Category: AIDS

As a matter of fact, HIV and AIDS can be considered as a major threat to human life. The primary purpose of the paper is to examine the symptoms and the effects that HIV and AIDS have on a human being.

HIV is a type of virus that can transform to AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) without treatment (OpenStax, 2013). A decade ago the disease and virus itself were considered to be incurable, and the majority of people died shortly after they had AIDS. However, the medicine and technologies develop rapidly, and nowadays, the virus can be controlled, and the patients have an opportunity to live long life under the constant control of professionals.

HIV and AIDS are two words that are not new for the society. There is hardly a person in the world that has never heard about the virus and the disease that it causes, however, not many people know the difference between HIV and AIDS and an impressive effect that it has on the immune system of a human being. The virus, HIV, makes the immune system vulnerable and not effective (OpenStax, 2013). Although it is a virus and the immune system should defend, it should be noted that the immune system does not recognize the virus, and thus, is not able to attack it.

The symptoms of HIV can be divided into three stages. The acute infection is characterized by the attempts of the organism to fight infection. Not so many people can draw a proper attention to the virus as the symptoms are very common to the flu, namely headache, fatigue, sore throat, vomiting, fever, and a red rash on the body. The period lasts for a couple of weeks, and the symptoms disappear, however, the virus continues to influence the immune system in a non-symptomatic stage.

After the first stage when the body tried to fight the virus and showed symptomatic reaction, the human body is unable to fight, and HIV transforms to the second stage. This period is latent, and the person cannot notice that something is wrong. This stage usually lasts ten years and in some cases even more. During this period, the virus makes the immune system vulnerable killing CD4 T-cells (OpenStax, 2013).

When the virus has killed enough CD4 T-cells and a human immune system is weak and is almost unable to fight, the person is diagnosed with AIDS. Nevertheless, due to the medications the person can rebuild the immune system and live longer. However, medications should be taken constantly. In addition to the destroyed immune system, a person usually experiences a number of symptoms, namely infections, quick loss of weight, tiredness, skin rashes, a decrease of mental abilities, headache and dizziness (OpenStax, 2013).

In conclusion, it should be pointed out that HIV influences the health of a human being in an impressively negative way. It destroys the immune system, makes it vulnerable, and unable to fight any disease. The risk of death is high in case a person does not take medications that are costly. HIV and AIDS are challenging to the society as not every infected patient can afford treatment and live long and happy life. An individual can even not notice the symptoms as they are similar to the flu, however, in ten years, the virus will transform to the AIDS and a weak immune system will not be able to fight any virus. Thus, it is essential to take care of health and prevent the risk of HIV.

Reference

OpenStax. (2013). Concepts of Biology. Houston, TX: OpenStax College.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a commonly used approach in testing of the equality of various means using variance (Derrick, 2008). This analysis of often based on a number of assumptions including: independence of the samples, equal variance in populations and that the populations from which the sample is extracted has a normal or near normal distribution (Derrick, 2008). This paper applies ANOVA analysis in development of statistical assumptions defining the situation of HIV/AIDS related psychiatric depression in Africa. The paper compares the impact different therapeutic approaches in management of psychiatric depression among patients with HIV/AIDS. Using selected variables, this paper will successfully illustrate how ANOVA analysis is applicable in analysis of such scenario. To achieve this, a null and an alternative hypothesis will be developed and tested with the help of SPSS statistical analysis tool. The null and alternative hypothesis provides a rational basis upon which conclusions are drawn.

In comparing the relationship between therapy administration and psychiatric depression amongst aids patients, the paper will seek to establish whether the means of several groups are equal as well as determine if there exist any significant differences. In general, this paper aims to illustrate the logic used in ANOVA. The null hypothesis evaluated by one way ANOVA is that the mean of two or more populations are equal (Stuttgart, 2007).

It questions whether (H₀) the population means for all groups bear equality and that the differences observed are a result of variations from random sampling (Brian, 2009). When null hypothesis is not true, the alternative hypothesis (H_a) supposes that the observed differences between means of sample being evaluated are real differences in the mean of the populations. The logic applied in ANOVA in mean comparison is similar to comparison of means adopted in t-tests (Green &Salkind, 2008). The data set used in this study is based on three therapy groups. One groups is subjected to journal therapy, the other group is subjected to counseling therapy while the last group is subjected to a combination of journal and counseling therapy. The data used is obtained from the General Social Survey disk. The data measures the psychiatric depression average levels suffered by HIV/AIDS patients in respective groups prior to treatment and after treatment.

In order to determine the impact of different types of treatments in management of depression related to HIV/AIDS, researches are first developed. The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference in means of different treatment approaches adopted in depression management among HIV/AIDS infected persons in Africa. The alternative hypothesis is just the opposite of this; it states that there is a significant difference in the means of different treatment approaches adopted in depression management among HIV/AIDS infected persons in Africa. Mathematically, the expressions are expressed as follows:

• H₀: µ₁ = µ₂ = µ₃
• H₁: µ₁ ` µ<sub>2</sub> ` µ₃

Whereby µ₁, µ₂, ^ µ₃ are the means for journal, counseling, and a combination of journal and counseling respectively. To further evaluate the significance of the test, the statistic F value is obtained. The F value is tested with a P value of 0.05 and as such an F value less than the p value will lead to outright rejection of the hypothesis being evaluated. Given that the primary ANOVA analysis does not give the actual mean differences for the groups evaluated, this study conducts further post-hoc studies to define the group differences. Tukey B is adopted for this study.

Results

The SPSS output displays the findings established based on the criteria defined earlier in the study.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics.

From the research study, each dependent variable i.e. treatment approach there is an associated mean as well as a standard deviation. As earlier mentioned two scenarios are evaluated: firstly, the state prior to treatment and secondly, the state after treatment. The respective means and variances are shown in table 1 attached. The returned means, for instance after treatment administration shows that the means µ₁, µ₂, ^ µ₃ fail to satisfy the criteria defined by the null hypothesis i.e.

H₀: µ₁ = µ₂ = µ₃

Whereby µ₁, µ₂, ^ µ₃ are 70.30, 65.85, and 71.10 respectively. However, the null hypothesis is not immediately rejected. Rather a further evaluation for statistical significance is sought.

Table 2: Test for homogeneity of variances.

To reject the findings of the null, the F statistic value is determined. Given the F value of.699 and.753 obtained for pre and post treatment respectively, it is sufficient to reject the null hypothesis (see table 2). The F values shows that the result are statistically significant because they are larger than the p value of.05 earlier stated. There is a strong evidence suggesting that the there is a significant difference between the means of variables being evaluated.

The ANOVA results further reinforce the earlier defined results. It provides the results between groups as well as within groups. In both cases, the results reveal that there are indeed differences between the groups as well as within groups.

The overall SPSS and syntax files illustrating the discussion illustrated in the study are attached hereafter:

SPSS Syntax and output

Post Hoc Tests

Homogeneous Subsets

References

Brian, S. (2009). Introduction to Statistics. London: McGraw Hill.

Derrick, A. (2008). Research methods applicable to quantitative analysis of data (2th ed.). Worth publishers: New York.

Green, S.B. & Salkind, N.J. (2008) Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: Analyzing and Understanding Data (5th ed.) Pearson Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

Stuttgart, W. (2007). ANOVA application to case analysis.Journal of Statistics 14(2), pp. 123-126.

Background

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection is one of the greatest health concerns of the initiative behind Healthy People 2020. The latter has sought to create awareness, provide strategies of preventing the scourge and devise long term plans which stakeholders can put into action. Healthy People 2020 seeks to improve the overall health of individuals affected by HIV/AIDS. It also creates policies to guide the process of preventing and managing this terminal condition.

The paper also points out the intervention measures against HIV/AIDS among young people in the United States. It is crucial to mention that the execution of intervention measures ought to take place at the local, state and federal levels.

Target population and setting

A report issued in June 2012 by the National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States (NHAS) indicated that HIV infection among the US teenagers who age between 13 and19 years is on the rise (Choi & Hey, 2011). This report further indicates that 70% of teenagers from the African-American segment of the population are highly vulnerable (Gore et al., 2011).

Furthermore, it is evident that male to male sexual intercourse plays a major role in the rising number of HIV infections among the entire teenage population bearing in mind that every 9 out of 10 teenagers who engage in such activities are highly likely to be infected by the scourge (Choi & Hey, 2011). Louisiana, South Carolina and Florida are some of the Southeastern states recording the highest number of HIV infections among teenagers.

