Category: Air Pollution

Every day around 93% of the world’s kids under the age of 15 years (1.8 billion children) breathe air that is so polluted it places their health and development at serious risk. Tragically, many of them die: WHO estimates that in 2016, 600,000 youngsters died from acute lower respiratory infections caused by polluted air.

A new WHO document on Air air pollution and baby health: Prescribing clean air examines the heavy toll of both ambient (outside) and household air pollution on the health of the world’s children, mainly in low- and middle-income countries. The file is being launched on the eve of WHO’s first-ever Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health.

It reveals that when pregnant ladies are exposed to polluted air, they are more probably to provide delivery prematurely and have small, low birth-weight children. Air pollution also impacts neurodevelopment and cognitive capacity and can trigger asthma, and childhood cancer. Children who have been exposed to excessive degrees of air pollution may additionally be at a larger chance for chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular disorders later in life.

‘Polluted air is poisoning thousands and thousands of young people and ruining their lives,’ says Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director-General. ‘This is inexcusable. Every child needs to be in a position to breathe smooth air so they can develop and fulfill their full potential.’One reason why youngsters are particularly prone to the outcomes of air pollution is that they breathe more swiftly than adults and so take in greater pollutants.

They additionally stay nearer to the ground, the place where some pollution attains top concentrations – at a time when their brains and our bodies are nevertheless developing.

For kids whose immune systems are nonetheless in the developmental stage, spending more time outside with publicity to degraded, poisonous air makes them greater vulnerable. By paying particular attention to the effect of air air pollution on the emotional fitness and capacity-building of adolescents, such as tremendous early life development applications in this study, we hope to attract the attention of the local governments to invest more in air pollution schemas and practices to minimize the associated risks on adolescents. We hope to engender a better understanding of the major elements and lead to evidence-based policymaking for predominant prevention and specific interventions from policy-makers and other related events in society.

The respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide (www.livescience.com, 2016). Out of all the organs, the main organs used are the lungs. The lungs are the breathing center, regulating the air that goes in and out. Though the respiratory system controls breathing, sometimes what gets breathed in is out of one’s voluntary control. Air pollution is one of those things humans cannot control. Air pollution is defined as air that contains fatal substances bringing toxins into the respiratory system (Clifton et al., 2016). The correlations of air pollution in the United States and China is to be discussed. Though stemming from two very different socio-economical and cultural backgrounds, the reason for choosing to compare the United States and China specifically, is that according to www.infoplease.com (2016), China is the most populated country in the world where the United States is the third most populated country in the world. This makes China the most populated undeveloped country and the United States the most populated developed country, since India (another undeveloped country) is the second most populated country. Comparing the most populated countries contrasts the different health concerns presented in areas where most air is being breathed. This paper will discuss what the respiratory system is, the different respiratory damages air pollution has on the population of the United States and China, how the two countries relate as well as what the countries are planning on controlling the air pollution.

Humans need the respiratory system in order to sustain itself (www.livescience.com, 2016). The main function of the respiratory system is to provide the body with essential oxygen while disposing of carbon dioxide. Humans breathe in oxygen [O2] though the nose or mouth to make ATP. ATP are energy molecule that are metabolized though out the body. Meanwhile, humans breathe out carbon dioxide [Co2] to get rid of metabolic waste. Breathing allows air to move in and out of the lungs. Breathing in O2 is a process called inhalation. This allows the rib cage to move up and out allowing the chest cavity to increase in size, as pressure within the lungs decrease. The diaphragm will contract as well, allowing the lungs to expand and air to move in. Then exhalation takes place, which is also known as breathing out of Co2. Exhalation is when the rib cage moves down and inward allowing the intercostal muscle to relax. The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward as the chest cavity decreases in size. The pressure within the lungs will decrease and the lings recoil and air will move out.

Through the research found, the most reoccurring issues found in China was the rise of asthma verses the Unite States, where the air from combustion emissions affect human health quality. Asthma affects 300 million people across the world and is responsible for one of 250 deaths in the year 2004 (Cai et al. 2014). It is an obstructive pulmonary disease that can be life threatening. Asthma attacks can occur as a result. Asthma attacks are when the smooth muscles of the bronchi contract and mucus starts to produce in the bronchi tubes. When this happens, the bronchi swells, which interferes with the passage of air. Cai et al. (2014) also mentions the fact that asthma has historically been found more so in well developed countries than those that are undeveloped. Yet in recent years, there has been an increasing trend of asthma in undeveloped countries more specifically in cities in China such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. A study conducted by Dang et al. (2015) released data proving that air pollution mainly comes from the industry and traffic related fumes that get spread across China. Dang et al. (2015) did a longitudinal study to examine the affects of air pollution by comparing the effects on children verses adults. What they found by the end of the study was that the majority of the 30 million people affected by asthma(Cai et al. 2014) were children under the age of ten. The findings of this study proves the idea of how air pollution has only been a recent rising occurrence in China as for when they tested adults who shown less sever signs of asthma. In contrast, studies conducted on the United States in relations to air pollution revealed that early deaths in the United States are linked to combustion emissions. Combustion emissions are defined as a gas of burning fuels that can affect air quality resulting to breathing in damaging chemicals (Caiazzo et al. 2013). Caiazzo’s et al. (2013) study was broken into two parts. The first one revealed that 200,000 early deaths occurred in the United States each year due to these emissions. The second study went deeper into finding what type exposer was the worse and where the emissions stemmed from (Dedoussi and Barrett 2014). Dedoussi and Barrett (2014) tested all sensitivities from workers in industry, roads and rail transportation. Along with cardiovascular diseases, they detected two main respiratory diseases found in these types of workers: asthma and lung cancer. They found these were worse in the western part of the United States yet have no specific reasons why.

Though the two countries have different external reasons for the causes of respiratory diseases, the two do come together when it comes to global air pollution. Air transports from continent to continent. This is called intercontinental transport of air. With that being said, all the bad air from China go to the United States and vise versa (Akimoto 2003). Akimoto (2003) discussed the impact of the mass 1990’s nitrous oxide [NO2] emissions that surpassed through North America and continue to exceed airs from then until today. NO2 is a natural gas presented on Earth. Yet with excess activities humans add such as fossil fuels, agriculture, coal production and industrial processes, there is an increased amount of NO2 released into the air. Akimoto found respiratory effects relating to this excessive release of NO2. He found that too much exposure to NO2 would lead to airway inflammation even in healthy people. This increases the risk of asthma. In his conclusion he mentions that people who live near roadways have a higher chance of developing asthma or worsening their asthma than those who did not. From the 1990’s until today, the amount of NO2 has not decreased but has been affecting humans even more than before.

Both the United States and China are aware of the problems with air pollution and are working on ways to prevent harm to human health. In the last ten years, air pollution control due to public concerns about health effects has been a greater priority among the Chinese government (McMullen-Laird et al. 2015). Feng and Liao (2016) conducted a study to simply provide an overview understanding for readers of plans and policies for air pollution prevention and control in China. This study goes over the China Constitution where Article 26 states how the constitution will provide that the state protects and improves the environment as well as pollution along with other public hazards. The point of this study is to allow the public to understand that China is slowly but progressively working on their air pollution problems. In the United States, two acts have been created: the Pollution Prevention Act [PPA] and the Clean Air Act [CAA]. The PPA was a decision Congress made to encourage industries to change their sources to more cost-effective production, operation and use of raw materials in order to reduce pollution (Gad 2014). The CAA was a federal legislation to regulate air emissions as well as regulate air pollutants (Kapp 2014). In conclusion, both countries are understanding of the hazards of air pollution and are working on ways to go about making laws to further help the spread of it. Progress is slowly but surly happening.

