Category: AIDS

Introduction

Nineteen-year-old So-Young stands at less than five feet tall after being chronically malnourished in North Korea. A refugee, she crossed illegally into China with hopes of a better life, but found instead a nightmare of sexual exploitation. An employer offered her approximately $1.40 per day in exchange for workmoney that So- Young planned on sending back to her family. Deceived by this empty promise, So-Young spent the next several months being passed between handlers. Just days before she was to be purchased by a forty-year-old Chinese man, So-Young managed to escape with the help of a local pastor. Three years later, she was forcibly repatriated to North Korea where she was imprisoned for six months before escaping once more to China. Traffickers kidnapped her once again, repeatedly raping her prior to her sale. Her new husband also raped her multiple times before she was able to escape. So-Young remains in hiding today: There are many people coming out of North Korea, but they dont have anywhere to go and no other choice but to go that route [into China]. (US Department of Labor)

I entered or, the first time I was prostituted I was eleven, when I entered the trade. So, very young. Younger than most. I was working the kiddie corner strip. (Vancouver Rape Relief and Womens Shelter)

Main body

Two separate incidents but same destiny. Caught in the racket of sex traffickers both the girls end up as sex slaves. This brings us only to face with an increasing truth of trafficking of women globally. Thousands of women and girls are trafficked across borders to a country they hardly know to work not as prostitutes but as sex slaves. US Department of Labor estimates each year, more than 2 million women of different age groups are exploited in the global commercial sex trade.

Sex trafficking has been identified by US Department of State as (a) sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age; or (b) the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. With increasing and prevalent demand for sex workers in the global market, there has been a boom in the commercial sex industry but has brought additional woes such as morality, criminality, and health threats of the victims. Presently the global commercial sex trade is an organized sector on which the economic successes of many countries like Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, etc are depended on. The industrys huge turnover is an indication of the industrys commercial success but at the cost of lives of millions of women and children. This article discusses the success of the sex trafficking industry with globalization and impending health issues pertaining to HIV/AIDS.

With globalization of the world, economic order and business one of the oldest trades of the world are gaining international ventures. Sex trade in South East Asian countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand, Easterner European countries growing there are increased number of women and children being trafficked from these countries to the United States or Canada. Peter Landesman identified in his article in The New York Times magazine called The Girls Next Door recounts that these girls trafficked from Asia, Eastern Europe, Russia, all come with a dream and are shattered when they are forced into prostitution at very early age. The report also reveals the horrifying journey of the young girls and their plight. These girls are abducted, or bought, or shown the American Dream and transported through the porous borders of Mexico. The perpetrators of the crime are members of organized underworld crime racket who push young girls in this deplorable trade.

With the world becoming a global entity and increasing boons of globalization, there has evolved globalization of sex trade too. As globalization has reduced distances and the flow of information across borders, and allows its movement at high speed through impervious boundaries, sex trade too has evolved with technoscape and mediascape as identified by Elina Penttinen in her book Globalization, Prostitution, and Sex-trafficking. Elina believes that Technoscape &enables the overcoming of distances meets its shadow in the global sex industry. Like other trades that have benefitted from globalization, so has sex trade. Sex workers are treated as human cargos that have to pay their way through the trafficking process, and then earning revenue for her traffickers through sex enslavement. Similar fate is restored for sex slaves in Thailand. They are bought from poor farming villages in Thailand, as told by Kevin Bales, and are brought to cities as bonded labors, who are in debt for the amount they were sold:

Siris debt was 50000 bath rapidly escalated. Taken south by the broker, Siri was sold for 100,000 bath to the brothel where she now works. After her rape and beating Siri was informed that the debt she must repay, now to the brothel, equaled 200,000 baht. In addition, Siri learned of the other payments she would be required to make, including rent for her room at 30,000 baht per month as well as charges for food and drink, fees for medicine, and fines if she did not work hard enough or displeased a customer. The total debt is virtually impossible to repay, even at Siris higher rate of 400 baht. About 100 baht from each client is supposed to be credited to reduce her debt and pay her rent and other expenses; 200 goes to the pimp and the remaining 100 to the brothel. By this reckoning, Siri must have sex with 300 men a month just to pay her rent (Bales 41)

Sex trade thus has become extremely profitable, as has been identified by Elina too, who further identified sex trade similar to drug trade, with lesser risk associated. The financial benefits of sex trade have been accentuated with the utilization of information technology.

Another catalyst of trade through the globalization process is information technology. The possibilities produced through information technology, namely the Internet, are enormous. The Internet acts as the medium through which information regarding commercial sex is passed on and also serves as the venue for much of the sex business. It provides opportunities for accessing mail-order-bride catalogues, buy escorted tours in sex tourist destinations, and also acquire information regarding prices of sex workers all across the globe. The sale of international prostitutes or brides and live strip shows on the internet, as Elina points out, decreases the cost of the business also makes these services more easily accessible for clients worldwide. (46)Clearly there are no need to print expensive model portfolios, color pictured catalogues can be uploaded which can be viewed by all or live strip shows or pornographic videos can be transmitted to customers with minimum cost. This increased scope and accessibility of global sex industry and its developments, thus, can be associated with globalization.

The increase in globalization of sex trade and the deteriorating social and mental health of the world has evolved as a major concern. There is increased concern of AIDS problem among sex workers which is making their life even more miserable and ending their lives as social pariahs. Kevin Bales narrates the story of a fifteen year old girl:

Siri is very frightened that she will get AIDS. Long before she understood prostitution, she knew about HIV, as many girls from her village returned home to die from AIDS after being sold into brothels. (Bales 36)

The occurrence of AIDS among sex workers have increased considerably over the last few years. The UN Report on the Global Aids Epidemic, 2008 estimates that in virtually all regions outside sub-Saharan Africa, HIV disproportionately affects sex workers ( among other causes like injecting drugs, etc.) the most. The report points out that sex work is one of the major causes of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with an estimated amount of 20 percent of the sex workers being infected by the virus. The report also identifies that in many countries like Cambodia, Thailand, India the adoption of condoms during commercial sex there has been a marked decline in infection rate. In Cambodia, the adoption of condoms during commercial sex increased from 53 percent in 1997 to 96 percent in 2003 and there has been a subsequent reduction in HIV prevalence among sex workers from 44 percent in 1998 to 8 percent in 2003. But the scene is not very optimistic with only 14 percent of men who buy sex have reported to use condom. Clearly, the plight of sex workers remains to be exploited for the two or four years of their enslaved lives and then die with the fatal virus.