HIV prevention among students

Students can play a momentous role in disseminating information pertaining the causative factors and effects of HIV/AIDS. According to Voisin and Bird (2009), peer influence among young people is rife. In other words, they easily embrace ideas and thought processes from each other without weighing the consequences. Erik Erickson explains teenage behavior using identity versus role confusion stage in his theory of psychosexual development. In it, he argues that at the age of 12 to 18years, teenagers move into a stage where they deal with issues on identity and role confusion, and they seek, try new things and acquire a particular identity which is crucial in their later stages of growth and eventual maturity (Bee, 1992).

The article by Voisin and Bird (2009) brings out the problem of HIV infection among teenagers and their peers. The authors appear to concur with the identity versus role confusion argument in Ericksons theory by asserting that young people find it difficult to go against their peers because they have the freedom to attempt new ideas (Voisin and Bird, 2009: Bee, 1992). Peer influence is particularly strong in the United States owing to the prevalence of habits such as substance abuse and unprotected or unconventional sexual relationships that expose the young people to higher risks of contracting HIV/AIDS.

Misleading information, poorly targeted advertisements and ineffective regulation of information accessed by the public have been counterproductive towards several intervention measures because most teenagers access wrong and misleading information about sex, drugs and substance abuse in society (Thornton, Ryckman & Gold, 2011). According to Choi and Hey (2011), advertisements and certain programs that exhibit sexual contents through televisions, internet and printed media usually propel young people to engage in unsafe sexual activities and drug abuse.

Theoretical framework and Health belief model

Information processing paradigm model is perhaps the most effective health promotion strategy that can counter the spread of HIV/AIDS at the federal and state levels. Persuasive communication that factors stating facts of the problem, creating an understanding of the dangers of careless behavior and HIV, and ensuring that content is accepted and assimilated is a timely and effective tool of information to young people. Thompson and Auslander (2011) strongly advocate for the model by indicating that unless young people are educated and familiarized with the health impacts of HIV/AIDS, other intervention plans might fail to work as expected. Agreeably, lack of information and facts about societal behavior and the rise of new HIV infections among teenagers is a common issue. For instance, establishing a website that presents facts about HIV infections would effectively allow teenagers to confront the realities of their indiscriminate behavioral tendencies (Thompson & Auslander, 2011). An effectively customized website would allow teenagers to not merely search for information. It will also assist them to obtain direct answers on the causes, development, impacts, prevention and management of HIV/AIDS.

Literature review

The article by Voisin and Bird (2009) aims at exploring the effects that result from teenage behavior, the spread of HIV and intervention programs. They indicate that in order to capture the attention of more teenagers and ensure that they embrace prevention and management measures for HIV/AIDS, the creation of health promotion forums should seek to use teenagers in reaching out their peers. This consideration has articulately been brought out in the Health People 2020 with new issues such as creating HIV awareness and prevention, preparedness, and social determinants of health among others being encouraged (Health People.Gov, 2011). In particular, Voisin and Bird (2009) add that the promotion should create a forum within which teenagers can freely interact and share facts about HIV/AIDS including its effects.

Information processing paradigm model plays an important role of exposure, information search and dissemination, behavior re-enforcement and decision making in the promotion and interventions of HIV among teenagers. According to Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman (2010), focus on changing teenagers behaviors should always seek to enrich peers through positive influence as opposed to pursuing methods of eliminating bad company. Holding key forums that bring together teenagers across the nation to discuss the health problem can be very effective in disseminating the intended messages. In agreement, Gore et al (2011) cite that this will ensure teenagers get, comprehend and assimilate the correct informative message in order to positively influence their behavioral patterns (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010). According to the trans-theoretical model, the need for a change of behavior to address particular habits for positive growth (McCrae & Costa, 1997). Teachers and parents should develop an open-door policy where teenagers can feel free to raise issues affecting them without any element of fear. This will enhance elimination of unhealthy behaviors by adopting health ones via discussions, contemplation, intervention and action strategies.

According to Health People 2020 (2011), a continuous support system should be put in place to cater for the healthcare needs of young people who are prone to HIV/AIDS infection. Thornton, Ryckman and Gold (2011) suggest that free counseling and testing centers for HIV/AIDS can be set up from the local to federal levels. This intervention program should incorporate additional support resources, balanced coverage and presentation of reality on the ground. This can also moderate and support the intervention system (Thornton, Ryckman & Gold, 2011).

Research-based intervention and intended outcomes

Research on HIV/AIDS interventions is necessary to ensure that teenagers and other more vulnerable individuals are safe from HIV infections. A familiar study conducted by Thornton, Ryckman and Gold (2011) demonstrated that behavioral interventions are critical in lowering instances of new HIV/AIDS infections among teenagers.

The purpose of conducting such studies is to establish key influences related to sexual-risk taking among American teenagers. Using a qualitative study model, the researchers found out that several black American teenagers often engage in risky sexual behaviors without contemplating the underlying risks.

Evaluation plan to measure efficacy of the proposed intervention

Intervention programs that may be put in place have been extensively discussed in most past empirical studies. To determine the best intervention method for HIV promotion, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) is the best tool for understanding behavioral factor. Besides, focused group is used as a tool to obtain valuable information from teenagers in relation to HIV promotion as demonstrated in the tables below.

Causal categories / Risk Group	Perspectives	Evaluation role via BRFSS	Intervention
Teenagers abusing drugs	Seek to develop good healthy practices to overcome the effects of substance abuse.	Providing intervention where necessary. Interpreting findings on substance use.	Conducting regular awareness
Teenagers engaging in unprotected sexual activities	May be curious to fit among peers, and may be unaware of infections.	Providing the context of giving information to teenagers.	Dissemination of information
Teenagers free from infections	Free from HIV challenges but still at risk of exposure.	Disseminating information is critical.	Dissemination of information.

Focus Group	Perspective	Evaluation BRFSS	Intervention
Teenagers	To change behavioral patterns.	Implement or use information provided to create awareness to peers.	Plays an important and direct role in the prevention process.
State, county leaders	To determine the effectiveness of the intervention program and availability of funds.	Interpret outcomes and findings and ensure program is funded.	Direct support and provide resources for healthcare services.
Healthcare providers	Provide treatment and care that is effective and acceptable.	Interpret findings and come up with the required health practices (modify if need be).	Meet infected and uninfected teenagers.
Health stakeholders and planning boards	Ensure the health of the entire community is improved.	Evaluate findings	Provide necessary resources.

References

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child. London: HarperCollins.

Choi, S. & Hey, J. (2011). Joint inference of population assignment and demographic history. Genetics, 189(2), 561-577.

Gore, F.M., Bloem, J.N.P., Patton, G.C., Ferguson, J., Joseph, V., Coffey, C., &Mathers, C.D. (2011). Global burden of disease in young people aged 10-24 years: a systematic analysis. The Lancet, 377(9783), 2093-2102.

Health People 2020 (2011). Web.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American psychologist, 52(5), 509-511.

Thompson, R. G. & Auslander, W.F. (2011). Substance use and mental health problems as predictors of HIV sexual risk behaviors among adolescents in foster care. Health and Social Work, 36(1), 33-43.

Thornton, B., Ryckman, R. & Gold, J. (2011). Competitive orientations and the type a behavior pattern. Psychology, 2(5), 411-415.

Voisin, D.R. & Bird, J.D.P. (2009). What African American male adolescents are telling us about HIV infection among their peers: Cultural approaches for HIV prevention. Social Work, 54(3), 201-210.

Zastrow, C. & Kirst-Ashman K. (2010). Understanding human behavior and the social environment. New York: Cengage Learning.

Community

Prince Georges County continues to have the second-highest rate of sexually transmitted diseases in Maryland and the second-highest number of reported AIDS and HIV cases, according to the countys top health official. (Wiggins, 2009)

As it can be understood from the above statement this paper will focus on the county of Prince George, in Maryland. More specifically the community we will be diagnosing is that of Upper Marlboro City.

Demographic and Epidemiological data

Upper Marlboro is a community of around 35,414 inhabitants with 13,055 housing units, as of July 2007. They are spread out in an area of 37.2 square miles with a density of 517 people per square mile, which is considered a low-density urban zone. 49.3%, or 9,595, of them, were female, and 50.7% or 9,640 were males. The median resident age was of 34.2 years. In comparison, that of Maryland is of 36 years (US Census Bureau, 2010). Thus, the city has a younger population than that of the state.