The results from the research found on China and the United States when it comes the respiratory system were rather surprising. Before looking into anything there was an assumption that China was going to be extremely problematic when it comes to the damages on the respiratory system due to knowing the fact that it is the most populated country (meaning more people breathing air) and that it is undeveloped (assuming people had less resources to maintain a healthy filled air environment). Yet it turns out that the United States is the actual country with problems that have historically existed when it comes to the respiratory system while China is just getting on the rise of these asthma problems. Something else that was interested while going though the different researches was the main trend of the rise of asthma. While the United States have always been aware of asthma being a problem, China’s asthma concerns are recently upcoming, hence the research done by Dang et al. (2015). Since intercontinental transport of air does exist, both countries in a way do have to work together to maintain good air in order for clean air to be shared across nations. Luckily, both countries have created laws to do so.

Introduction

Environmental pollution is a major problem facing humanity and all forms of life on Earth today. Air pollution is considered the largest environmental pollution risk factor. Air pollution has a very wide geographical variation and each citizen of our planet is affected by its devastating consequences. Exposure to polluted air can have permanent effects on population health. While our daily lives may not feel threatened right now, air pollution has a compounding effect that will only get worse without intervention.

Not many people today are concerned an air pollutant may cause or contribute to an increase in mortality or may pose a present or potential hazard to their health. I wasn’t either. I grew up in a small village, surrounded by trees and clean air. I didn’t realize I had a problem breathing until I went to college and moved to a big city. I noticed that I was having trouble breathing on days when the air quality was poor. I started looking for answers to why I was having so much trouble breathing. It took many doctor visits, a couple of different diagnoses, and about two years before receiving the terrifying diagnosis of cystic fibrosis. Ever since air quality has been a top priority for me.

Physical activities like volcanoes and fires release various pollutants in the environment. Anthropogenic activities, however, are the main cause of air pollution. While dangerous chemicals can accidentally escape into the environment, many of air pollutants are released from industrial equipment and other activities and may cause adverse effects on human health and the environment. It causes numerous diseases in human organisms, animals, and plants, ruins the balance of the environmental system, and even causes fatalities.

According to IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer), air pollution is estimated to have contributed to about 4.9 million deaths (8.7% of all deaths worldwide) in 2017. This number is disturbing and needs immediate response. Reducing polluted air will help save millions of lives.

Body

Air pollution has both acute and chronic effects on human health, affecting several different systems and organs. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), people exposed to toxic air pollutants can suffer from an increase in cancer and other serious health effects. Other negative health issues include:

• Reduced fertility and birth defects
• Developmental issues
• Respiratory damage
• Damage to neurological function
• Weakening of the immune system

1. Supporting evidence

Increase In Elderly And Infant Deaths

In a study of more than 22 million elderly deaths, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) found that daily changes in ozone and fine particulate matter resulted in higher death statistics when ranges were higher, even when the levels were lower than current air quality standards. Additionally, in a birth study by the Environmental Influence on Ageing in Early Life (ENVIRONAGE) of 641 mothers and newborns, mothers with higher levels of exposure to specific particulate matter gave birth to infants with significantly lower telomere length, unexplainable by other factors, such as socioeconomic class. (Telomere length is a biological aging marker related to life expectancy.)

1. Respiratory system

Because most of the pollutants enter the body through the airways, the respiratory system is in the first line of battle in the onset and progression of diseases resulting from air pollutants. They cause a distinct amount of damage to the respiratory system, depending on the amount of inhaled pollutants and deposition in target cells. The first impact in the upper respiratory tract is irritation, particularly in the trachea, resulting in speech disturbance.

Many studies confirm that all types of air pollution, at elevated concentrations, can affect the airways. Nevertheless, similar effects are also observed with long-term exposure to lower pollutant concentrations. Symptoms such as nose and throat irritation, followed by bronchoconstriction are usually experienced after exposure to increased levels of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and certain heavy metals such as arsenic, nickel, etc. In patients with lung lesions or lung diseases, pollutant-initiated inflammation will worsen their condition. In addition, some air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides increase the susceptibility to respiratory infections. Finally, chronic exposure to ozone and certain heavy metals reduces lung function while the latter are also responsible for asthma, emphysema, and even lung cancer.

2. Cardiovascular system.

Many experimental and epidemiologic studies have shown the direct association between air pollutant exposure and cardiac-related illnesses.

Air pollution is linked to changes in white blood cell counts[86] which also may affect cardiovascular functions.

Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin modifying its conformation and reducing its ability to transfer oxygen. The decreased supply of oxygen can affect the function of various organs (and especially high oxygen-consuming organs such as the brain and the heart), leading to impaired concentration, slow reflexes, and confusion. Air pollution that causes lung irritation and changes in blood clotting can obstruct blood vessels, leading to angina or even more serious complications. Symptoms such as tachycardia, increased blood pressure, and anemia due to an inhibitory effect on hematopoiesis have been observed as a consequence of heavy metal pollution.

3. Nervous system

There have always been arguments about the connection between exposure to air-suspended toxic materials and the nervous system. However, these toxic substances are now thought to hurt the nervous system. Neurotoxicity leading to neuropathies, with symptoms such as memory disturbances, sleep disorders, anger, fatigue, hand tremors, blurred vision, and slurred speech, have been observed after arsenic, lead, and mercury exposure. The toxic effect of air pollutants on the nervous system also includes neurological complications and psychiatric disorders. Neurological impairment can have serious implications, particularly in babies. Recent studies have reported the connection between air pollution and neurobehavioral hyperactivity, criminal activity, and age-inappropriate behaviors.[90,91] Studies have also revealed the association between air pollution and higher risk of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.[93] Some studies showed that aggression and anxiety in megacities are in close relationship with the high level of air pollutants.

2. Supporting evidence

Harm to Animals

Air pollution hurts animal health, just as it does on humans.

All animals, despite their size, can be affected by pollution. Animals depend on oxygen that comes from the air, and when the air is contaminated, harmful gases and particulates are inhaled. Experts agree that pollution affects animals in the same way as it does humans. The pollution that animals inhale can accumulate in their tissues over time, causing damage to their organs. Not only do animals inhale harmful gases from pollution, but contaminants are also absorbed through the skin and come from food and water.

In a recent study of dogs in Mexico City, scientists examined the brains of local dogs to compare them with the brains of dogs in cities with less pollution. The brains of dogs living in Mexico City showed inflammation, amyloid plaques, and neurofibrillary tangles, which are associated with Alzheimer’s disease in humans.

Another study conducted by the University of Massachusetts and the Tufts University Cummings School of Medicine involved 700 dog owners and their use of pesticides. The results showed that about a third of the dogs had canine malignant lymphoma, a type of cancer. The study also showed that the dogs had a 70 percent higher chance of developing lymphoma if the owners used pesticides in their yards.

All animals, wildlife, insects, and invertebrate species are vulnerable to air pollution damage. Persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, acid rain, and other toxic substances can decimate animal populations, and cause deformities in the entire animal kingdom, including birds, fish, mammals, and birds. Air pollutants can poison and disrupt wildlife endocrine function, lower reproductive rates, cause vulnerability to disease and stress, and cause organ injury and death. Like the proverbial canary in the coal mine, other animals being affected by air pollution is a huge warning to humans. Toxic air quality can harm animals in two important ways:

• By affecting the living quality of their environment or habitat
• By affecting their food supply availability and quality

3. Supporting evidence

Damage to Plant Life

Ozone, fluorides, nitrates, and sulfur dioxide have been proven to damage plant leaves resulting in leaf drop and plant death. Other toxins such as nitrogen dioxide may cause slow leaf growth, and carbon dioxide from car exhaust can stunt plant growth. Weakened plants can suffer from more diseases and insect infestation. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), ozone from gasoline engines and fossil fuels causes the most damage to plants and has been shown in studies to reduce crop plant production in several main food sources such as corn, soybeans, wheat, peanuts, etc. During the gas exchange process, ozone enters the leaves, causing chlorosis and necrosis. This reduces the plant’s photosynthetic ability and can result in yield reduction. When plant life is damaged, there are less food resources available for humans and other animals.