Even though the International covenants and protocols obligate criminalization of the commercial sexual exploitation, official data shows that sex trafficking amounts to a significant piece of overall trafficking and the in the end forms the basis of transnational modern-day slavery. Sex trafficking would not exist without the demand for commercial sex flourishing around the world. The U.S. Government adopted a strong position against prostitution in a December 2002 policy decision, which notes that prostitution is inherently harmful and dehumanizing, and fuels trafficking in persons. Turning people into dehumanized commodities creates an enabling environment for human trafficking.

Conclusion

The lives of girls who get entrapped in the vicious circle of sex trafficking seldom find respite. They are always haunted by their past, their present, and their future. Very few girls can escape the life of abuse, exploitation, and degradation. Even if they do, they have nowhere to go   they do not have a family to go back for many will not take them in, or for the fear of being killed or getting their families killed, law enforcement authorities are the last place to go as legal system in many countries (even in the US) view them as anti-socials and trespassers in their country. These girls, still young, are broken. They resign their fate to destiny and live their life in brothels.

References

Bales, Kevin. Disposable People. London: University of California Press, 2000.

Landsman, Peter. The Girls Next Door. The New York Times  2004.

Penttinen, Elina. Globalization, Prostitution and Sex-trafficking. New York: Routledge, 2008.

United Nation. Report on the global AIDS epidemic. XVII International AIDS Conference. Mexico City: UNAIDS, 2008.

US Department of Labor. Human Trafficking Reprot. 2008. US Department of Labor.

US Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report. 2008.

Vancouver Rape Relief and Womens Shelter. Flesh Mapping: vancouver markets pacific women. 2008. Vancouver Rape Relief and Womens Shelter.

Introduction / Thesis

In her article Should the State Know Your HIV Status?, Rosemarie Gionta Alfieri sets a case against the proposals to make the practice of HIV testing mandatory. While doing it, she mainly utilizes the rhetorical devices of appeal to Pathos and Ethos, which is quite explainable, given authors obvious association with neo-Liberal agenda (author refers to drug addicts that pose danger to society as needle sharing partners!). At the same time, Alfieris article contains a few appeals to Logos, although the closer analysis reveals them as being purely formal. This paper is aimed at identifying all three elements of rhetorical argumentation, present in the article, and also at exposing them as such that are being affected by authors rather irrational perception of surrounding socio-political reality.

Logos

Authors main logical argument can be formulated as follows: Since no effective cure for AIDS has been found yet, there is no need for the practice of HIV testing to become mandatory: Despite media coverage celebrating the efficacy of cocktail drug treatments and potential vaccines, there remains no cure for AIDS (Alfieri 74). Thus, author implies that mandatory HIV testing simply does not make any moral sense. This argument, however, can only be referred to as moderately sensible, since it does not consider the absolutely realistic possibility for the cure for

AIIDS to be found in very near future (in all probability, such cure already exists, with authorities simply waiting for as many needle sharing partners as possible to pass away, before making a public announcement, so that this drug would not be wasted on those who represent the waste of humanity). Also, even though Alfiery does not deny the fact that mandatory HIV testing significantly reduces the chances for HIV virus to be passed to newly born children, she suggests that underpowered women would not be able to afford buying Zidovudine (drug used in treatment of AIDS), if tested HIV positive: The cost of obtaining drug  as much as $800 to $1000 per pregnancy  is too high for many of the women who are infected (Alfieri 74). However, the fallacious essence of this statement is just too obvious not to be noticed  Alfieri simply assumes that the cost of $1000 for a drug is too high, while seriously believing that such her assumption is being universally objective. Apparently, she is quite incapable of understanding a simple fact that, when it comes to dealing with the matters of life and death, no monetary cost can be too high. Moreover, we have a good reason to believe that, given Governments willingness to pay for underpowered womens food (food stamps), it would also be willing to pay for their medicine.

Ethos

Alfieris article contains many examples of appeal to Ethos  namely, her referrals to opinions of people, who she believes are being perceived by general public as figures of authority. This is the reason she makes a point of deciphering the abbreviated names of organizations, on which behalf these authority figures speak: GMHC (Gay Mens Health Crisis), NBWHP (National Black Womens Health Project), CVPS (Center for Women Policy Studies) etc. Obviously enough, Alfieri expects that the progressive sounding of these organizations names should prompt readers to accept the opinions of quoted experts as such that cannot really be argued with. In order to strengthen articles appeal to Ethos, Alfieri seems to be even willing to adopt a posture of defender of civil freedoms, by referring to HIV infected peoples privilege to maintain their existential anonymity, as their essential civil right, while rightly expecting readers to side with her, in this respect, simply because the majority of Americans still believe in the ideals of democracy. However, she does a poor job of this, because raging neo-Liberal, such as herself, can hardly be associated with promotion of civil liberties. It is only when the rights of gays, racial minorities, and animals are being violated; that people like Alfieri scream bloody murder. However, when it comes to discussion of peoples right to own guns or to freely express their political opinions, neo-Liberals begin to sing an entirely different song. Therefore, in this particular article, Alfieris appeal to Ethos appears to be essentially superficial.