In relation to race, the majority of the city is composed of a majority of black or Afro-American people, 22,155 (or 62.6%), by 11,604 white people (or 32.8%), 709 Hispanic or Latino (or 2%), 539 Asian (or 1.5%), 159 American Indian or Alaskan Native (or 0.4%) and 252 individuals (or 0.7%) of another ethnical background. There are a total of 12,521 occupied housing units, where 10,912 are owner-occupied and only 1,609 are renter-occupied. That is something characteristic of this county that differs from the national average. In fact, the national average for owned housing is 66.2% of the occupied housing, instead of in Upper Marlboro we have 87.1%.

Regarding the social statistics of the city, we find that the population of three years and over enrolled in school is about 10,515. Of them, 2543, or 24.3%, are in high school. There are 14,662 married persons and 8409 who were never married. This one is the group with a higher risk potential for HIV/Aids attacks.

In fact, the County health Office declares that there are 5240 HIV / Aids positive cases in the county. What is more important was that in the city district as much as 3% of the population is affected by HIV / Aids (Wiggins, 2009). Another crucial piece of epidemiological data is that syphilis has been resurrecting in the country and city district area in particular.

Windshield Survey

The houses are aged from the 1950s to the current date.

They are range from the colonial, ranch, Cape Cod, and modern style. They are constructed of brick, shingles, and stucco. They are all single-family homes. They all have landed in the front and back, most on ½ acre or more. Most have central heating/air and the entire community is on a water well system, not public water. There are several open lots where homes have not been built on. There is also a horse farm within the development. Unfortunately, there are really no neighborhood hangouts. You have to go about 2-3 miles away to get to the nearest schoolyard, park, and convenience stores. The areas are open to a stranger. To get out of the neighborhood, people ride bikes, walk and drive. There are no developed sidewalks in the neighborhood and you have to walk about ¾ mile out of the development to get to a limited county bus service. There are signs of activities at the local school buildings. They hold after-school activities, church services, and community association meetings. In regard to stores, the closest shopping strip is about 4 miles away.

You have to drive or take bus transportation to get to them.

As mentioned above, the neighborhood is mixed with all races/ethnic backgrounds to include Caucasians, African Americans, Hispanics, and Indians. Most of the residents are of the Christian faith and you will find many churches in and surrounding the neighborhood for all different denominations. In general, during election campaigns, there are political posters in some neighborhood yards. The neighborhood area is mostly Democratic. Also, there are television antennas and satellite dishes in the neighborhood. Some people subscribed to The Washington Post and there is a local weekly newspaper called the Gazette that is delivered to everyone.

Despite all the epidemiological data mentioned above, there is no evidence of chronic diseases, accidents, communicable diseases, drug abuse, or mental illness in the neighborhood. The nearest hospital is about 10 miles away.

Problem

The problem is that the young and very sexually active population of the county, and especially the city district, is not Students are very sexually active, are neither using protection during their sexual relations nor are they having a responsible sexual behavior in general? This situation increases the risk potentials for HIV / Aids or other related disease infections.

Historical Significance

As health officials pointed out in 1998 there were 6.6 cases of syphilis for every 100,000 residents, compared with 11.2 cases per 100,000 residents in 2007 (Wiggin, 2009).

Also, another important factor is that the teen pregnancy rate has doubled in the past 2 years. Furthermore, during the last seven years, the rate of infection from HIV / Aids has been rising dramatically (Wiggins, 2009). During the same period, the number of people with lack of health access has been also rising fast. This situation reached its peak in 2007 when 151,000 residents had no health coverage at all and around 102,000 were in Medicare. In comparison to the national rate of HIV / Aids infected, the rate of the county (and especially city district) is higher (Healthy People, 2010).

Natural History of the Disease

The history of HIV / Aids begins in 1981 when the first case was reported. Nevertheless, suspicions were that the disease had been spreading even many years before. Until that time there are more than 600,000 cases reported in the US alone. The World Health Organization declared it to be a world pandemic by the early 1990s.

The HIV virus binds to CD4 receptor permissive cells. The CD4 is present in monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. They are part of the G-protein coupled 7 trans-membrane receptor family. Then, the virus is stimulated by Tat (a Trans-acting activator of transcription) and cellular transcription factors.

Summary

The problem is that the young and very sexually active population of the county, and especially the city district, is not Students are very sexually active, are neither using protection during their sexual relation nor are they having a responsible sexual behavior? One of the main contributors to this problem is the disregard of advice from health experts and the lack of access to health care.

Suppose George is making $18 an hour installing electronic chips in hand help computers.

In order to assess what are the causes of organized crime, we have to begin by assessing what organized crime is. But here we encounter the first big problem. As to date, there is no clear and widely accepted definition of organized crime. There have been several attempts to try and define organized crime but all of these attempts have not produced the desired consensus. Nevertheless, there have been positive steps made in this regard. Among investigators, there is a rising consensus on what constitutes an organized crime. They have determined four pillars, principles, around which a criminal organization is formed. Understanding these four principles will enable us to understand the roots of organized crime. The difference between me and George would be that I cannot offer the high quality that he offers in the installing of the chips in handheld personal computers. This sort of job requires high professional labor skills in order to be completed adequately. George has been having adequate professional training in order to be qualified for this special job. For me to pretend to replace him I should offer the company that employs him at least the same level of professional qualification and experience.

Skilled labor is one of the basic tenets of modern economics. It is also one of the bases of success for entrepreneurs. The more specialized the labor skills that one offers, the higher the payor reward he/she can expect. The same reasoning applies to the employer. It is true that George is costing him 18$ per hour but the quality of work he is receiving is also very high. Thus, he has the opportunity to maximize his profits due to the quality work George offers. This will attract customers and make them satisfied with what the company is offering. So, he cannot offer me that job because the quality will decrease rapidly and customer satisfaction will go down.

Thus, I have to offer at least the same level of expertise and experience as George combined with a lower pay per hour before pretending from Georges employer to offer me the job. The optimal solution would be to offer better expertise and experience.

Why does the opportunity cost of doing homework increase as you spend more time doing it?

This is related to the productivity rate that one has done a job or anything else. When one spends one hour doing something they have a certain productivity yield. But when they spend three or four hours on that task, the productivity yield is not the same as the productivity rate of each separate hour. In fact, it is more than that. Thus, when I commit myself to do my homework for one hour I lose the productivity yield I would have had if I was to do an income-producing activity. And if I continue doing my homework for three or four hours I lose the equivalent of the productivity yield of doing another activity.

Part of the reasoning is the same as what I have mentioned above regarding the skilled labor offering. Professors of computer science do offer specialized skills to their students regarding products and services which are particular in the market. They also transmit students knowledge about technological developments or the way how to achieve these technological developments. Innovation and technological breakthroughs are very important for the growth and profit-maximizing of a company. Professors of English literature do not offer knowledge related to these elements meanwhile professors of computer science do offer students knowledge of specialized skills.

References

Healthy People (2010) Leading health indicators. Web.

United States Census Bureau (2010) American Fact Finder. Web.

Wiggins, O. (2009). County still no. 2 in md. for stds, says officials, The Washington Post. Web.

Explanation of Main Results

This paper investigated the nature of the relationship between HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma. The findings of this paper showed that rare skin cancer was the HIV-defining condition in only 48.7% of the cases sampled. Comparatively, 51.3% of the cases sampled did not show a direct correlation between HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma. These details emerged in the case study summary, which showed that the percentage of female participants suffering from HIV disease, but did not have Kaposi Sarcoma was 60.5%. This is a relatively larger percentage of people compared to 39.5% of people who suffered from HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma. Comparatively, an analysis of male respondents showed a different pattern because there were higher percentages of people (57.5%) who suffered from HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma, as opposed to the number of people who suffered from HIV, but not Kaposi Sarcoma (42.5%). Nonetheless, collectively, these statistics show that there were higher numbers of cases where the participants suffered from Kaposi Sarcoma, but were free from HIV. Similarly, there were high numbers of cases where patients suffered from HIV but were free from Kaposi Sarcoma. Comprehensively, we could say that the relationship between Kaposi Sarcoma and HIV is weak. Since there were only 12 cases where the participants had HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma, at the same time, it is possible to affirm this fact. Stated differently, compared to the statistics highlighted above, the number of people suffering from both HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma was small.

Statistical Significance of the Results

Since this study investigated the relationship between Kaposi Sarcoma and HIV across both genders and varied age groups (the respondents were between 1 year and 64 years), its findings were valid, transferable and reliable across the above-mentioned metrics. The t-test revealed that the mean differences between both sets of blood pressures were statistically insignificant. The findings of the ANOVA test also yielded the same result. Findings from Levenes test revealed that there was an insignificant variation in the two groups. Stated differently, the significance value was greater than 0.05.