Conclusion

This brief research essay presents the adverse effects of several air pollutants on human health, animals, and plants. The main conclusion drawn is that, given the increased exposure of humans to a diversity of pollutants, dietary interventions, rich in plant-derived foods, may protect or reduce their effects on different organs. This conclusion is supported by several epidemiological studies on the beneficial effect of a Mediterranean-type diet on human health.

Based on many clinical and animal studies we can determine that exposure to a substance could be associated with health effects.

Air pollution is an increasing concern for the environment, affecting everyone, including plants and animals.

Introduction:

The San Joaquin Valley is an agricultural area that supplies agricultural goods all around the globe. The weather patterns in the area consist of cool winters and dry hot summers. The San Joaquin Valley is surrounded by mountain ranges, such as the Coastal Mountain range, Sierra Nevada range, and Tehachapi Mountains (Lewis 2010). These geographical conditions allow the central valley to encase itself like a bowl and allow the trapping and accumulation of pollutants.

It is important to address air quality as it can lead to increasingly rising temperatures and health harm to its inhabitants. Although emissions have dropped by 10% in comparison to the 1900 level, California is still very vulnerable to climate change caused by geographical conditions and meteorological conditions (Zhao 2010). The Central Valley has the highest concentration of ozone concentrations worldwide. High levels of ozone concentrations damage ecosystems and plants. The effects are also seen as Fresno County has 194 orange days, 50 red days, and 2 purple days in a year (Borrell 2018). All of these levels are dangerous for sensitive people and there are even days where air quality levels are hazardous for everyone. These rising pollutants lead to smog in the morning which causes visibility problems, as haze and visibility problems are caused by light scattering on gas and particles in the air (Borrell 2018).

Objectives:

In this paper, I will discuss why the Central Valley has such bad air quality. I will address the consequences that the residents of the Central Valley go through caused by air quality. Finally, I will include what California is doing to address this issue and what more can be done.

Methods:

I have conducted research by reading peer-reviewed articles. I did not personally conduct any laboratory tests. I have collected key results from various articles.

Discussion of Results:

A major factor in the quantity of air pollution in the San Joaquin Valley is geographical and water conditions. During the summer, the weather is categorized as hot and dry, while during fall and winter, the weather is categorized as low wind speeds, increased secondary particle formation, and accumulation of particle matter (Lewis 2010). Many in the valley burn fires for warmth and comfort, and in California, there are fire seasons, which further increase the amount of air pollutants. These fires further increase the amount of days where air quality is dangerous to sensitive residents, or all people in general. Temperature inversions allow for aerosols and pollutants to remain concentrated in the valley. The surrounding of the mountains allows for particle matter to get trapped. This same effect is seen during the summer when there are elevated temperatures and little to no rainfall. The increased dryness allows for the soil to be dry and allows for more dust formation. Car emissions increase during the summer. The drainage winds in the mountains allow for pollutants to keep circulating throughout the valley instead of exiting and mixing with clean air at higher elevations (Lewis 2010). Geographical and weather conditions increase the Central Valley’s tendency to encase air pollutants.

Another reason the Central Valley has bad air quality is the growth of agriculture. The San Joaquin Valley is a major produce supplier around the world. In California, we see the industrialization of agriculture, where there is mass farming to supply produce around the world. The great amount of irrigation causes an increase in airborne particulate matter from minerals and organic dust (Clausinitzer 2000). Pesticides also contribute to this, as they can travel through the air, and have been found increasingly in indoor air (Lee 2002). As the population in the Central Valley continues to grow, more people have to live near these farms.

The increased dust in the central leads to skin and eye irritation, respiratory disorders, and an increased risk of lung and skin cancers. We see effects in long-term exposure to these particles in the lungs during normal gas exchange processes. (Clausinitzer 2000). Asthma is prevalent along the whole state of California, but Assembly District 29, found in the Central Valley has the highest rate of asthma for children and adults ages 18-64. According to the ALA, 1,300 premature deaths are caused by the air in the valley, and it is estimated that as much as one in six children in the valley suffers from asthma (Borrell 2018).

Visible impairment is a notable way in which air pollution levels become hyper-displayed in the San Joaquin Valley. The particle matter in the air causes light to scatter, leading to visual impairment. According to a study conducted by the California Air Resources Board, the causes and ratios of daylight visual impairment are as follows: 28% animal ammonia sources, 18% diesel engines, 13% IC/BC, 9% gasoline engines, 9% other anthropogenic sources, and 7% wood smoke (Chen 2009). According to this data, animal ammonia sources contribute the most to visual impairment. These increased levels of ammonia caused by livestock also lead to increases in asthma, especially among children. Those living in a community where livestock is prevalent, like the Central Valley, have ammonia and sulfide levels that exceed EPA and Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry recommendations (Donham 2007). Children attending schools within 3 miles of swine ammonia sources have a higher prevalence of wheezing. Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) also affect mental health, as they can lead to more cases of depression and anxiety (Donham 2007).

With the issue of air pollution, we see environmental injustice, people of lower class and people of color tend to live near these large livestock areas and near farms where particle matter levels are higher. The poor and minorities face the biggest consequences in this area. Those living in urban areas live near environmentally hazardous facilities and in neighborhoods of high pollution. People of color and poor people have the highest rates of cancer and asthma in the San Joaquin Valley area.

California is using new next-generation community air quality sensors to better evaluate and quantify air pollution episodes (Seto 2019). It allows for more real-time analysis. This is under the California Environmental Health Tracking Program working to create the community steering committee (Seto 2019). This new technology allows for light-scattering optical particle counters that are lower in cost and allow for better measurements (Seto 2019). With this new research UCLA, is leading in educating the public on the health effects of air pollution (Seto 2019). This technology is real-time and allows people to see when air quality is sensitive or dangerous for particular groups. This technology has been used in the Imperial Valley in California where the sensors were set up in areas vulnerable to bad air quality (Seto 2019). These sensors were used over two years, and the data showed significantly higher levels of air quality issues than the government monitoring network (Seto 2019). The numbers were different as the community sensors were more localized and the government sensors were more far-reaching (Seto 2019). This project involved local scientists who had more knowledge of their specific region and had more locals involved (Seto 2019). This program allows for more pinpointed data.

California has two sets of policies that target different issues about air pollution and climate change. Mitigation policy aims to reduce greenhouse gases by the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, which sets goals to reduce emissions and evaluate efforts as they affect public health. The state uses a cap-and-trade system that generates funds to be used on projects to reduce emissions. SB 535 was passed in 2012, which requires that 25% of the funds generated be used in disadvantaged communities (Ganesh 2018). This is important at many times disadvantaged areas face environmental inequalities and face the worst consequences.

California uses an adaption policy to better respond to inevitable environmental changes caused by the environment. The state has created a Climate adaptation strategy that works with the California Department of Public Health, builds awareness, and documents climate change efforts (Ganesh 2018). This strategy aims to work closer with communities. However, this strategy is not as well developed as the mitigation policy.