Pathos

The Pathos in Alfieris article seems to be the strongest element out of Greek Triangle of Rhetoric. As we have mentioned earlier, this simply could not be otherwise  Should the State Know Your HIV Status? is the intellectual product of neo-Liberal mentality, therefore, author mainly relied on utilization of emotional appeal, during the course of writing it. She keeps going on and on about how it is namely women who suffer from being infected with HIV the most, about how doctors tend to be prejudicious towards underpowered women and about how these women might suffer from being forced to break up with their needle sharing partners: The largest-growing segment of HIV and AIDS cases is minority women, especially poorer women, who cannot afford to be sick (Alfieri 74). Therefore, forcing them to undergo HIV testing, would be nothing short of racial profiling  the term that hawks of political correctness, such as Alfieri, simply cannot stand. The next quote reveal the fact that author is not being concerned about the possible violation of underpowered womens civil rights, as much as she is being concerned about the fact that mandating HIV testing across America, would serve as another proof as to the utter harmfulness of doctrine of multiculturalism, which is now being showed up citizens throats, often despite their will: In the United States, black and Hispanic women, particularly those at lower income levels, are at the highest risk for AIDS. According to the CDC, in 1996 they composed 78 percent of all.

AIDS cases among U.S. women (Alfieri 73). Thus, articles Pathos can be summarized in one word  racism. Apparently, for Alfieri the issue of racism is like a skin rash  the more it is being scratched, the more it itches. This, of course, significantly undermines the validity of her emotional statements.

Conclusion

Thus, we can conclude that articles appeals to all three: Logos, Ethos and Pathos, suffer from the lack of conceptual soundness. Therefore, we cannot agree with the initial commentary to the article, which states: By the end of the article, the reader who accepts Alfieris message will feel the familiar X-Files paranoia of life in the post-modern age. The fact that author quotes the spokesmen for Gay Mens Health Crisis as the credible source of information alone, prevents readers from seriously considering the points made in Should the State Know Your HIV Status?. Author had clearly exposed her affiliation with left-wing political agenda, which is why even her appeals to Pathos are being deprived of their intellectual integrity. Despite the fact that Alfieri had applied a great deal of effort into trying to present herself as an unengaged observer, while discussing the issue of HIV testing, her article clearly contains a political undertones, which can only have one meaning  Alfieri is not very skilled in application of methods of rhetorical persuasion.

Bibliography

Hyer, Maren The Mercury Reader. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2005.

Savage, Michael Liberalism is a Mental Disorder: Savage Solutions. NY: Thomas Nelson, 2005.

The New Hock Times news paper published on May 14, 2010; was about the rising percentages of people suffering from Aids in South Africa. In this case, South Africa is a nation devastated by HIV Aids which is a decease associated with social disgrace and shame. From the newspaper it can be seen that, the South African president Jacob Zuma has recently began to involve himself in an unexpected open discussion about sex, AIDs and HIV deterrence. Based on this, his hard works have been downplayed by current admittance that he had insecure sex during an extramarital relationship. In his effort to deter the vast expansion of HIV Aids in South Africa, he announced last month a huge extension of HIV testing and Aids services where he openly took a HIV test and revealed that his tests showed that he was negative; as far as the virus testing was concerned. On the other hand, South Africa has been categorized as one of the few African countries which discourage male circumcision. Based on this, Mr. Zuma in an interview confessed that; he had been circumcised and had heartened his sons to undergo the same practice which is said to minimize a mans dangers of constricting HIV. It can further be argued that, Zulu is one of the largest South African communities which have all along discarded male circumcision throughout the 19^th century. Further; it should be noted that that as the community leader, Zuma had of late encouraged Zulu men to be circumcised saying that the act minimizes the risks of HIV contraction by a half. In this case, it is ethically and culturally right for male to be circumcised in order to reduce HIV contraction as indicated by health officials. According to the newspaper, South Africa has the highest population contracted with HIV Aids (5.7 million). It can further be argued that, Zulu community in South Africa considers it nonmoral as far as male circumcision is concerned. In this case, a Mr. Zuma act of circumcision indicates that, it is not immoral for Zulu men to get circumcised (Dugger, 2010).

It is of importance to note that, South Africa is leading in HIV Aids infections which is a problem in this country. In this case, South Africans have realized this as a problem and plans are underway to circumcise million of men which started last month. Based on this, the problem of HIV Aids has overwrought the civic health system in this country; which has resulted to decreasing life expectancies and increasing costs for treatment. On the other hand to curb this problem; the South African president has started procedures of encouraging male circumcision and also supporting health administrators to act more insistently on the reduction of the rising rate of the HIV Aids disease (Dugger, 2010).

From a personal perspective, the practice of male circumcision among South African communities would be morally right since according to researches; male circumcision minimizes HIV Aids disease contraction. In this case, it would be a moral thing if South African communities are encouraged to get circumcised as led by the president at the same time promoting health administrators to act in the reduction of this disease. Ethical theories can be defined as principles which correspond to the impressive ideas on which guiding values are based. Based on this they try to be rational and methodical, struggling to respond to primary sensible ethical questions. From this it can be argued that, the utilitarianism theory can be used to answer the South African communities questions. In this case, this theory calls for those activities which yield results that are most advantageous to the majority of the affected people. It should also be noted that, male circumcision among the communities in South Africa would reduce chances of HIV Aids infections hence an advantage to all people in this country. Additionally, utilitarianism theory could state that male circumcision has uses as far as reducing HIV Aids disease in South Africa is concerned (Mill, 2010).

On the other hand, there are ways of controlling HIV Aids among South African populations. In this case, these methods may include abstinence from sex among the youths, protective sex, educating the communities on the problems associated with extramarital and premarital sex and at the same time encouraging faithfulness between couples. It can be argued that, if South African communities could fallow these ways; chances of HIV Aids infections would reduce (Dugger, 2010).

As far as the above alternatives are concerned, abstinence from sex and faithfulness would be more reliable methods of reducing HIV Aids infections in South Africa. Based on this, community members would not be engaging themselves in sexes and also couples would be more faithful between themselves; hence reducing chances of HIV Aids disease infection as intercourse among the youths is reduced. Further, using protective sex and disengagement in extramarital affairs reduce the risks of HIV Aids infections in South African communities. In this case it can be argued that, abstinence, faithfulness, disengagement in extramarital affairs and premarital sexes; would be applied to curb increasing HIV Aids infections (Mill 2010).

It is of importance to note that, in the case these methods are used in curbing the increasing HIV Aids instance among South African communities; the number of infected population would decrease as sexual intercourse is the major way of contracting HIV Aids. In this case, in case youths will abstain from sex by avoiding premature sex while the couples become faithful to each other by avoiding extramarital affairs; the chances of HIV Aids contraction would decrease at a higher rate in South Africa (Dugger, 2010).