Social Change Implications of the Research

HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma affect millions of people around the world. When untreated, both conditions could cause death. As seen in some sections of this paper, many researchers have struggled to explain the relationship between both variables (Crosetti & Succo, 2013). Although most of their findings indicated that both variables shared a significant relationship, the researchers failed to include the effect of modern HIV therapies on the relationship. Particularly, they failed to consider the effects of ARV therapies on the predisposition of HIV patients to Kaposi Sarcoma. This research has proved that the therapy affects the relationship between both variables because it improves peoples immune systems, thereby making them less vulnerable to rare skin cancer. Based on the success of ARVs in reducing the incidence of Kaposi Sarcoma among HIV patients, it is plausible to propose that the therapy should be a preventive treatment against Kaposi Sarcoma. Similarly, it should be a first line of treatment for HIV-infected people who have early stage Kaposi Sarcoma.

Suggestions for Future Research

ARV therapy is a plausible health management tool that would allow HIV patients to treat or manage Kaposi Sarcoma. This treatment option is one among a line of other treatment options for Kaposi Sarcoma. For example, researchers have proposed local therapy and topical retinoid as alternative health management tools for Kaposi Sarcoma (Rose & Harris, 2015). Furthermore, their studies have shown that these treatment options (including ARV therapies) have varied effects on patients who have different types of Kaposi sarcoma (Rose & Harris, 2015). Particularly, they have shown that these treatment options are more effective on patients who suffer from endemic Kaposi Sarcoma. Based on these findings, it is important to understand the effects of these alternative treatment options for HIV patients, or patients who suffer from both HIV and Kaposi Sarcoma. For example, future research should investigate if these treatment options affect the relationship between Kaposi Sarcoma and HIV, the way ARV therapies do.

Summary of Final Project

Explanation of Final Project (Variables and Types of Statistical Tests)

In this paper, I sought to find out the nature of the relationship between Kaposi Sarcoma and HIV. The null hypothesis stated that HIV shared no correlation with Kaposi Sarcoma. Comparatively, the alternative hypothesis stated that HIV shared a direct correlation with Kaposi Sarcoma. Using Kaposi Sarcoma as the independent variable and HIV as the dependent variable, I recorded the systolic blood pressures of 78 participants and analyzed the results using SPSS. This data analysis tool showed that both variables shared an insignificant relationship.

Analysis and Significance of the Results

The insignificant relationship between HIV and Kaposi sarcoma is eye-opening because past studies have often shown that both variables share a positive correlation (Crosetti & Succo, 2013). For example, the literature review showed that most researchers attributed the increased cases of Kaposi Sarcoma, in America, to the increased spread of HIV in the country (Khammissa, Pantanowitz, & Feller, 2012). Furthermore, the same researchers showed that more than 25% of HIV people developed Kaposi Sarcoma in their lifetimes (Venkataraman, 2013). Findings from the American Cancer Society (2014) further affirmed these findings by stating that AIDS often predisposes its victims to opportunistic infections and unusual neoplasm, which increases their predisposition to Kaposi Sarcoma.

Based on the findings emerging from this study, we see that Kaposi Sarcoma and HIV have a weak relationship. The increased use of anti-retroviral therapy could explain this disparity. Rose and Harris (2015) support this view because they stated that All therapies for Kaposi sarcoma (Kaposis sarcoma, KS) have been markedly influenced by HAART (highly active anti-retroviral therapy), which has decreased the incidence and severity of this disease (p. 1). Based on this assertion, researchers agree that ARV use has dramatically changed the clinical course of Kaposi Sarcoma (Rose and Harris, 2015). This is why some medical journals propose it as the first line of treatment for the rare skin condition (Khammissa et al., 2012). When used, patients could have a response rate of up to 80%, depending on the level of disease progression (Rose & Harris, 2015). However, isolated findings show that most patients who have a poor-risk response to Kaposi Sarcoma rarely enjoy positive health outcomes when using highly active anti-retroviral therapy (Khammissa et al., 2012; Rose & Harris, 2015).

Additional Statistical Tests that May Help to Investigate the Variables of Interest

In the future, researchers should consider using observation as an alternative data gathering method for recording data over long periods. It would similarly be interesting to know if we could come up with different findings using alternative data analysis techniques, such as coding.

References

American Cancer Society. (2014). Kaposi Sarcoma. Web.

Crosetti, E., & Succo, G. (2013). Non-human immunodeficiency virus-related Kaposis sarcoma of the oropharynx: a case report and review of the literature. Journal of Medical Case Reports, 7(293), 16-23.

Khammissa, R., Pantanowitz, L., & Feller, L. (2012). Oral HIV-Associated Kaposi Sarcoma:A Clinical Study from the Ga-Rankuwa Area, South Africa. AIDS Research and Treatment, 2012(873171), 1-9.

Rose, L., & Harris, J. (2015). Kaposi Sarcoma Treatment & Management. Web.

Venkataraman, G., Uldrick, T., Aleman, K., Mahony, D., Karcher, D., Steinberg, S., & Raffeld, M. (2013). Bone Marrow Findings in HIV-Positive Patients With Kaposi Sarcoma HerpesvirusAssociated Multicentric Castleman Disease. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 139(1), 651-661.

Introduction

The HIV/AIDS pandemic has caused significant global threats. These threats are imminent within most developing nations. The nations have encountered severe consequences of HIV infection. South Africa is one of the most affected states. Observably, the country has continuously faced the impacts of the disease. The country has struggled to deal with this pandemic from the periods of apartheid (Beyrer & Celentano 2007, pp. 15). HIV is a major contributory factor to high mortality. It also causes high rates of morbidity. Due to HIV infection, South Africa has increasingly experienced a reduction in life expectancy.

High levels of maternal mortality have been noted. In addition, HIV/AIDS has also caused high levels of child mortality in South Africa. According to most investigations, a persons sexual lifestyle is one of the most vital factors. This is because it can lead to an increased susceptibility to HIV infection (Klug 2012, pp. 300). There are other several factors causing a high-levels of vulnerability to HIV infection in South Africa. The government of South Africa has employed diverse strategies. This is in order to effectively prevent further spread. The paper discusses HIV/AIDS awareness and campaign as an intervention applied to prevent HIV in South Africa. It also examines the evaluation methodology applied for this intervention.

An Intervention That Has Been Used to Prevent HIV in South Africa

The impact of HIV/AIDS in South Africa is great. Most investigations by government agencies and other stakeholders provide critical insights. For instance, during 2009, an approximated 5.6 million individuals were infected by HIV/ADS in the country. It is clear that compared to other nations, this is almost the largest number of infected persons ever realized. Consequently, surveys have indicated increased instances of mortality in the country. This is due to HIV infection. It is also evident that South Africa has lost huge finances because of HIV infection. Particularly, this trend has been observable in the past three decades (Magadi 2011, pp. 525). There are notable variances in infection patterns among the different age categories within the country. For example, it is noted that the youth are highly infected. There are also observable disparities in the prevalence rates across the main provinces in South Africa. There have been efforts to mark a transformation in the history and pattern of HIV in South Africa. Several interventions have been launched to achieve this initiative. These interventions have had a remarkable effect on the infection patterns. This impact has also been observed in the health-seeking practices of most citizens.

HIV/AIDS awareness and active campaigns are the basic interventions applicable in South Africa. Basically, the provision of critical knowledge and facts regarding HIV is vital. It is important to note that this prevention approach has been applied both by the government agencies and other stakeholders. The government has struggled to provide basic services and information regarding the disease. The campaigns majorly target behavior change and adoption of a healthy lifestyle (Olesen, T 2012, 100). Various population segments are targeted by this intervention. These include adolescence and youth. Apart from these, married people, single parents, as well as the elderly, are also targeted. Through its various agencies, the government has designed critical messages appropriate for different age sets.

There is a notable utilization of different media in conveying HIV information. The fundamental concept in this intervention is the application of the behavior change communication approach (Rohleder, 2009, pp. 36). This enhances the rapid and pragmatic transformation in individual lifestyles. Presently, there exist several large-scale initiatives aimed at increasing awareness of HIV amongst diverse population segments. There are communication campaigns targeted at increasing the level of knowledge on this pandemic. Principally, the multi-sector approach is applied. This enables the communication or behavior transformation messages to reach a variety of personalities. It is evident that all social gatherings and learning institutions have been used as major ccentersfor conveying awareness messages. Increasing the level of awareness is an important part of the recently launched HIV counselling and testing, (HCT) (Youde 2007, pp. 41).