Conclusion/ Recommendations:

As discussed earlier, using community-based sensors allows for the collection of different data. It does not negate the government data already collected but instead adds to it. This project allowed for community professionals to get involved. They already have background information on their area, and having better data allows for a more comprehensive view. It allows for community members to be more aware and more involved. Educating community members is an important step to change as they can make better-informed decisions in their everyday day on how they impact the air quality and allows them to vote and understand bills that come their way on issues around air pollution. Allowing for more community-based sensors to be used throughout California, or at least in the San Juaquin Valley where there is a high prevalence of air quality issues, allows for a more accurate look at the situation and opens the way for more comprehensive ways of tackling this problem. Since these sensors are portable, they can be stationed near highways, farms, or railroads to gauge how much air pollutants they are releasing and lead to better policies.

The US EPA has set regulations on centralized animal feeding operations (CAFOs) to manage animal emissions and the other effects they have on those around these massive livestock operations. The issue is that about 60% of CAFOs remain unmanaged and the federal government does not oversee that states are meeting these regulations (Donham 2007). Manure is managed under these regulations to reduce emissions and reduce water pollution. Some permits are required for large operations of manure management. The issue is that to be granted a permit, CAFOs are required to create a manure management plan, but since there is not enough monitoring many do without or do not follow the plan in place (Donham 2007). This step in managing animal ammonia emissions is important as these emissions do cause a lot of issues in the San Joaquin Valley. There is needed more enforcement of the laws and regulations that are already in place, especially here in the valley where there are many large livestock farms.

To better effectively make strides in the San Juaquin Valley in air pollutants, it is important to merge both strategies of mitigation and adaptation. This way, the community is more involved, and strategies can be developed to meet both the needs of reducing greenhouse gases and also adapting to changes that are happening as a result of inevitable climate changes. The issue surrounding the air quality in the San Juaquin is complicated as many factors go into causing this problem, to address these issues, we need more comprehensive policies and plans.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) (2019), the Philippines has the 3rd highest mortality rate in Asia, averaging 120,000 deaths per year. (Enano, 2019) Air pollution is the presence of harmful chemicals in the air. Examples of these chemicals are called particulate matter which contains ammonia, sodium chloride, and many more (Ambag, 2018). Inhaling air that contains these chemicals can lead to respiratory diseases and even cancer. Here, in the Philippines, most air pollution comes from Metro Manila because of all the registered cars present in this area. Latest data from the regional DENR show that vehicles were responsible for nearly 88 percent of pollutants in the metro in 2018 (Enano, 2019). Now, at present, the number of registered cars is rising because of The Unified Vehicular Volume Reduction Program, mainly known as the number coding in the Philippines. As the levels of air pollution rise steadily because of the increase in the number of registered cars, a solution to reduce this problem is needed for all the people in Metro Manila. Fortunately, there is a way to reduce air pollution in the metro. The air pollution in Metro Manila can be reduced by using Euro 4 fuel to lessen the emission of smoke from vehicles.

Euro 4 is a globally accepted European emission standard for vehicles that require the use of fuel with significantly lower sulfur and benzene content (Garcia, 2016). Having lower levels of sulfur will lessen the emissions of particles by a vehicle. The fuel is also 10 times better than the former standard emission, Euro 2, having 50 parts per million (ppm) compared to Euro 2’s 500 parts per million. (Ranada, 2014). Euro 4 not only helps the environment but also improves the fuel economy, improves engine performance by cleaning internal engine deposits, and minimizes the effects of ethanol, which corrodes engine internals (Garcia, 2016). By the Philippines switching to Euro 4 fuel, the country will have less air pollution, therefore helping as well in the problem of Climate Change.

The Department of Energy and Natural Resources (DENR) has stated that starting January 1, 2016, all new passenger and light-duty cars introduced to the market should comply with Euro 4 emission limits and must drive on Euro 4 fuel. According to Pabustan (2017), the upgrade from Euro 2 to Euro 4 reduces the toxic sulfur that comes out of the combustion engine by 450 parts per million (ppm), both on diesel and gasoline. Benzene, which is also considered harmful to humans, was also cut off by 4% (Pabustan, 2017). By switching to Euro 4 engines, there will be cleaner emissions because of the Euro 4 compliant fuels. Euro 4 fuel-compliant cars can also run greener and are more efficient due to technological advancements, especially in diesel engines (Summit Storylabs, 2018). Therefore, by switching to Euro 4 cars and Euro 4 fuel, the emissions of air pollution will be decreased.

But, even with all the advantages of Euro 4 fuel, the price of this certain fuel is higher than the former standard emission, Euro 2, as it requires more refinery processing to lower the toxic sulfur. (Garcia, 2016). This has troubled many people because they think that they will have to pay more for the fuel for their cars. But, even though the fuel is more expensive, gasoline stations have already sold Euro 4 fuel competitively. For example, Petron, one of the most successful fuel-selling companies in the Philippines, started selling Euro 4-compliant fuels last 2014. All of Petron’s Euro 4-compliant fuels are made here in the Philippines. The company, after making Euro 4 fuel the standard emission, assured its customers that Euro 4 fuel will not affect the price in the retail station, even if making Euro 4 fuel is more expensive than making Euro 2 fuel. (Garcia, 2016). This 2019, gas stations are now selling Euro 5-compliant fuels which are even better than Euro 4, so today, there will be even lesser emissions by cars.

Another problem that can pretty much eliminate the advantages of Euro 4 fuel is the never-ending traffic in Metro Manila. Every rush hour, every day, we go through the process of waiting in traffic. If vehicles are kept at a standstill for a long time on the road, more and more emissions will go out of the cars, causing more air pollution, and leading to more respiratory-related illnesses. Even if The Unified Vehicular Volume Reduction Program or the Clean Air Act exists, the number of registered cars will just keep growing because of the need for people to travel to go to work or school, thus increasing air pollution even more than it was. So, even if our cars are clean, Euro 4 fuel benefits will be nullified by the never-ending traffic present in the metro (Ranada, 2014). Therefore, if there is no solution for the horrific traffic in the metro, then all the laws, and all the changes in the vehicles, will not affect the problem, and the air pollution in the metro will continue to escalate.

In conclusion, the air pollution in Metro Manila can be reduced by the usage of Euro 4 fuel. Euro 4 fuel has less content of sulfur and benzene, lowering the chances of breathing in deadly air. The Department of Energy and Natural Resources has stated that starting January 1, all cars must run on Euro 4 fuel. Though producing the fuel will be more expensive than the former standard emission Euro 2, gas stations like Petron have assured that there will be no change of price for Euro 4 compliant fuels. But, even if our cars are all clean and emit less polluted air, the situation will stay the same if traffic is still a problem. Therefore, to lessen more polluted air, the Department of Energy and Natural Resources should phase out old vehicles that are more than 15 years old, especially smoke-belching jeepneys and buses (Garcia, 2016). These vehicles, considering their age, have Euro 2 engines, therefore having higher emissions than Euro 4 engines. By phasing out these vehicles, the emissions from all cars will be low. But, even if the Department of Energy and Natural Resources does implement such a rule or law, there is yet to be an ultimate solution to the problem of air pollution in Metro Manila and the country.