It can further be argued that, the most efficient method among the above listed alternatives of curbing increasing HIV Aids infections; is abstinence from sex. This is because the main way of contracting Aids is through sexual intercourse. Secondly, faithfulness between couples through the avoidance of extramarital affairs would reduce HIV Aids contraction; as married people are second from youths as far as the contraction of HIV Aids is concerned. Additionally, the avoidance of premarital sex and educating the public on the consequences of Aids would decrease HIV Aids infection in South Africa. Lastly, the use of contraceptives would help partners to avoid unprotected sex which would in turn curb HIV Aids infection rates from further increasing (Mill, 2010).

For the above alternatives to be put in to practice, the public should be educated through all Media like television, newspapers and radio. On the other hand, youths should be encouraged on abstinences from sex by their teachers in schools and also their parents at home as well as the whole society (Mill, 2010).

Further, seminars and conferences should be arranged by the public and churches to educate couples on the consequences of infidelity. Lastly, contraceptives should be provided by the government in large numbers to accessible places like institutions, hospitals and all shops; that they may be used by partners. At the same time, the public should be educated on the usefulness of protective sex (Dugger, 2010).

By doing this, the public will be saved from the monster of the increasing infection rates of HIV Aids. In this case, the actions of immorality would be reduced through education in schools hence diminishing the chances of sexual intercourse among youths. On the other hand, by parents being open to their children and advising them on issues concerning sexual matters; premarital sex among youths would decrease. In this case, all these alternatives if utilized in South Africa; the chances of HIV Aids infection would drop since other African countries where HIV Aids infection rates are low, have utilized these. A good example is Uganda and Kenya where HIV Aids infection rates had been high; until the implementation of these alternatives (Dugger, 2010)

Reference lists

Dugger, C. (2010). In South Africa, an Unlikely Leader on Aids. The New Hork Times

Mill, J. (2010). Utilitarianism. Canada: General Books LLC Publishers

Areas of Health Related Research and Reasons for Study

We intend to look into three areas of study on health matters. The areas of study to be listed are too general, hence there is a need to specifically identify the areas and conduct research on them. Three areas to look into are; HIV/AIDS in the community, nutrition and cancer in the society.

The reason as to why I have interest on the above named areas is that they are all involved with the development of the community. In addition, to some point they are all related and intertwined with nutrition. HIV/AIDS has increased the mortality rate in most of the countries especially in developing countries (Manuel, 1996, p. 28). It is important that patients suffering from HIV/AIDs needs to have a perfect schedule for their nutrition. Since the immune system in such cases is compromised, it is important that they watch their diet to boost their immunity (Russell, 1988, p. 1524). In addition, nutrition is also a contributor to the increased rates of mortality.

Nutrition does contribute to community health; presently, there are cases of increased rates of obesity (Ingestad, 1982, p. 443). Most of the parents have neglected children feeding programs hence most of the children are not well fed. In addition, there are families that cannot afford to make a decent meal for their families (Ingestad, 1982, p. 443). The research should seek to establish how families are concerned about ensuring that they have the right diet.

Cancer is another area that is partly related to nutrition, there is a concern that some of the foods consumed by the community contribute to the high prevalence of cancer (Futreal et al., 2006, p. 318). In addition, some nutritionists assert that some food or nutritious herbs can be used as therapy to treat cancerous conditions. In addition, it is important to elucidate how cancer is related to the present cases of pollution and poor sanitation. On the same note it should be interested in determining if there are higher cases of cancer in areas that are thought to be less polluted and comparing them to those that are polluted (Futreal et al., 2006, p. 318). The connection between pollution and cancer will be a very interesting thing to comprehend and look into.

One Case That Will Be Considered In the SLP Papers with Three Reasons for Interest

For the SLP papers I intend to look into HIV/AIDs in the society. Some of the things that I wish to look into are the strategies that the community have put in place to stop the spread of HIV/AIDs (Herek & Capitanio, 1999, p. 1132). It is also important to elucidate the connection of HIV/AIDs spread to the economic standards of the community; this will be achieved by comparing cases observed in individuals in high classes of social ladder to those at low economic classes (Herek & Capitanio, 1999, p. 1132). The lifestyle of infected individuals is also an interesting area to look at and determine how it may have contributed to the elevated rate of HIV/AIDS cases in the society.

Nutrition is a very important aspect that should be looked into by researchers. It is important that a researcher identifies if the patients are keen to observe their nutrition (Herek & Capitanio, 1999, p. 1132). Such a study will be conducted by considering the contributions their families make to ensure that their patients observe appropriate nutrition (Herek & Capitanio, 1999, p. 1132).

Health Related Question

When conducting the research, it should be concerned to answer how HIV/AIDS epidemiology is connected to the economic development and the financial status of the community. The question will make the hypothesis of study and it will make it more specific on the topic of study.

Specific Hypothesis of the Research

The hypothesis of the research should read; economic development contributes to high prevalence of HIV/AIDs in the community.

In conclusion, HIV/AIDs, cancer and nutrition are the most critical areas to look into when it comes to community health.

References

Futreal, P. A., Coin, L., Marshall, M., Down, T., Hubbard, T., Wooster, R., Rahman, N., & Stratton, M. R. (2006). A census of human cancer genes. Natural Review on Cancer, 4(3), 318-322.

Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1999). AIDS stigma and sexual prejudice. American Behavioral Scientist, 42(7), 1130-1147.

Ingestad, T. (1982). Relative addition rate and external concentration; Driving variables used in plant nutrition research. Plant, Cell & Environment, 5(6), 443-453.

Manuel, C. (1996). The information age: Economy, society and culture. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.

Russell, C. (1988). Textbook of medicine. Philadelphia, PD: Saunders.

HIV/AIDS prevention is regarded as one of the most serious problems of public health care. The prevention strategy for unique populations, like in the project initiated in Thailand, is aggravated by the necessity to study these populations, as well as find the most suitable approach for originating the effective social media, and public health-based prevention strategy.