Different media sources in South Africa have played an important role. This is because the government and other agencies have engaged these media sources to create awareness. For instance, it has developed general discussion topics on the issue of HIV through the media. These discussions are available throughout the country (Robins 2009, pp. 5). Therefore, it is notable that a significant portion of the population is reached. Appropriate behavior communication methodologies have been applied for diverse age groups. For example, the use of celebrities and youth-friendly approaches has been applied. These tactful initiatives targeted age groups and specific population segments. As noted by most of the stakeholders involved in this intervention, the packaging of the message determines its usability levels. Publicizing is another important approach. Particularly, this is appropriate for the announcement of free access to basic support services. These services aim at the prevention of HIV infection.

Some of the basic services that have been publicised include testing and counselling. There is an eminent application of door-to-door approach in enhancing the awareness of HIV. In utilizing these approaches, the government has provided critical information about the pandemic (Youde 2007, pp. 50). These include factual information about its nature, acquisition, treatment, and management. Notably, this factual information has helped in the alleviation of myths and traditions associated with the incidence of HIV/AIDS. The health services dispersion points such as the health center, the clinics, or other big hospitals have also been used as key points. In this regard, they have been targeted as key points for the transmission of important HIV messages. The application of billboards and other public posters also include some of the important channels. The billboards conveying factual information about HIV infection and its prevention methodologies are publicly displayed. These displays are widely exposed in areas that are mostly visited by people.

The vox pops methodology is applied as a strategy for enhancing the objectives of the project. They help to create HIV awareness (Kimani-Murage, Manderson, Norris & Kahn 2010, pp. 269). From this approach, listeners are able to get vital information on individual encounters with the pandemic. Apart from this, they also get empowered to expel the various myths as well as the stigmas that are frequently associated with the pandemic. The government set out strategic objectives during the launch of the HIV/AIDS awareness and campaign policy. For instance, it targeted to reach approximately half of its population with these awareness messages. In Africa, the issue of stigmatization presently causes a lot of challenges in the management of HIV/AIDS. This problem is also notable within South Africa. It is important to apply messages that fight stigma on HIV-infected individuals in South Africa.

Khomanani is an example of a common HIV awareness campaign drive in South Africa is (Black 2012, pp. 100). This stands for caring collectively. This awareness program has been in the mainstream since 2001. The department of health has utilized this approach for a long time to increase the level of knowledge and awareness within the general population. Apart from government intervention, there are other notable stakeholders that have engaged in upscaling this intervention. Some examples include the non-governmental organizations, religious movements as well as civil societies. To increase the level of awareness and rate of information transfer, the government also encourages and supports the establishment of local support groups. Various support groups currently engage in the dispersion of information. Furthermore, all sectors have stepped up their efforts in implementing HIV/AIDS education projects.

There is a remarkable integration of education messages based on facts about HIV/AIDS within the curriculum is (Youde 2007, pp. 67). Through this mechanism, the students are able to know about the realities surrounding HIV/AIDS. Consequently, they learn how to live negatively or positively amongst their mates. The role played by advanced information technology applications in enhancing this process is notable. Generally, various agencies within South Africa have used the internet as a medium for communicating these messages. The more globalized systems and personalities are able to access this information online. Furthermore, there are factual procedures on the managment of HIV/AIDS and other related complications within the internet (Rohleder, 2009, pp. 51). There is an eminent utilization of the radio and television in showcasing pertinent information regarding the pandemic. Critical initiatives have been observed. This is in order to help in the reduction of infection amongst the youth and students. For instance, the government has encouraged the establishment of various health clubs within schools. This is conducted in association with the relevant stakeholders within the education sector.

The Soul City initiative has extensively been applied to create awareness. It has also enlightened the young people on matters related to the HIV pandemic. Other than this campaign strategy, the Soul Buddyz is another approach that has been widely used to target the effective education of the entire adult population (Katsidzira & Hakim 2011, pp. 1125). The government has initiated intensive budgetary allocations for these ambitious interventions. It is approximated that about $ 13 million is allocated annually for these interventions. This depicts the extent to which South Africa is dedicated to minimize or prevent the occurrence of HIV/AIDS. The utilization of the print media in dispersing preventive information on HIV is notable. Various target groups have been identified through the print media. The development of interpersonal education communication, (IEC) material by different agencies is important. These IEC materials contain critical facts about HIV.

Generally, there is an eminent need for health education. This is because most individuals might have deviant and mythical perceptions regarding this disease. This is an important factor that is attributed to high levels of HIV infection within the entire African continent. These campaigns have also integrated the use of reproductive health strategies (Katsidzira & Hakim 2011, pp. 1128). This is because reproductive health is pertinent to an individuals sexuality. Principally, such campaigns focus on the need to adopt appropriate sexual behaviors and overall wellbeing. The impacts of these interventions are notable. South Africa is already experiencing minimal new infections from this virus. Moreover, the level of awareness and factual knowledge about HIV/AIDS has significantly increased. This positive pattern is observable across all segments of the population. Indicatively, more advances are likely to be experienced in the future. This may be attributed to increased rate of accessibility and usability of information. In this regard, technological advancement has played a remarkable role.

How the Intervention Has Been Evaluated

Evaluation is an important process in an intervention. There are many benefits associated with evaluation procedures. For instance, evaluation helps to assess the levels of goal achievement within any project. HIV/AIDS awareness and campaign interventions have been appropriately evaluated in South Africa (Youde 2007, pp. 91). The government has applied various methodologies in assessing the success of this intervention. The first basic approach that has been applied by the government is notable. Demographic health surveys have frequently been applied by most government agencies. This approach has also been widely applied by other non governmental agencies. Demographic surveys are conducted in South Africa within specified intervals.

There are specialized agencies involved in the execution of HIV/AIDS surveys. These surveys normally aim to assess the level of knowledge of specific population segments concerning HIV (Robins 2009, pp. 10). Furthermore, there are basic intervention or project indicators that are extensively assessed. This helps to determine the level of achievement or accomplishment of the noted project deliverables. These evaluations are conducted nationwide. The investigations apply sophisticated statistical and empirical processes. These are able to elicit the different patterns and disparities. The basic assessment of knowledge capacities of various people or category of individuals is always done. This ensures that the existent knowledge gaps are adequately addressed. It is important to ensure the full engagement of the public in the evaluation exercises. Various government agencies have helped in the mobilization and interviewing of the relevant people. The interviews and discussions are normally aimed at assessing their knowledge and perceptions concerning the HIV pandemic.

There are other important evaluation methods. These include the utilization of feedback and client data recorded within all health care facilities, (Rohleder, 2009, pp. 76). The relevant government agencies also receive quarterly reports from various agencies dealing in the fight of this pandemic. These reports are effectively utilized to note the disparities that exist. The various rates associated with mortality as well as morbidity from conditions related to HIV can be determined. Consequently, they form critical data for the evaluation. Qualified personnel must be indulged in the evaluation processes. For instance, communication and other public health personalities might be involved. The capacity to evaluate the competencies and knowledge levels of the youth is critical. Indicatively, the evaluation objectives are accomplished through baseline surveys. These surveys are mainly sponsored and supervised by the relevant government agencies. The government may also outsource qualified external expert. Alternatively, the services of established and reputable evaluation agencies may be hired.

There is great importance in indulging the services of an external evaluator. This enables a proper and transparent process of evaluation (Robins 2009, pp. 25). The evaluation information might also be obtained from the various notable stakeholders. By engaging these stakeholders, the government and other relevant agencies are able to learn vital lessons. In conducting the evaluations, the investigation of diverse aspects of knowledge on HIV is critical. Epidemiological analysis and surveys form an appropriate approach towards meeting the goals of a comprehensive evaluation. The consumption of clinical data is important. It also refers to another approach that has been applied by South Africa to attain its evaluation goals.

Clinical information is normally available within hospitals. In addition, such information may also be obtained from other patient care and support centers. Monitoring processes have been utilized in South Africa to help in the evaluation of HIV awareness interventions (Robins 2009, pp. 30). Effective monitoring has enabled the government to assess the success of this intervention. This has been done for each phase and stage of project evaluation. Intensive monitoring of data has been conducted during the final evaluation processes. It is important to apply other related data from different or linked surveys. Several government agencies engaged in diverse health projects have utilized the sentinel data in various ways. These data have also been used in the examination of the efficiency of most interventions.

Conclusion

There are severe impacts of HIV pandemic in South Africa. The country has lost huge amounts of financial resources. This is due to the large budgetary allocations for preventive measures. There is an important need to address the challenges emanating from this pandemic. Notably, the government has executed different strategies to combat the disease. Awareness and campaigns include some of the interventions that have been applied. The interventions have been designed to comprehensively address the needs of the target population. The basic aim of these projects is to minimize the spread and impacts of HIV/AIDS.