References

1. Ambag, R. (2018, June 18). How Bad is Air Pollution in the Philippines? Retrieved from https://www.flipscience.ph/health/how-bad-air-pollution-philippines/
2. Enano, J. O. (2019, July). Metro air getting dirtier, and deadlier for commuters. Retrieved from https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1135414/metro-air-getting-dirtier-deadlier-for-commuters/amp.
3. Garcia, L. (2016, February 29). For a greener Philippines: Welcome, Euro 4. Retrieved from https://businessmirror.com.ph/2016/02/29/for-a-greener-philippines-welcome-euro-4/
4. Pabustan, D. (2017, September 22) Euro 4, what does it mean and why do we need it? Retrieved from https://www.autodeal.com.ph/articles/car-features/euro-4-what-does-it-mean-and-why-do-we-need-it
5. Ranada, P. (2014, January 5). The solution to PH air pollution. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/ispeak/47196-solution-ph-air-pollution
6. Summit Storylabs (2018, January 9). What makes Euro-4 diesel engines different from old ones? Retrieved from https://www.topgear.com.ph/features/feature-articles/what-makes-euro-4-diesel-engines-different-from-older-ones-adv-con

The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, as of 2018, is the highest it has been in 3 million years ( ). Greenhouse gases (GHG) contribute to higher temperatures and more heat waves (). The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, also known as Assembly Bill 32 (AB 32), fights global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state ( ). Assembly Bill 32 is California’s Global Warming Solutions Act. AB 32 is a long-term comprehensive plan to fight California’s pollution crisis while improving the environment and maintaining a robust economy. The greenhouse effect is when sun radiation enters the earth’s atmosphere and becomes trapped underneath the earth’s atmosphere due to toxic greenhouse gases emitted from oil and agriculture industries, along with road traffic. AB 32 contains the major greenhouse gasses emitted into the earth’s atmosphere: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and Nitrogen trifluoride* (NF3). Because of the drastic climate change, essentially greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane are emitted into the air at a rapid rate, there is an urgent need for the government to take action and ultimately end this air pollution crisis. As a result of toxic greenhouse gases emitting into the air for over a long period, the ozone layer used to protect the air quality is gone. This removal of the ozone layer has a hazardous effect on our environment and health. Some of the hazardous effects of global warming are more frequent and severe weather, higher death rates, dirtier air, higher wildlife extinction rates, and more acidic oceans. The harmful effects on the human body are breathing toxic air that may contribute to asthma, lung cancer, and allergic illnesses.

In the year of 1991, California’s environmental authority, also known as the California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA), was known as a single Cabinet-level agency. CalEPA’s mission is to restore, protect, and enhance the environment, and to establish environmental quality and public health for every citizen. They fulfill their responsibility by creating and implementing environmental legislation that controls air, water, and soil quality, pesticide utilization, and waste recycling and reduction. They use cutting-edge research to create environmental legislation. CalEPA’s Office of Secretary oversees one office, two boards, and three departments responsible for improving California’s environment. The governmental hierarchy begins with the governor overseeing the CalEPA office of secretary, then the secretary oversees the Air Resources Board (ARB), the Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle), the Department of Pesticide and Regulation (DPR), the Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), and State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB).

California Air Resources Board (CARB) is responsible for maintaining healthy air quality, protecting the public from exposure to toxic air contaminants, and providing approaches for complying with air pollution rules and regulations ( ). CARB must protect the public from air pollution harmful effects and create programs to combat climate change. Clean cars and fuel help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. California is renowned for environmental policy and climate change innovation; the world regards California for environmental authority legislation.

The California Air Resources Board contains 16 members. 12 are assigned by the Governor and confirmed by the state Senate. Out of the 12 members, five work for local air districts, four shape air quality regulations, two are public members, and the Chair is the only full-time member. The Governor appoints any board member to serve as the Chair. Four other members represent environmental justice communities., and two members are for Legislative oversight, each member is appointed by the Senate and Assembly. Cleaning up air pollution is coordinated from a three-segment approach: the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), California Air Resources Board, and thirty-five local air pollution control districts. The EPA is responsible for national air quality and emission standards and supervises state enforcement. The California Air Resources Board concentrates on air quality challenges by placing emission standards on air-polluting vehicles, fuels, and products throughout the state of California. Emissions from businesses and stationary facilities are regulated through thirty-five local air pollution control districts. The following are the California Resources Board’s goals to maintain air quality throughout California: 1. Setting the standard for air quality levels to protect human health, 2. Determine the most toxic pollutants, 3. Evaluate pollutant reduction using an air monitoring network, 4. Confirm automakers’ emissions compliance, 5. Assess the cause and effect of air pollution problems, 6. Determine the cost and benefits of air pollution, and 7. Continue to lead environmental efforts nationally by creating measures to combat climate change.

CARB is the lead agency to implement AB 32; however, the following agencies are reducing GHG emissions too: Governor’s Office of Planning and Research, Business, Consumer Services, and Housing Agency, Government Operations Agency, California Natural Resources Agency, California Department of Public Health, Office of Emergency Services, California Transportation Agency, California Energy Commission, California Public Utilities Commission, California Department of Food and Agriculture, Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, Department of Fish and Wildlife, Department of Transportation, Department of Water Resources, Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery, and State Water Resources Control Board.

Assembly Bill 32 is funded by greenhouse gas sources. CARB implemented a mandatory fee program called the AB Cost of Implementation Fee Regulation. The fee is collected annually from oil industries, electricity power plants, cement plants, and other industrial sources. There are over 250 greenhouse gas sources, and the funds are used to implement state and local programs that combat greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund (GGRF) supports AB 32 by providing long-term reduction for greenhouse gases. Funding for GGRF comes from auction earnings as part of the CARB’s Cap and Trade program.

CARB has created a timeline to achieve Assembly Bill 32 goals. On January 1, 2008, CARB RB approved the Mandatory Reporting Regulation for GHGs to require reporting, verification, monitoring, and enforcement. In 2009, a plan was implemented to combat greenhouse gases, and each measure was evaluated. In 2010, CARB adopted greenhouse gas emissions regulations. On January 1, 2012, greenhouse gas rules were adopted by CARB and legally enforced. On November 14, 2012, CARB established the first greenhouse emissions allowance, as part of the Cap and Trade program. On September 17, 2013, CARB established the first carbon credits as part of the Cap and Trade program. Lastly, December 31, 2020, is the deadline for achieving the greenhouse emission goal.

Assembly Bill 32 is effective. The total cost of air pollution is 65 billion dollars. AB 32 requires California to reduce its GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020, a 15% reduction (California, 2019). AB 32 will help reduce risks associated with climate change, while improving energy efficiency, expanding the use of renewable energy resources, cleaner transportation, and reducing waste (Climate et. al., 2017). AB 32 includes major greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). (Denchak, 2019). AB 32 requires ARB to develop a Scoping Plan, which must be updated every 5 years, it includes measures to drastically cut GHG emissions (California, 2019).

In a study called “Association between Air Pollution and Lung Function Growth in Southern California Children,” by Franklin et. al., the lung function growth of Southern California children was analyzed over 4 years. The study subjects included twelve communities located in Los Angeles, California. For every community, there were 150 children in 4th grade, 75 children in 7th grade, and 75 children in 10th grade, all were public school students. Medical and residential history, housing characteristics, and outdoor time information were gathered from a questionnaire. Pulmonary function tests were performed at schools, twice per day. For every community, there was an air pollution monitoring network terminals. The terminals monitored hourly samples of ozone and nitrogen dioxide. Linear regression methods were used to identify the statistical correlation between lung function growth and average pollutant levels. In the fourth-year assessment, the lung growth deficiencies were correlated with particulate matter exposure. Results suggest that exposure to air pollution may lead to a reduction in maximal attained lung function, which occurs early in adult life, and ultimately to an increased risk of chronic respiratory illness in adulthood (Franklin et. al., 2017). From this study, one can analyze how particulate matter affects lung growth.