Most of the prevention programs that are intended for unique populations involve the study of the population, as well as assessment of the cultural and ethnic background of the target group. Definition of the unique population involves the high-risk group, including minority ethnic groups, commercial sex workers, as well as drug users and transvestites. Up to 95% of them are in the risk group, and up to 40% are infected. The increased risk rate of the Thai unique population is explained by the fact that some of them are linked with their work in low-class brothels, uncontrolled sex, and drug-taking.

The program is based on the principle of creating a conceptual framework associated with defining and targeting the unique group. This involves the principles of media advocacy, social marketing, and public healthcare. Considering the research by Svenkerud and Singhal (1998), the actual importance of differentiation the subgroups is explained by the fact that each requires an innovative and unique approach, as low-class brothel workers actions and behavior differ from the behavior of drug takers. Hence, ways of getting infected are different, and this should be included in the general conceptual framework.

The key theoretic basis of the prevention strategy is the use of diffusion of innovations associated with the communication processes, media advocacy, public health as well as psychological studies of the unique population communication and behavioral patterns. In the light of this fact, the key challenges of HIV/AIDS prevention are linked with the implementation of the theoretical frameworks for targeting the unique population.

Considering the conceptual frameworks offered by the diffusion of innovations principle, it should be emphasized that this has been already tested in San Francisco, however, the wide adoption and implementation of these principles requires the initiation of the innovative behavior for targeting the unique population. This is explained by the fact that these population groups are mainly closed, and may consider these innovations and programs as interference in their private life. (Bertrand, 2004). As it is also stated by Bertrand (2004), social media approaches are more effective than medical recommendations offered to the target audience. Therefore, if people are explained the danger of HIV/AIDS, and the simplicity of prevention, they realize that protection is cheaper and simpler then further curing. Additionally, some of them become volunteers for HIV/AIDS prevention initiatives.

Therefore, all the efforts, directed at targeting the unique population, should be based within the frames of social media concepts, and consider the principles of media advocacy, as target population of Thailand requires sufficient stimulus for changing its behavioral patterns that may become the reason of HIV/AIDS.

Social media based HIV/AIDS prevention program oriented at unique population were tested in San Francisco, and Bangkok. The results of the program implementation were higher in comparison with public health care initiatives that were performed without social marketing approaches.

For more information contact:

• CDC National Prevention Information Network (NPIN)
• Phone: 1 800 458 5231
• TTY: 1 800 243 7012

Reference List

Bertrand, J. (2004) Diffusion of Innovations and HIV/AIDS. Journal of Health Communication, Volume 9: 113121

Svenkerud P. J., and Singhal A. (1998) Enhancing the Effectiveness of HIV/AIDS Prevention Programs Targeted to Unique Population Groups in Thailand: Lessons Learned from Applying concepts of Diffusion of Innovation and Social Marketing. Journal of Health Communication, Vol. 3. pp. 193-216.

Agency

The New York City STD/HIV Prevention Training Center (NYC STD/HIV PTC) was founded in 2015 by the representatives of the National Network of STD Clinical Prevention Trading Centers to research STD-related issues and reduce the levels of mortality and STD contraction among teenagers and young adults. Furthermore, the organization is aimed at managing the problems associated with reproductive health among the U.S. population (National Network of STD Clinical Prevention Trading Centers, 2015).

Having established its presence in the environment of the global healthcare system comparatively recently, the organization is rather small. It is currently comprised of four people; the staff members include: Alwyn Cohall, MD; Natalie Neu, MD MPH; Gowri Nagendra, MPH; and April Pavlish, MPH (National Network of STD Clinical Prevention Trading Centers, 2015). However, given the scale of the organizations mission, further expansion of services and personnel is expected.

As the name of the service suggests, it is located in New York City. Particularly, the facility can be found in Queens, NY 11101-4132 (42-09 28th Street, CN #73) (National Network of STD Clinical Prevention Trading Centers, 2015). However, the agency also offers its assistance to the residents of other states, including Indiana, Michigan, New Jersey, and Ohio. Furthermore, the residents of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands may also receive the services provided by the organization. To register as a participant of the program, one will have to call 646-284-9733 or send an e-mail to [email protected]. The official site of the organization that supports the program is at website.

Although the members of the campaign pursue a noble cause, there has not been enough coverage of the subject matter in media. Apart from issuing regular news reports on their site, the members of the service do not engage in any kind of promotional activities. Therefore, a Facebook campaign or the use of any other social media is strongly recommended to attract peoples attention to the issue and encourage them to engage in the discussion, the process of spreading awareness, and the support of people with STD.

At present, the goal of the organization is not set within any specific time limits. Furthermore, the number of people whom NYC STD/HIV PTC seeks to assist in managing the related issue has not been specified. Therefore, the scope of the program can be deemed as rather broad, hence the lack of any specific deadline. It can be assumed, though, that, once the appropriate media tools are utilized, at least 5% of people affected by STD and living in the New York area can be supported.

Problem

Despite the recent spur in the development of IT and the enhancement of the global communication process, a significant amount of young people still lacks information about preventing and managing STD (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017b). Particularly, the levels of syphilis contraction have recently risen among the US population, especially the representatives of the American youth (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017a). Therefore, there is a need to maintain the levels of awareness high among teenagers and young adults so that they could be able to develop the appropriate behaviors, as well as identify the available information resources and use them appropriately to retrieve the necessary information.

As the chart above shows, the LGBT community is currently affected most, yet the rest of the members of the US population are also in peril. Awareness must be built so that people could not only develop the necessary behaviors and avoid the scenarios that lead to SD contraction but also be able to receive the required services and information whenever they need. NYC STD/HIV PTC members strive to create the environment in which active information management and knowledge sharing through the tools provided by social media could contribute to a rapid increase in awareness levels.

It is especially important to find a way to speak to the target audience (i.e., teenagers and young adults) in the way that they will find convincing. Therefore, nurses must be provided with the training sessions that will enable them to speak to the target population. Furthermore, the significance of STD consultations should be emphasized to the members of the target communities. Herein lies the second goal of the organization; NYC STD/HIV PTC strives to increase the level of proficiency and competence among US nurses so that they could offer patients, as well as all those concerned, the services of the appropriate quality. Thus, focusing on healthcare quality improvement is the next objective of NYC STD/HIV PTC.