References

Beyrer, C & Celentano, D 2007, Public Health Aspects of HIV/AIDS in Developing Countries: Epidemiology, Prevention and Care, Springer, New York, NY.

Black, P 2012, Laughing to Death: Joking as Support amid Stigma for Zulu-speaking South Africans Living with HIV, Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 87108.

Katsidzira, L and Hakim, G 2011, HIV prevention in southern Africa: why we must reassess our strategies? Tropical Medicine & International Health, vol. 16, no. 9, pp. 11201130.

Kimani-Murage, W, Manderson, L, Norris, A and Kahn, K 2010, You opened our eyes: care-giving after learning a childs positive HIV status in rural South Africa, Health & Social Care in the Community, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 264271.

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Youde, R 2007, AIDS, South Africa, and the politics of knowledge, Ashgate, Aldershot.

Introduction

Any complete program on health ought to educate people on the need to take proper care of it by living a healthy lifestyle. An effective health program aspires to manage the health of people by ensuring quick access to affordable health care. Until recently, the concept of HIV prevention has been directed towards healthy people who ignore those infected with HIV (HAD 2001). This is because many ignore the fact that people infected with HIV engage in sexual activities. A strong health promotion program seeks to prevent HIV, for which is vital to start by curbing onward transmission.

Taking into account the results of the case study conducted by Cornish and Ghosh, the instances of people getting infected with the HIV virus in India have increased recently, which gave reasons for conducting a research known as the Sonagachi Project. This essay gives the background to the HIV epidemic and the necessary prevention methods. Later, it compares the Sonagachi project on sustainable community intervention programs to components of a quality health promotion.

HIV

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus which has now become a global epidemic (Ali, Wassie & Greblo, 2012, 121). HIV specializes in attacking the human body by lowering its level of immunity, therefore making it vulnerable to other diseases. HIV can go undetected for a long time with mild symptoms such as common cold, fever and cough. After a series of attacks from other common diseases HIV builds itself to the level of Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is the last stage of HIV (Elizabeth, 2012). Statistics done in 2010 estimated the number of people currently living with HIV in the world to be 34 million, 50% of whom were women. New infections per year totaled to an alarming 11.4%. The total number of deaths was 1.8 million per year (UNAIDS, 2010). It goes without saying that HIV remains the plague of the XXI century. Analyzing the key HIV determinants and figuring out the specifics of the Sonagachi Project, one will possibly find out the probable health promotion practices which can reduce the number of HIV/AIDS contractions.

The literature review

Before dealing with the HIV prevention program and the issues concerned, it is necessary to deal with the research which has been done so far on the issue concerned. To start with, it is important to consider the paper by Cornish & Ghosh. Exploring the HIV prevention, they offer a specific case study, i.e., the study of HIV prevention in India. According to the results of the research, Over the course of its 14 years, the Sonagachi Project has empowered many sex workers with new skills, confidence and legitimacy (Cornish & Ghosh, 2004, 505). Therefore, it can be suggested that successful HIV prevention is possible once peoples awareness is raised.

In respect of the Sonagachi Project, it is necessary to mention that the latter is not the only attempt at defining the HIV/AIDS determinants and establishing HIV/AIDS preventive measures. Analyzing the research conducted by Shannon & Montaner (2012), one must admit that there are considerable measures established for the HIV prevention, especially at work. It is quite important, though, that the authors of the research focus rather on the research of the problem than on the search for the solutions; in the end, Shannon & Montaner (2012) provide a detailed account of the world statistics on the male and female HIV contractions at work, yet the only solutions which the authors offer are to enhance the health promotion without specifying the types of the latter or the methods if its implementation. Hence the need for such a research as Sonagachi Project arises.

However, to give credit where it belongs, Shannon & Montaner (2012) did a very good job not only on the statistical data on the male/female HIV contractions, but also offered the HIV contractions geographical data. The given research can be viewed both on its own and at the same time as a continuation of the Sonagachi Project. According to the authors, these are the Asian regions where HIV has taken over the greatest amount of the population (Shannon & Montaner, 2012, p. 501). The information offered by Shannon & Montaner (2012) is extremely useful for the further research.

Another significant contribution to the means of preventing HIV with the help of health promotion practice, the paper written by Jana, Basu, Rotherham-Borus, & Newman (2004) helps to dive deeper into the peculiarities of the aforementioned Sonagachi Project. Describing its goals and showing its specifics rather graphically, the authors have managed to convey the essence of the campaign and outline its results concisely. The last, but not the least, the paper by Evans & Lambert (2008) deals with the issues of condom use. Quite essential for the prevention of the HIV contractions, this is the research that provides a practical approach to the health promotion practice, which, according to the Sonagachi Project, must focus on informing people about the HIV/AIDS.

Hence, it can be considered that the key HIV/AIDS determinants are poverty and the lack of sexual education among the population of the state. Therefore, it can be suggested that at present, there are three basic health promotion practices concerning the HIV issues, which are the Sonagachi Project, informing people directly concerning the means to prevent the HIV and informing people on the proper use of various protectants like condoms. Learning the common HIV determinants will help define the key strategy for making the rates of HIV contractions lower, as well as check if providing the information concerning HIV/AIDS can possibly help solve the issues among sex workers in India.

HIV determinants and strategies for HIV prevention

Learning the basic HIV determinants will help to figure out the best way to prevent HIV. On the one hand, the key determinants for HIV were outlined quite a long time ago, and nowadays every single person knows that sharing needles, as well as promiscuous sexual relationships are the shortest way to get HIV/AIDS. However, it is still worth keeping in mind that, with the development of civilization, new determinants of HIV appear, which means that new measures of precaution must be applied to apply an efficient health promotion.

According to the Sonagachi Project, the social issues are also to be considered, especially when dealing with the sphere of sex workers: As an outcast group, there was little societal value of sex workers or acknowledgment of the important social role played by the women (Jana, Basu, Rotherham-Borus, & Newman, 2004, p. 410). As Gerbi, Habtemariam, Robnett, Ngwana, & Tameru (2012) explain, religion used to be the shield that protected people from HIV/AIDS for quite long time; indeed, it seemed absurd that a person who has devoted his/her life to serving God and following His Commandments, as well as the key principles of the teachings of Christ as they are explained in the Bible, can possibly choose the track of life that will lead him/her to HIV/AIDS. However, as Gerbi, Habtemariam, Robnett, Ngwana, & Tameru (2012) claim, religious beliefs no longer mean that one is completely safe from getting HIV/AIDS: Studies mentioned previously have identified religion as a possible protective factor against HIV infection. However, religious affiliation and attendance of religious do not always correlate with HIV protective behaviors (Gerbi, Habtemariam, Robnett, Ngwana, & Tameru, 2012, p. 137). However, according to the research conducted by Kownaklai, Rujkorakarn, Tanwattananon, & Williams (2012), drugs and promiscuous sexual relations still remain the key determinants in the HIV contraction:

The study findings are consistent with the UNAIDS report that AIDS infected persons are in the working/reproductive age group, and the risk factor of infection from sexual intercourse is most common (UNAIDS and WHO, 2009). Most persons in this study also had low incomes, and needed money for daily needs and for health care. (Kownaklai, Rujkorakarn, Tanwattananon, & Williams, 2012, p. 117)

In addition, it is essential that people should know as much as possible about the threats of HIV/AIDS and the means to avoid it, which is, unfortunately, a huge problem in some communities. According to the research conducted by Fawole, Ogunkan, & Adegoke (2011), lack of communication between parents and child about sexually; high level of illicit sexual; high incidence of campus prostitution, poverty or hash economic conditions among other factors (Fawole, Ogunkan, & Adegoke, 2011, p. 65) predetermine the increase of the instances of HIV contractions considerably.

Thus, it can be considered that at present, the key determinants of HIV/AIDS are still promiscuous sexual relations and drugs, which makes the Sonagachi Project all the more important, given the fact that the sex workers are in the limelight of the research. However, the aspect of low income has been added; moreover, according to the research, most of the people contracted with HIV are those working in the office and having families. Hence, it is no longer instability that determines the desire to do drugs or to have promiscuous sexual relations and, hence, leads to HIV contraction, but the social status and, probably, insecurity which can be either the result of immigration (Ramsden & Hopkins, 2012) or any other change in ones personal life. In addition, the aspect of learning about the basic ways to avoid HIV/AIDS contraction have also been highlighted; as it turns out, one of the most significant HIV determinants in the present-day world is the lack of information about its threats among the people under age. Thus, it is crucial that people should understand that the more they know about HIV/AIDS and the more preventive measures they take to make the threat as little as possible, the less chances they have to get contacted with HIV/AIDS. Therefore, it seems that the key strategy in health promotion will be offering the required information about the threats of HIV/AIDS, about the ways people get contracted with it, and about the means to avoid the disease, which is exactly what the Sonagachi Project offers. The researchers involved in the Sonagachi Project are moving in the right direction; once people are informed, they are armed against the HIV.