In a 2019 journal article called, “Healthy Air, Healthy Brains: Advancing Air Pollution Policy to Protect Children’s Health,” by Devon Payne et. al., a group called Project Targeting Environmental Neurodevelopmental Risk (TENDR) identifies air pollutants and develops recommendations to protect children’s neurological development from air pollution adverse effects. The recommendations are based solely on maintaining and strengthening health protections. The first recommendation is that the EPA should be more aware of the neurological effects when setting standards for emissions and evaluating the entire cost of adverse health effects from these toxic pollutants. The second recommendation is enforcing federal fuel standards. The third recommendation is to advance clean energy policies that reduce fossil fuels. The fourth recommendation is to target large sources of air pollutants to reduce emission production, and this will lead to an overall exposure reduction in neighboring communities. The fifth recommendation is to restrict new sources of air pollutants in residential areas. Public health policies that reduce combustion-related air pollution will improve not only cardiovascular and respiratory function but also neurodevelopment and this can lead to fewer children with neurodevelopmental disorders, less special education spending required, and more people participating fully in society across their life spans (Payne et. al., 2019).

In a study called “Particulate matter air pollution and liver cancer survival,” by Deng et. al., lung cancer has been linked to air pollution. Data was retrieved from the California Cancer Registry and the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s Air Quality System. The information from the data contained patient demographics, follow-up, tumor characteristics, and course of treatment. Cancer records were established based on residential addresses. Hourly and monthly measures of particulate matter were assessed from residential locations closest to air quality terminals. Kaplan-Meier curves were employed to compute the median survival rate. Cox proportional hazard models were employed to compute the PM2.5 exposure and survival association. The results showed that adverse effects of PM2.5 exposure after diagnosis on liver cancer survival, not only were such effects more profoundly for those diagnosed with early stage, but they also increased strongly with concentration, suggesting that reductions in high PM2.5 exposure could increase survival for a nonrespiratory system cancer (Deng et. al., 2017).

Assembly Bill 32 is being effective at combating California’s air pollution crisis that is contributing to the overall global warming crisis. CARB, along with many other agencies, is reducing greenhouse gas emissions in a variety of ways. CARB has implemented a timeline to reach the GHG emission goal by 2020.

Executive Summary:

There are lots of environmental problems such as air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, and waste disposal problems that Hong Kong faces. Of these environmental issues, air pollution is the one that affects most citizens of Hong Kong. In the Planetary Urbanization lecture, Professor Vitz mentioned that “80% of the world’s urban population breathes unhealthy air” (Vitz, Planetary Urbanization: slide 20). Like many other cities and countries mentioned in class and readings such as Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Britain, industrialization and urbanization led to serious air pollution in Hong Kong. Currently, Hong Kong’s particulate pollution is double the amount of any city in the United States (Stern, 782). The lower and working class are affected disproportionately by air pollution, and although the Hong Kong Government is trying to address the issue, the work is insufficient to eliminate the problem.

Origins of the Problem:

Starting in the 1950s until the 1970s, Hong Kong went through a period of industrialization in the garment, electronic, textile, plastic, and toy industries. Many factories moved to Hong Kong from China, and that led to the urbanization of Hong Kong. Looking at the number of factories, there is a sizable growth rate because “in 1947 there were 961 factories in Hong Kong employing 47,000 people,” but that number grew five-fold, and by “1959 4,541 factories were employing over 170,000 people” (Shuyong, 589). This relates to the Planetary Urbanization lecture because there are push and pull factors as to why people leave rural locations to go to urban locations, and the pull factor in this case is the job opportunities in Hong Kong that did not exist in other parts of China (Vitz, Planetary Urbanization: slide 8). With urbanization and industrialization comes the consequences of air pollution in Hong Kong similar to that of Chicago, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, and Britain.

In Chapter 3 of the McNeil reading, Something New Under the Sun, the author details how Los Angeles became a smog city in the 1940s and continued to be a problem throughout the twentieth century due to the exhausts from over four million cars (McNeil, 73). Similarly in Hong Kong today, “the overwhelming majority of Hong Kong’s cars, buses, trucks and motorcycles – more than 98 percent – are still powered by fossil fuels via their internal combustion engines” (Vetter). This contributes significantly to the air pollution problem of Hong Kong along with other sources of pollution such as Hong Kong being a shipping hub, electricity generation, construction machinery, aviation, and emissions from Mainland China. In the global context, Hong Kong is one of the world’s leading cargo transshipment hubs, and they have an “extensive network of connections to over 550 container ports around the world” (“The World’s Leading”). Different countries in the world like to use Hong Kong as a hub due to the free port status that they have, and many countries are doing business with China through Hong Kong. This being the case, the majority of Hong Kong’s pollution comes from the vessels that produce harmful pollutants, and “in 2016, shipping in Hong Kong waters produced 8,540 [tons] of [sulfur] dioxide, 32,900 [tons] of nitrogen oxide and 1,480 [tons] of PM2.5 pollution” (Vetter). It is hard for Hong Kong to find the balance between health and economic growth because they rely heavily on the shipping hub as an economic resource.

Those affected most by the problem:

Although it can be argued that the air pollution problem affects all citizens of Hong Kong, it is safe to say that this environmental issue affects the lower class much more than the upper class. According to an academic journal written by Rachel E. Stern and published by the University of California Press, “preliminary data show that Hong Kong’s poor suffer increased exposure to air pollution. People in lower-class areas may be up to five times as likely to be hospitalized for respiratory illness as their counterparts in high-income areas” (Stern, 780). This can be attributed to the fact that policymakers ignore the health and needs of the lower class.

Furthermore, microenvironments affect the poor negatively because they are in a different residential area and environment than the rich even though the macroenvironment affects everyone in Hong Kong. Those in the upper class can afford to live in areas that have a low population density while the lower class is living in high population density areas with more vehicles, and therefore, more pollutants. The lower class also lives in cramped areas where they have to cook in the same open space that their bedroom might be in. Therefore, the poor also suffer from higher indoor pollution (Stern, 784-786). This is an environmental justice issue as it disproportionately affects the poor, like the five examples from Ramachandra Guha’s, Environmentalism: A Global History reading. However, air pollution in Hong Kong is often seen as an environmental justice problem because of “the invisibility of Hong Kong’s poor, the nature of environmental activism surrounding air pollution, and the relative lack of class tensions in Hong Kong” (Stern 792).

Most certainly, a group of people who are most impacted amongst those who reside in Hong Kong are those who work outdoors. These people include street vendors and construction workers. This population is constantly breathing the polluted air while they are at work for more than eight hours a day. Stern states that “two-thirds of outdoor workers have symptoms related to air pollution including asthma, throat irritation, and eye/nasal allergies” (Stern, 789). There is not much that they can do to prevent these health conditions because they need to work for a living to be able to support their family. Additionally, when looking at the mortality data from the years 1995 to 1998, it was found that “during the 4 years, there were 128,229 deaths of which 58,347 (46%) were caused by respiratory and circulatory diseases” and those diseases are highly correlated to air pollutants (Wong, 31).

Efforts undertaken to address the problem:

The Hong Kong government has made efforts to address the issue of air pollution, but there is more work that needs to be done. Motor vehicle emissions are one of the major pollutants in Hong Kong, so the government initiated the usage of cleaner fuels and vehicles. They mandated that all diesel taxis had to switch to a less polluting gas called Liquefied Petroleum Gas by 2007. They paid each taxi USD 5,100 if they made the switch, and this was pretty effective as 80% of taxis were already running on LPG by 2001 (Stern, 783).