Tools

When considering the tools that can help shed light on the issue of STD prevention and management among patients, one will have to consider social networks first. There is no secret that social media has become the most efficient means of raising awareness and spreading information among the target population. Therefore, it is reasonable to use the power of social networks in the healthcare environment as well. By embracing the opportunities that social media provides, healthcare experts will be able to promote active knowledge acquisition on the level of a community, thus, making sure that not only patients but also the members of their families should be able to contribute to the creation of the environment in which the further acquisition of the relevant knowledge becomes a possibility. As a result, patients independence can be promoted. Furthermore, the target population can be taught the foundational principles of self-care, which will, in turn, lead to a gradual improvement of their understanding of their needs.

The use of the services of an educator nurse should be considered another tool for addressing the lack of awareness among the community members and the promotion of the program among them. While the use of social media does allow embracing a significantly wide population, it can also be described as rather uncontrollable. Therefore, the introduction of orderliness into the system of the target populations knowledge must be considered a necessity. An educator nurse (EN) will provide consultations to all those interested in the subject matter and offer further guidance in developing the necessary behaviors.

Furthermore, it is expected that the use of ENs services will help introduce a patient-centered approach into the program. Consequently, the quality of services is expected to improve gradually. To be more specific, ENs will help identify the unique needs of specific population groups based on their ethnicity, culture, social and economic background, etc. Consequently, the tools that can be used to raise awareness among them and compel them to follow the suggested behavioral models will be identified and applied successfully. As a result, a significant drop in the levels of STD among the target population, which will be the primary measurement tool, is expected.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). Primary and secondary syphilis  distribution of cases by sex and sexual behavior. (2015).

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017a). April is STD awareness month. Web.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017b). Join CDC in tackling the dangerous return of syphilis. Web.

National Network of STD Clinical Prevention Trading Centers. (2015). New York City STD/HIV Prevention Training Center. Web.

Introduction

In the present day, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may be regarded as one of the most serious health issues all over the world. This infection attacks the persons immune system and weakens it against severe chronic and even terminal diseases. The appropriate and time0sensitive treatment of HIV prevents its transmission to other individuals. It goes without saying that not all communities and cultures are equally vulnerable to HIV infection, and there are multiple factors that influence the diseases perception, acquisition, control, prevention, and treatment. The purpose of this paper is to investigate what populations traditionally face the most substantial risk of HIV infection and how HIV is affected by economic, social, and legislative variables. According to the findings of this study, migrant sex workers and people from poor communities may be regarded as the most vulnerable populations. In addition, socioeconomic status, control models, and current legislation have a substantial impact on HIV control and treatment.

Vulnerable Population

Migrant female sex worker may be regarded as one of the most vulnerable population that is affected by a considerable risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. In general, women who are involved in the sex industry face unique structural vulnerabilities and health-related harms, including poverty and debt, poor healthcare access, social isolation, discrimination, stigma, unsafe and inappropriate working conditions (Goldenberg, et al., 2016). In turn, migrant workers face substantial issues related to insecure legal status, immigration status, legislation that may criminalize sex work, and language barriers (Goldenberg, et al., 2016). Their health is traditionally shaped by various structural factors such as economic factors, housing, work environments, community participation, collectivization, stigma, and criminalization.

The main modes of HIV transmission include unprotected heterosexual contact, injection drug use, and male-to-male sexual contact. That is why peoples age, socioeconomic and insurance status, race and ethnicity, and gender are traditionally considered when conducting researches related to HIV transmission, control, prevention, and treatment. It is, therefore, possible to determine that black men were seven times more likely than whites to have heterosexual versus male-to-male sexual contact (Brawner, et al., 2017, p. 716). In addition, uninsured citizens were more likely to have injection drug use than male-to-male sexual contact and 10 times more likely to have heterosexual contact than male-to-male sexual contact (Brawner, et al., 2017, p. 716). In general, such factors as the persons financial state, place of living, and occupation have a prevalent influence on the possibility of HIV infection.

In addition, young Black men who live in resource-poor rural environments and are affected by adverse childhood experiences are considerably vulnerable to sexual risk behavior and HIV (Kogan, et al., 2016). In general, according to the findings of Kogan et al. (2016), racial disparities in rates of sexually transmitted diseases in rural areas are equal to and, in some cases, exceed those found in densely populated inner cities (p. 813). In areas when men have multiple sexual partnerships with inconsistent condom use, the spread of HIV is disproportionately extensive.

The Influence of Control, Power, and Money on HIV and Its Treatment

Models for HIV Control, Prevention, and Treatment

Optimal control over HIV transmission has a highly positive effect on its perception and treatment as well. Saha and Samanta (2019) suggest a compartmental model for HIV control and prevention that include pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and treatment. This model predominantly focuses on the impact of the persons individual behavioral response to PrEP information that may prevent uninfected individuals from HIV acquisition in the future (Saha & Samanta, 2019). Moreover, it aims to minimize disease fatality and be cost-efficient through the appropriate choice of PrEP information for short-term control and treatment for a longer period of time. According to the scholars research, the simultaneous use of treatment and PrEP as control interventions is more useful than any single applied control policy (Saha & Samanta, 2019, p. 280). This strategy helps to optimize expenditures related to control and disease burden and substantially reduce the number of HIV-infective individuals.

The investigation of the potential influence of structural determinants related to HIV and its treatment substantively contribute to the development of other control models as well. Shannon et al. (2015) use a deterministic transmission model for the control of HIV acquisition among female sex workers. This model is designed for HIV control and prevention through structural changes in regions with concentrated and generalised epidemics and a high prevalence of HIV among sex workers (Shannon, et al., 2015, p. 55). In addition, scholars state that the decriminalization of sex work will have the greatest impact on the HIV perception, control, treatment, and the course of this diseases epidemics all over the world (Shannon, et al., 2015). On the basis of this preferable policy, well-structured and community-led interventions may be regarded as highly essential for HIV prevention and treatment and the promotion of female sex workers human rights.