Health promotion practices

It is worth mentioning that in the current strategy of HIV prevention, there are certain serious flaws, which the Sonagachi Project outlines as well. It seems that, because of the wrong issues that the current strategy focuses on, the problem still remains unresolved. Indeed, according to what Mongkuo, Mushi & Thompson (2010) claim, the tendency to blame mainly sexual relationships between men has aged and is no longer true: prevention messages tailored only to MSM or non-MSM individuals may not reflect the current state of sexual behaviors (Mongkuo, Mushi & Thompson, 2010, 33). Therefore, it is obvious that a new strategy of health promotion must be adopted; it is important to add that the new health promotion strategy must focus on keeping the Indian sex workers informed about the threats of HIV/AIDS. It is essential that the Sonagachi Project offers the ways to improve the existing health promotion practices.

Alemayehu & Aregya (2012) offer another peculiar approach worth considering. According to the authors, it is essential not only to increase the awareness of the HIV/AIDS contraction among the healthy population, but also offer all the required information both on how to prevent the HIV infection from developing further on and on how to sustain life in a person who has AIDS, among the people who are already contracted with the virus.

Another possible idea for the health promotion practice that one can suggest is, according to the innovative research offered by Ali, Wassie & Greblo (2012) is to use the human resources more efficiently. Considering the number of instances of the HIV/AIDS contractions among the workforce of the Asian countries, the authors offer a peculiar health promotion program that can possibly change peoples perception of HIV/AIDS and the people carrying the virus. As the authors claim, The human resource is the first and foremost important aspect of any disease control programme and thus for HIV/AIDS and other disease control initiatives (Ali, Wassie, & Greblo, 2012, p. 122). Therefore, according to the authors, one of the most obvious solutions to increase peoples awareness of the dangers and threats of the HIV infection, as well as to help those who have already been infected, the authors suggest a better trained staff. Indeed, it seems that in the sphere of HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment, there is an increasing need for professionals who can offer people decent help and verified information. The last, but definitely not the least, the idea of promoting health is giving enough information on all sorts of barrier devices for preventing sexually transmitted diseases, starting with condoms, as Dutta & Maiga (2011) stress.

Conclusion

Therefore, it is clear that at present, there is no panacea for HIV. Despite all the attempts to cure the disease, the virus is still uncontrollable and can spawn AIDS syndrome at literally any point, which means that there is still a lot of work to be done. Nevertheless, it seems that with the help[ of the research mentioned above, certain strategies concerning the HIV treatment can be worked out, which will bring people one step closer to providing the solution for the given problem.

Hence, it can be considered that a good health promotion includes a number of various elements, such as providing the necessary information on the current health issues. Moreover, good health promotion goes beyond offering the exercises to train and a specific diet to keep with. In addition to good nutrition rules and healthy lifestyle, good health promotion also involves the instructions on the most topical health problems, as well as the recommendations on how to avoid the most dangerous diseases and, in case of the contraction, the most up-to-date means of curing these diseases. With the help of the ideas introduced in the Sonagachi Project, one will be able to bring down the rates of HIV/AIDS contractions.

Reference List

Alemayehu, B, & Aregya, A, 2012, Desire to procreate among people living with HIV/AIDS: Determinants in Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study, Journal of AIDS and HIV Research, vol. 4 no. 5, pp. 128-1356.

Ali, F, Wassie, B, & Greblo, A, 2012, HIV/AIDS control programmes in developing countries: the role of human resource, Journal of AIDS and HIV Research, vol. 4 no. 5, pp.121-127.

Cornish, F & Ghosh, R, 2007, The necessary contradictions of community-led health promotion: a case study of HIV prevention in an Indian red light district, Social Science & Medicine, vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 496-507.

Dutta, A, & Maiga, M, 2011, An assessment of policy toward most-at-risk populations for HIV/AIDS in West Africa. Accra, Ghana, Action for West Africa (AWARE-II) Project.

Evans, K & Lambert, H, 2008. The limits of behaviour change theory: condom use and contexts of HIV risk in the Kolkata sex industry, Culture, Sex & Sexuality: An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care, vol. 10 no. 1, pp. 27-41.

Fawole, A O, Ogunkan, D V, & Adegoke, G S, 2011, Sexual behaviour and perception of HIV/AIDS in Nigerian tertiary institutions: University of Ilorin, a case study, Global Journal of Human Social Science, vol. 11 no. 1, 65-71.

Gerbi, G B, Habtemariam, T, Robnett, V, Ngwana, D, & Tameru, B, 2012, The association between religious affiliation and frequency of attendance at religious services on HIV risky behaviors among people living with HIV/AIDS, Journal of AIDS and HIV Research, vol. 4 no. 5, pp. 136-143.

Jana, S, Basu, I, Rotherham-Borus, M J, & Newman, P A 2004, The Sonagachi Project: a sustainable community intervention program, AIDS Education and Prevention, vol. 16 no. 5, pp. 405414.

Kownaklai, J, Rujkorakarn, D, Tanwattananon, W, & Williams, P D, 2012, Disclosure of information by patients about HIV/AIDS infection in Northeastern Thailand, Journal of AIDS and HIV Research, vol. 4 no. 5, pp.113-120.

Mongkuo, Y M, Mushi, R J, & Thompson, R, 2010, Perception of HIV/AIDS and socio-cognitive determinants of safe sex practices among college students attending a history black college and university in the United States of America, Journal of AIDS and HIV Research, vol. 2 no. 3, pp. 32-47.

Ramsden, H, & Hopkins, S, 2012, An exploration of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) knowledge gaps among male migrant workers in Singapore, Journal of AIDS and HIV Research, vol. 4 no. 5, pp. 144-151.

Shannon, K & Montaner, J S G, 2012, The politics and policies of HIV prevention in sex work, The Lancet, vol. 12 no. 7, pp. 500-502.

And the Band Played On

The movie And the Band Played On touches on different prevalent issues during the AIDS pandemic that afflicted the world in the 1980s. It is a film that chronicled the initial days of the pandemic and the bias and prejudice experienced by homosexuals, who were perceived as the main cause of the disease, among other issues.

Gay Rights and Bathhouses

The movie intended to highlight the plight of homosexuals and how society stigmatized them because of their sexual orientation. Such marginalization and stigmatization infringed on their rights to association, which led to gay bathhouses. These bathhouses offered the gay community a place where they could associate and be intimate with each other (Baume, 2021). However, the American government discouraged the development of bathhouses through frequent raids. These actions by the government were wrong because they denied the gay community the right to associate with each other.

Political Division During the Aids Pandemic

The AIDS pandemic caused political division in America because of the discomfort and prejudice regarding how the disease is transmitted. The disease exposed the glaring inequality and injustices inherent in its handling. There has been positive action in responding to the AIDS pandemic by dealing with its inequalities and injustices, including addressing gay rights issues. On the other hand, politics has presented an opposing force through the blockage of crucial policies on AIDS, such as access to ARVs, Prevention, and harm reduction. This type of political action is wrong because it is a cause of suffering for many AIDS patients.

Lack of Support and Funding

The movie highlighted the experiences of a scientist who spent much of his work researching the AIDS disease. It demonstrated how the federal government withheld funding for research on AIDS (Manuvegeta, 2011). The government was less concerned with the pandemic and instead allocated more money to defense instead of health. Such action by the federal government was wrong because it hindered efforts to manage the pandemic.

References

Baume, M. (2021). A Peek Under the Towel: Inside the 500-Year History of Gay Bathhouses. Hornet. Retrieved from: A Peek Under the Towel: Inside the 500-Year History of Gay Bathhouses | Hornet, the Queer Social Network

Manuvegeta (2011). Summary of movie: And the Band Played On. Hub pages. Retrieved from: Summary of movie: And the Band Played On  HubPages

Cancer and HIV/AIDS- the two insatiable killer diseases, still continue to remain objects of mystery to the medical fraternity. Although billions of dollars are spent each year on medical research in these areas for the past few decades, there have only been sparks of victory till now.