Companies that provide electricity to residents of Hong Kong are trying to use cleaner technology such as scrubbers and government intervention was successful in that after they instituted emission caps in 2008 “a notable reduction in [sulfur] dioxide has been seen: from about 50,000 [tons] in 2008 to 8,020 [tons] in 2016” (Vetter). This does not mean that there is no room for improvement because emissions from the burning of coal and oil still make up for a high percentage of pollutants in Hong Kong. The demand for electricity from the population makes it hard to decrease emissions. If the citizens of Hong Kong want to see further improvements in air quality, they are going to have to compromise in terms of energy usage.

Lastly, “after the April 2002 publication of a joint study on regional air pollution, [Hong Kong and Guangdong] agreed to cut sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions by 40%, nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by 20%, respirable suspended particulates (RSPs) by 55%, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by 55% before 2010” (Stern, 784). The willingness of the Hong Kong government to voluntarily decrease pollutants and to actively work towards that goal is a big step forward from the government ignoring the problem and ignoring the needs of the lower class.

Works Cited

1. Guha, Ramachandra. Environmentalism: A Global History. Penguin Books Limited, 2014.
2. McNeill, John Robert. Something New under the Sun: an Environmental History of the World in the 20th Century. Penguin, 2001.
3. Shuyong, Liu. “Hong Kong: A Survey of Shuyong, Liu. “Hong Kong: A Survey of Its Political and Economic Development over the Past 150 Years.” The China Quarterly, no. 151,1997, pp. 583–592. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/655255.
4. Stern, Rachel E. “HONG KONG HAZE: Air Pollution as a Social Class Issue.” Asian Survey, vol. 43, no. 5, 2003, pp. 780–800. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/as.2003.43.5.780.
5. “The World’s Leading Cargo Transshipment Hub.” Hong Kong Maritime Hub, www.hongkongmaritimehub.com/the-hub/the-worlds-leading-cargo-transshipment-hub/.
6. Vetter, David. “Biggest Source of Air Pollution in Hong Kong? It’s Not Cars or Mainland.”
7. South China Morning Post, South China Morning Post, 3 Dec. 2018, www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/2175592/why-hong-kongs-air-so-polluted-and-what-can-we-do.
8. Vitz, Matthew. ‘Planetary Urbanization since 1800.’ 30 Jan. 2019. Global Environmental Problems, Environmentalism, and the Age of Climate Change, UCSD. Microsoft PowerPoint presentation.
9. Vitz, Matthew. ‘Environmental Justice or Environmentalism of the Poor.’ 20 Feb. 2019. Global Environmental Problems, Environmentalism, and the Age of Climate Change, UCSD. Microsoft PowerPoint presentation.
10. Wong, T. W., et al. “Associations between Daily Mortalities from Respiratory and Cardiovascular Diseases and Air Pollution in Hong Kong, China.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 59, no. 1, 2002, pp. 30–35. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27731612.

Air pollution is known to hurt human health, contributing to approximately 3.4 million premature deaths globally in 2010. By looking at both different types of air pollution (PM2.5, ozone, etc.) and sources (road transportation, agriculture, household energy, shipping, etc.) it is possible to produce a global picture of air pollution distribution and how to most effectively reduce the impact on human health. This paper will look specifically at the road transportation source sector, discussing the current predictions of health effects and how these can be reduced in the future.

On-road transportation, which includes diesel and gasoline vehicles, accounted for approximately 240,000 of the global premature deaths associated with PM2.5 and ozone in 2015. The health effects associated with road transportation, in particular diesel vehicles, were brought to public attention after it was discovered that approximately 11 million Volkswagen light-duty vehicles (LDVs) had been fitted with a defeat device between the years 2009 to 2015; this device was used to detect when a vehicle was undergoing emissions testing and control the emission, making it appear as though the vehicles met the emission certification limits. These excess emissions pose a significant impact on human health since diesel vehicles are estimated to generate 20% of global nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, a direct cause of increasing PM2.5 and ozone levels.

To help reduce the adverse effects on human health associated with road transportation (studies have found vehicle emissions to be associated with an increased risk of health conditions such as asthma, lung cancer, and cardiovascular disease) many major vehicle markets have implemented emission standards required for all new heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) and LDVs. Whilst these policies have been crucial to significantly reduce exhaust emissions, as discussed above, there are still differences in the real world and certified emission limits largely due to excess diesel NOx. When evaluating road transportation-associated health effects all main fuel types must be considered, these are gasoline, diesel, liquefied petroleum gas, and compressed natural gas.

The distribution of fuel types varies by region and vehicle type, HDVs tend to run on diesel whilst for LDVs approximately 40% of vehicles in Europe and nearly all of the LDVs in the USA use gasoline. To consider many types of fuel used for on-road transportation, a transportation attributable fraction (TAF) is often calculated. By definition, the TAF is the proportion of ambient particle matter attributable to surface transportation modeled on a global scale. The TAF can be used in association with different types of air pollution, this paper looks specifically at methods discussing PM2.5 and ozone-related TAFs. To look specifically at the health effects related to road transportation the TAF can be separated into four subsectors. In particular, this paper will focus on the results from the on-road diesel vehicles and on-road non-diesel vehicle subsectors.

Introduction

Population growth, economic growth, and demand for better living conditions have led to industrialization for the past three decades. Demand for goods and services worldwide led to mass production, to meet demand companies worked around the clock to supply their customers. For production to take place there should be raw materials that are naturally extracted. Nature was exploited in large proportions to satisfy human needs. Raw materials are transported to processing plants and to customers using a lot of fossil fuels that pollute the air and the environment. In pursuit of a better life, we have put our health and safety at risk of airborne diseases. The environment has not been spared, global warming and climate change have led to severe draughts, oceans rising, acid rain, more natural disasters etcetera.

Main air pollutants and their possible causes in Zimbabwe are mining, cement and steel industries, fertilizer manufacturing, vehicle emissions, and waste burning (Sanford, 2008). Zimbabwe is rated moderately unsafe because research shows that its annual concentration of PM2.5 is 22ugme which is more than the recommended maximum of 10ugme. Due to abundant minerals, Zimbabwe has a lot of mines that use a lot of machinery to extract the ore from underground and open cast shafts. A lot of movement is required to transfer the ore to the millers and refining factories. A lot of carbon emission and dust is produced leading to air pollution. Blast furnaces and thermal power stations are powered by coal and coke that pollute the air in the manufacture of steel and electricity generation. Dust particles are very fine so they travel very far and their damage is felt instantly. Most factories are located in major cities so transporting raw materials and finished products causes air pollution (Sanford, 2008).

Air pollution in all African countries is nearly identical because poor rural and urban communities use solid fuels and fossil fuels as sources of energy. The lack of electricity in domestic households make people dependent on sources that cause indoor air pollution. Research has shown that indoor air pollution is on a downward trend but outdoor air pollution is on an upward trend due to burning of waste and veld fires. Cooking areas, kitchens, or huts should have raised roofs and proper ventilation so that air will flow freely taking the smoke away and reducing indoor air pollution. Huts are similar throughout Africa. There is a need for new technologies to be used that has room for chimneys and wider windows for easy airflow in and out of the kitchen. The use of LPG gas reduced the dependency on wood or charcoal for cooking and heating purposes. The rural electrification program in Zimbabwe is bearing fruits as more and more people are depending on electricity to power their needs. The transition from fossil fuels as a major power of machinery and trains to electricity 8s reducing air pollution. As citizens, we must strive to reduce air pollution from every producer to every consumer. Everyone has a duty to play from producing, processing, transporting, consumption, and disposing. Recycling, reusing, and reducing should be encouraged at all levels.