Influence of Legislation on HIV

Current legislation connected with immigration and sex work inhibits the effective control and prevention of HIV. In general, migrant workers experience significant social inequities  they fill low-paying positions, work informally, and face unsafe working conditions, insecurity, and limited access to health care (Goldenberg, et al., 2016). Migrant sex workers are frequently disproportionately vulnerable to punitive policy and legal consequences, such as arrest or deportation, and their human rights are considerably abused by government authorities (Goldenberg, et al., 2016). At the same time, migrant women represented in the sex industry are completely unprotected against violence, sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV without an opportunity to receive appropriate treatment. In recent years, multiple researches dedicated to this issue have been organized in order to develop appropriate models and strategies for HIV control and prevention. However, due to current policies that criminalize sex work and support inequities related to migration, sex workers have a fear of communicating with scholars in order to contribute to comprehensive researches.

Impact of Socioeconomic Status on HIV Treatment and Prevention

At the same time, peoples socioeconomic status has a substantial influence on the treatment of HIV. It goes without saying that IV may be generally regarded as a disease embedded in economic and social inequity. It affects impoverished neighborhoods and families with low income at disproportionately high rates (Wiewel, et al., 2017). According to the results of the research conducted by Wiewel et al. (2017), residents of high- or very-high-poverty neighborhoods were less likely than residents of low-poverty neighborhoods to maintain suppression of HIV (p. 3557). Socioeconomic status determines not only the persons vulnerability to HIV but the quality of treatment and life after the diseases acquisition.

Periods of homelessness, limited economic opportunities, poor and adverse childhood have been traditionally associated with drug and alcohol consumption, and risky sexual practices. Desperate people frequently practice unprotected sex in exchange for housing, money, and safety and place themselves at risk for various sexually transmitted diseases and HIV. Such factors as high crime rates and unemployment are associated with the vulnerability to HIV infection as well. In addition, despite the fact that HIV is predominantly associated with urban life, a substantial number of rural residents are infected as well. According to Kogan et al. (2016), the representatives of rural communities and small towns in southern Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, and North Carolina are considerably affected by HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases.

Conclusion

It goes without saying that not all communities and cultures are equally vulnerable to HIV infection that may be regarded as one of the most dangerous infections within the context of the everyday world. There are multiple factors that influence the diseases perception, acquisition, control, prevention, and treatment, such as the persons socioeconomic status, place of living, and employment, the effectivity of control models, and current legislation. While optimal control over HIV transmission has a highly positive effect on its perception and treatment, current legislation related to immigration and sex work inhibits the diseases effective prevention. At the same time, peoples socioeconomic status has a substantial influence on the treatment of HIV that affects impoverished neighborhoods and families with low income at disproportionately high rates. Migrant female sex workers may be regarded as one of the most vulnerable populations affected by a considerable risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases due to their discrimination, limited access to health care, human rights violation, and inappropriate working conditions.

References

Brawner, B. M., Guthrie, B., Stevens, R., Taylor, L., Eberhart, M., & Schensul, J. J. (2017). Place still matters: Racial/ethnic and geographic disparities in HIV transmission and disease burden. Journal of Urban Health, 94, 716-729.

Goldenberg, S. M., Brouwer, K. C., Jimenez, T. R., Miranda, S. M., & Mindt, M. R. (2016). Enhancing the ethical conduct of HIV research with migrant sex workers: Human rights, policy, and social contextual influences. PLOS ONE, 11(5).

Kogan, S. M., Cho, J., & Oshri, A. (2016). The influence of childhood adversity on rural black mens sexual risk behavior. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 50, 813-822.

Saha, S., & Samanta, G. P. (2019). Modelling and optimal control of HIV/AIDS prevention through PrEP and limited treatment. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 516, 280-307.

Shannon, K., Strathdee, S. A., Goldenberg, S. M., Duff, P., Mwangi, P., Rusakova, M., Reza-Paul, S., Lau, J., Deering, K., Pickles, M. R., & Boily, M. C. (2015). Global epidemiology of HIV among female sex workers: Influence of structural determinants. The Lancet, 385(9962), 55-71.

Wiewel, E. W., Borrell. L. N., Jones, H. E., Maroko, A. R., & Torian, L. V. (2017). Neighborhood characteristics associated with achievement and maintenance of HIV viral suppression among persons newly diagnosed with HIV in New York City. AIDS and Behavior, 21, 3557-3566.

Introduction

The number of women who are victims of the HIV virus amounts to almost half the total number of victims who live with the virus. Since its discovery, the virus has been the cause of numerous deaths across the globe. Among women, it is the greatest cause of death among women between the age of 15 and 44 years. These are the women in their reproductive age and are therefore likely to pass the virus to their children (Van et al. 2002, pp109). There have been several available alternatives to managing the death toll but the use o condom has proved most effective in preventing transmission of the virus as well as other venereal diseases(Witte et al 2006, pp148-154)

Literature review

Women have twice the chance at getting the virus from men than men getting the virus from women during sexual intercourse and vice versa. This partially is attributed to the fact that the percentage of women with the correct information on the transition of the virus is only 20 percent (Van et al. 2002, pp109)& Among the young people, the number of women with the virus is up to three times that of young men.

In the US, one in every four victims of the virus is a woman a figure that has tripled since the 1980s.the majority of these infections occurs from sexual intercourse. Undeniably, sex is the most prevalent mode of transition of the virus among women (Witte et al 2006, pp148-154). In effect, it is important to provide the right information in the protective measures that the women may adopt to keep the spread of the virus at bay. One such method is the use of female condoms. The female condom is a polyurethane sheath worn by women during sexual intercourse to prevent the transition of the virus. It is a reliable prevention measure against the transition of sexual transmitted infections

Statement of the problem

The level of awareness of the existence and use of the female condom is still low due to the lack of effective and efficient information. In the US, the product has been inadequately advertised and marketed by both the private and private sectors. With the objective of evaluating, the efficacy of female condoms skills in hiv risk reduction among women there is a need for an appropriate sampling technique that will cover effectively the sample size (Choi 2008, pp 18411848).