Whatever be the situation, there is no denying the fact that nutrition plays a pivotal role in providing some relief to these patients especially those with HIV/AIDS. They are more susceptible to nutrition deficiencies, probably because of malnutrition, weight loss and wasting which are very common problems in such patients. Good nutrition, according to experts, is a proportionate intake of macronutrients as well as micronutrients. Macronutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins generate energy and help maintain the body weight. Micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals ensure the proper working of the cells without preventing weight loss (Herbert 1999).

Nowadays, there is an increasing trend among the common people to use certain foods, herbal medicines, oral nutritional supplements and micronutrient supplements to treat HIV symptoms. Dietary supplements and foods are promoted as quite effective in boosting the immune system. Common people often get influenced by the promotions of these supplements. But, as a matter of fact, many of these can prove to be detrimental to their health primarily because the safety and benefits of such foods are not proven. Moreover, the lack of a proper evaluation system accentuates such practices and offers a cost-ineffective method of treatment to the common people (Lamb 2006).

For instance, reference may be made to one of the popular herbs frequently used by people living with HIV/AIDS- Ginkgo biloba. Ginkgo biloba leaves are rich in flavonoids, sesquiterpenes and diterpenes (ginkgolides) which are considered to be the active ingredients. The herb is promoted by the media as one which enhances memory, improves concentration and circulation as well as possesses strong antioxidant properties. To this date, there is no evidence to prove the safety and effectiveness of the above supplement for more than a year. In fact, mild gastritis, headache and allergic skin rashes are found to be the side-effects of the above herb in some individuals. To add to this, the above supplement is also reported to affect the normal bleeding time and its use is strictly prohibited for the patients undergoing surgery (Weitzman 2008).

It goes without saying that nutrition, as a science has a profound effect on the entire health care system, mostly in the case of people living with HIV/AIDS. It is, however unfortunate to note the way some people are exploited. The best possible way is to act according to expert recommendations and refrain from diets that are not clinically proven. Although the exact nutrient requirements for people suffering from HIV/AIDS have not been determined so far, it is clear that these patients require a sufficient number of calories and proteins to make up for their malnutrition (Lamb 2006).

As a starting range, the baseline calorie requirement may be 35-45cal/kg which is adjustable. A protein intake of 1.2-2.0g/kg is frequently suggested. As far as vitamins and minerals are concerned, one or two multivitamins or mineral tablets may be recommended (Weitzman 2008). It is true that proper nutrition cannot cure these fatal diseases, but there are enough reasons to believe that good nutrition therapy can go a long way in increasing the effectiveness of medical therapy.

References

Herbert, V. (1999). Unproven (questionable) dietary and nutritional methods in cancer prevention and treatment. Cancer 58(S8), 1930-1941.

Lamb, D. (2006). Questionable methods of cancer management: therapies. CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 43(5) 309-319.

Weitzman, S. (2008). Complementary and alternative (CAM) dietary therapies for cancer. Pediatric Blood & Cancer 50(S2), 494-497.

Issue of AIDS

Since 1981, there have been 940 thousand people whom have died from AIDS-related diseases globally and 36.9 million people whom are still living with HIV/AIDS. An estimated 5,000 new people are being infected daily as of 2017.There is an estimate that 45,000 people live with HIV or AIDS in Illinois and of that number, approximately 23,835 live in Chicago. While there are certain neighborhoods with higher numbers of people living with HIV/AIDS, the disease affects the whole city. According to AIDS Vu, there is not a neighborhood in Chicago that didn’t have less than 100 people living with HIV or AIDS residing in it as of 2016.

Black and Latinx men are at a higher risk for contracting HIV than their white counterparts. According to the AIDS Vu organization, their 2016 report stated 53.3 percent of black men, 20.5 percent Hispanic/Latinx men and 23.2 percent of white men were living with HIV in Chicago.

The City of Chicago completed a survey on residents and found that in 2017, there were 752 new HIV diagnoses and 337 new AIDS diagnosis, a slightly lower number than the 824 of new HIV diagnoses reported in 2016. While it appears the numbers of new reported HIV and AIDS diagnoses seem to be decreasing, the number of people living with HIV/AIDS is still high.

The biggest issue of aids is that there are no cure yes there are treatments and such but it has been growing more and more and back in the 1980 they were not scanning for hiv or aids which caused many people to contract it but that is no longer a worry to my knowledge

How can AIDS/HIV affect us

The big issue with aids is that yes it is a virus that can be transmitted with or through contact with infected blood or sexual intercourse you can be infected with it it’s not a treatable virus and it does destroy the CD4/T cells they are the cells that help the body ward off infections.aids is a disease that does permanent damage that hiv does to the body´s immune system and is a more extreme stage of hiv ,which can cause bacterial and viral infection to ruin your body even more which will lead to eventual death. Hiv can be transmitted through semen ,vaginal fluids ,anal mucus,blood and breast milk also can be transmitted by sharing needles ,receiving tattoos or piercings hiv and aids are not a issue that should be taken lightly it is a big problem because there are a lot of things that you can get these viruses from almost anything all you have to do is have intercourse with someone and all they have to is lie about having hiv or aids and your life is ruined

Anderson, Nicole F. ‘HIV/AIDS: The Epidemic Is Far from over.’ The Independent. Accessed May 03, 2019. https://neiuindependent.org/11806/news/hiv-aids-the-epidemic-is-far-from-over/.

The historical roots of the issue

Scientists have traced the origin of HIV back to chimpanzees and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), an HIV-like virus that attacks the immune system of monkeys and apes.

In the 1980s and early 1990s, the outbreak of HIV and AIDS swept across the United States and rest of the world, though the disease originated decades earlier. Today, more than 70 million people have been infected with HIV and about 35 million have died from AIDS since the start of the pandemic, according to the World Health Organization.

Though HIV arrived in the United States around 1970, it didn’t come to the public’s attention until the early 1980s. In 1981, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a report about five previously healthy homosexual men becoming infected with Pneumocystis pneumonia, which is caused by the normally harmless fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii. This type of pneumonia, the CDC noted, almost never affects people with compromised immune systems.

How to prevent from getting AIDS

In 2001, generic drug manufacturers began selling discounted copies of patented HIV drugs to developing countries, leading to several major pharmaceutical manufacturers slashing prices on their HIV drugs. The following year, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) reported that AIDS was by far the leading cause of death in sub-Saharan Africa.A few years later, in 2006, researchers found that penile circumcision can reduce the risk of female-to-male HIV transmission by 60 percent. In developing countries with high levels of HIV transmission, circumcision is considered a tool to help reduce transmission risk.The FDA approved pre-exposure prophylaxis, or PrEP, for HIV-negative people in 2012. When taken daily, PrEP can reduce the risk of HIV from sex by more than 90 percent and from intravenous drug use by 70 percent, according to the CDC.At the end of 2015, some 36.7 million people were living with HIV/AIDS worldwide, and 1.1 million people died from AIDS-related illnesses that year. Sub-Saharan Africa is still the most severely affected region, accounting for nearly 70 percent of the world’s current HIV cases.

Conclusion

In conclusion aids and hiv are not a virus that should not be taken very lightly people should be more aware of this and stop acting as if it’s just some common cold because all that has to happen is for someone that has contracted the virus to give it to you if it’s by blood,semen,breast milk anyway it could ruin your life or even take your life in the end.To try and prevent yourself from getting this virus is if you have sexual intercourse use a condom every time and to use a new one ,you can consider taking a drug called truvada ,be honest and tell the truth if you do have aid or hiv ,if you are using a needle make sure that it is a clean needle

Bibliography

1. Anderson, Nicole F. ‘HIV/AIDS: The Epidemic Is Far from over.’ The Independent. Accessed May 03, 2019. https://neiuindependent.org/11806/news/hiv-aids-the-epidemic-is-far-from-over/.
2. Editors, History.com. ‘History of AIDS.’ History.com. July 13, 2017. Accessed May 03, 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/1980s/history-of-aids. PR Newswire Association LLC.FDA Approves New 20-Minute Rapid HIV Test.New York Publisher inc.2002
3. Nan Aron, Sharon McGowan. ‘Trump Has Vowed to End the HIV/AIDS Epidemic. His Court Picks Have Other Ideas.’ The Daily Beast. April 18, 2019. Accessed April 28, 2019. https://www.thedailybeast.com/trump-has-vowed-to-end-the-hivaids-epidemic-his-court-picks-have-other-ideas.
4. ‘HIV/AIDS.’ Mayo Clinic. January 19, 2018. Accessed May 04, 2019. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hiv-aids/symptoms-causes/syc-20373524.