Conclusion

Air pollution is one of the types of pollution that is affecting individuals more directly than other types of pollution. Africa had 1.1 million deaths related to air pollution in 2019 (Mambondiyani, 2021). Individuals feel ‘itchy eyes, nose, and throat wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, chest pain, headaches, nausea, and upper respiratory infections’ (Sanford, 2008). Research indicates that air pollution increases emphysema and asthma, the risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease and is associated with strokes and heart attacks (Sanford, 200). If air pollution is not controlled or prevented the human race is going to be wiped out clean in a few years to come. Everyone individual, organization, government, and nation should do all they can to save the future of the human race and all habitats.

References

1. Mambondiyani, A. (2021), Air Pollution Killed a Million People in Africa in 2019, Eos, 102, https:doi.org10.10292021EO210565. Published on 25 October 2021.
2. Sanford C. Urban Medicine: Threats to Health of Travelers to Developing World Cities. In: Jong E, Sanford C, eds. The Travel and Tropical Medicine Manual, 4th ed. Waltham: Saunders Elsevier; 2008: 18-32.
3. https:www.iamat.orgcountryzimbabweriskair-pollution#:~:text=In%20accordance%20with%20the%20World,maximum%20of%2010%20%C2%B5g%2Fm3.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) (2019), the Philippines has the 3rd highest mortality rate in Asia, averaging 120,000 deaths per year. (Enano, 2019) Air pollution is the presence of harmful chemicals in the air. Examples of these chemicals are called particulate matter which contains ammonia, sodium chloride, and many more (Ambag, 2018). Inhaling air that contains these chemicals can lead to respiratory diseases and even cancer. Here, in the Philippines, most air pollution comes from Metro Manila because of all the registered cars present in this area. Latest data from the regional DENR show that vehicles were responsible for nearly 88 percent of pollutants in the metro in 2018 (Enano, 2019). Now, at present, the number of registered cars is rising because of The Unified Vehicular Volume Reduction Program, mainly known as the number coding in the Philippines. As the levels of air pollution rise steadily because of the increase in the number of registered cars, a solution to reduce this problem is needed for all the people in Metro Manila. Fortunately, there is a way to reduce air pollution in the metro. The air pollution in Metro Manila can be reduced by using Euro 4 fuel to lessen the emission of smoke from vehicles.

Euro 4 is a globally accepted European emission standard for vehicles that require the use of fuel with significantly lower sulfur and benzene content (Garcia, 2016). Having lower levels of sulfur will lessen the emissions of particles by a vehicle. The fuel is also 10 times better than the former standard emission, Euro 2, having 50 parts per million (ppm) compared to Euro 2’s 500 parts per million. (Ranada, 2014). Euro 4 not only helps the environment but also improves the fuel economy, improves engine performance by cleaning internal engine deposits, and minimizes the effects of ethanol, which corrodes engine internals (Garcia, 2016). By the Philippines switching to Euro 4 fuel, the country will have less air pollution, therefore helping as well in the problem of Climate Change.

The Department of Energy and Natural Resources (DENR) has stated that starting January 1, 2016, all new passenger and light-duty cars introduced to the market should comply with Euro 4 emission limits and must drive on Euro 4 fuel. According to Pabustan (2017), the upgrade from Euro 2 to Euro 4 reduces the toxic sulfur that comes out of the combustion engine by 450 parts per million (ppm), both on diesel and gasoline. Benzene, which is also considered harmful to humans, was also cut off by 4% (Pabustan, 2017). By switching to Euro 4 engines, there will be cleaner emissions because of the Euro 4 compliant fuels. Euro 4 fuel-compliant cars can also run greener and are more efficient due to technological advancements, especially in diesel engines (Summit Storylabs, 2018). Therefore, by switching to Euro 4 cars and Euro 4 fuel, the emissions of air pollution will be decreased.

But, even with all the advantages of Euro 4 fuel, the price of this certain fuel is higher than the former standard emission, Euro 2, as it requires more refinery processing to lower the toxic sulfur. (Garcia, 2016). This has troubled many people because they think that they will have to pay more for the fuel for their cars. But, even though the fuel is more expensive, gasoline stations have already sold Euro 4 fuel competitively. For example, Petron, one of the most successful fuel-selling companies in the Philippines, started selling Euro 4-compliant fuels last 2014. All of Petron’s Euro 4-compliant fuels are made here in the Philippines. The company, after making Euro 4 fuel the standard emission, assured its customers that Euro 4 fuel will not affect the price in the retail station, even if making Euro 4 fuel is more expensive than making Euro 2 fuel. (Garcia, 2016). This 2019, gas stations are now selling Euro 5-compliant fuels which are even better than Euro 4, so today, there will be even lesser emissions by cars.

Another problem that can pretty much eliminate the advantages of Euro 4 fuel is the never-ending traffic in Metro Manila. Every rush hour, every day, we go through the process of waiting in traffic. If vehicles are kept at a standstill for a long time on the road, more and more emissions will go out of the cars, causing more air pollution, and leading to more respiratory-related illnesses. Even if The Unified Vehicular Volume Reduction Program or the Clean Air Act exists, the number of registered cars will just keep growing because of the need for people to travel to go to work or school, thus increasing air pollution even more than it was. So, even if our cars are clean, Euro 4 fuel benefits will be nullified by the never-ending traffic present in the metro (Ranada, 2014). Therefore, if there is no solution for the horrific traffic in the metro, then all the laws, and all the changes in the vehicles, will not affect the problem, and the air pollution in the metro will continue to escalate.

In conclusion, the air pollution in Metro Manila can be reduced by the usage of Euro 4 fuel. Euro 4 fuel has less content of sulfur and benzene, lowering the chances of breathing in deadly air. The Department of Energy and Natural Resources has stated that starting January 1, all cars must run on Euro 4 fuel. Though producing the fuel will be more expensive than the former standard emission Euro 2, gas stations like Petron have assured that there will be no change of price for Euro 4 compliant fuels. But, even if our cars are all clean and emit less polluted air, the situation will stay the same if traffic is still a problem. Therefore, to lessen more polluted air, the Department of Energy and Natural Resources should phase out old vehicles that are more than 15 years old, especially smoke-belching jeepneys and buses (Garcia, 2016). These vehicles, considering their age, have Euro 2 engines, therefore having higher emissions than Euro 4 engines. By phasing out these vehicles, the emissions from all cars will be low. But, even if the Department of Energy and Natural Resources does implement such a rule or law, there is yet to be an ultimate solution to the problem of air pollution in Metro Manila and the country.

References

1. Ambag, R. (2018, June 18). How Bad is Air Pollution in the Philippines? Retrieved from https://www.flipscience.ph/health/how-bad-air-pollution-philippines/
2. Enano, J. O. (2019, July). Metro air getting dirtier, and deadlier for commuters. Retrieved from https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1135414/metro-air-getting-dirtier-deadlier-for-commuters/amp.
3. Garcia, L. (2016, February 29). For a greener Philippines: Welcome, Euro 4. Retrieved from https://businessmirror.com.ph/2016/02/29/for-a-greener-philippines-welcome-euro-4/
4. Pabustan, D. (2017, September 22) Euro 4, what does it mean and why do we need it? Retrieved from https://www.autodeal.com.ph/articles/car-features/euro-4-what-does-it-mean-and-why-do-we-need-it
5. Ranada, P. (2014, January 5). The solution to PH air pollution. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/ispeak/47196-solution-ph-air-pollution
6. Summit Storylabs (2018, January 9). What makes Euro-4 diesel engines different from old ones? Retrieved from https://www.topgear.com.ph/features/feature-articles/what-makes-euro-4-diesel-engines-different-from-older-ones-adv-con