is prevented while still efficiently scanning for threat items on passengers’ bodies.
Conclusion
Though the government has improved security in commercial airports within US, introduction of TSA and implementation of full body scanners has led to problems.
Although most of the passengers are happy about full body scanners and feel more secure when flying, some passengers has seen this as a violation of their human right. Use of full body scanners has thus brought about mixed reaction among passengers.
Court petitions against use of full body scanners have been ruled out even though they violate a constitutional right of personal privacy. TSA has thus taken it their responsibility to address the issue of privacy violation on passengers. TSA has applied the strategy of scanning passengers through use of burled images that do not reveal actual nakedness of passengers.
TSA has thus modified scanners to accommodate for privacy of passengers. By doing this, TSA will reduce scanning resistance from passengers as their privacy is protected. This will also encourage those passengers who have not been flying on fear of privacy violation and health risk to feel secure again to fly.
National Research Council. Assessment of millimeter-wave and terahertz technology for detection and identification of concealed explosive and weapons. New York: National Academies Press, 2007.