Population

The population comprises of a randomized controlled trial sample of 409 women who were recruited from northern California family planning clinics. The number was chosen and considered manageable in as far as cost and material is concerned. The women were also seen to be available for the regular check up and interaction with the researchers. The controlled number also allows the research to be more focused and intensive.

Sampling

The nature of the research requires a controlled number for observation. Since the object of observation is the effectiveness of a skill, it is important to ensure that the sample is as diverse and representative of the larger population as possible. The probability sampling method utilizes the random selection approach. A simple random sample provides an adequate randomized controlled trial of 409 women, recruited from family planning clinics in northern California. These women were randomly assigned to the training program that involved a four session female intervention on general health promotion and intervention program. (Allison 2001) The study was then facilitated by providing basic condom skills to the women along with female and male condoms during the study sessions. The women were also required to undertake audio computer-assisted self-interviews.

How the sample will be drawn

Stratified random sampling allows the researcher to divide the population into homogenous subgroups upon which simple random samples are drawn from the sub groups. The sample is drawn through a randomization process that involves the stratification of the population by race and ethnicity. Before the study is begun, a stratum of sequential identification numbers are were generated and randomly re assigned to intervention categories in blocks with each block having a participant category and intervention category. The participant categories are left unaware of the assignment until their firs intervention session (Latka 2000, pp 431-437).

Sample size and why this was chosen in relation to population size

The total sample results of the trial population must take a stand in as far as providing a concrete decision as to the effectiveness of the Female Condom Skills Training in HIV Risk Reduction among Women. It is therefore important that the sample be an odd number to avoid a standoff where results are equal and therefore no defensible result. 409 women is an adequate number that will allow for an equal selection of 200 women from the ethnic strata as well as the racial strata. Each stratum will also allow for an equal participant and control selection sample.

Rationale

The justification behind the adoption of the stratified sampling method is the fact that it will not only be able to represent the overall population but also the key subcategories within the population. This method is specifically important and relevant in representing minority interests within the population. It is therefore possible to analyze the effectiveness of the education initiative to specific groups such as African Americans as compared to the whites or Asians. Extremely small groups can be effectively randomly oversampled through the use of different factions within the different strata. Alternatively if the minority groups have equal magnitude then equal or proportionate stratified random sampling could be used as opposed to disproportionate stratified random sampling.

Stratified random sampling also has a greater statistical precision as compared to the simple random sampling method. This is the case if the strata within the population are strictly homogenous. The homogeneity reduces the variability within the groups is lower than that of the general population. Stratified sampling therefore ensures that this variability is minimized.

This method is most effective if the variability within the strata is minimized while the variability between the strata maximized. The method also requires a strong correlation between the dependent variables in the population within the strata. The major advantages of this method are the ability to focus on the relevant population leaving aside the irrelevant ones. The method provides for an avenue for use of more than one method. Different methods of sampling could be used in the various strata depending on the suitability and efficiency of such method. This helps improve the accuracy and efficiency of the estimation from the sample. The method also controls the problem of a balance of inconsistencies by allowing the researcher to use equal samples from strata that vary widely in size.

Conclusion

The stratified sampling method is an appropriate method for the study due to the divergent minority groups that will be covered. The method has its own shortcomings in as far as cost is concerned. It is more expensive than the popular simple random sampling method. It is also not relevant if the sample is not homogenous.

References

Allison, P. (2001). Missing Data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Choi, K., Hoff, C., Gregorich, S., & Grinstead, O. (2008). The efficacy of female condom skills training in HIV risk reduction among women: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 18411848

Latka, M., GoUub, E., French, P., and Stein Z. (2000). Male-condom and female-condom use among women after counselingin a risk-reduction hierarchy for STD prevention. Sec Transm Dis.;27:431-437.

Van, N. et al.( 2002). Effect of an STD/HIV behavioral intervention on womens use of the female condom. Am f Public Health.;92:109.

Witte, S.S. et al. (2006). Promoting female condom use to heterosexual couples: findings from a randomized dinical trial. Perspect. Sex Reprod Health.;38:148-154.

For this discussion, I chose to analyze the presence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the United States and India. Communities in both countries have been severely affected by it during the past few decades, and many interventions have been implemented in attempts to reduce its occurrence. As the virus continues to spread, it is vital to analyze what health threats contribute to its existence. The primarily affected demographic group has been largely ignored by the governments, while policies shaped a negative view on those who are infected with HIV (Joshi & Mehendale, 2019; Valdiserri & Holtgrave, 2019). Currently, HIV status is considered to be a stigma, which leads to the decreased willingness for people to take the test (ANA Policy and Government Affairs, 2019). The lack of awareness about the issue and its consequences for ones health is also detrimental for both countries.

Nursing associations in both countries must promote governmental policies that help those communities who are affected the most. For a nurse, the primary way to prevent HIV is to spread knowledge about condom use (Joshi & Mehendale, 2019). Nurses must be able to suggest further treatment steps for a person who has HIV with community-specific constraints in mind (Valdiserri & Holtgrave, 2019). It is also beneficial to explain the ways this disease can be transmitted from one person to another in accordance with the most recent research to prevent any misconceptions.

I find the following questions to be crucial to consider as a nurse prior to making any recommendations for the target population:

• What interventions other than raising awareness regarding the issue were implemented?
• What are the attitudes in the affected communities towards unprotected sex?
• How do local hospitals work with governments to address the issue?

References

ANA Policy and Government Affairs. (2019). Prevention and care for HIV and related conditions. American Nurses Association.

Joshi, R. K., & Mehendale, S. M. (2019). Determinants of consistently high HIV prevalence in Indian districts: A multi-level analysis. PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0216321.

Valdiserri, R. O., & Holtgrave, D. R. (2019). Ending HIV in America: Not without the power of community. AIDS and Behavior, 23(11), 2899-2903.

What is the Single Most Important Action That You Can Take to Prevent Developing an Infectious Disease? Why?

The main preventive methods of diseases I consider are a healthy lifestyle and hygiene. In this way, immunity is strengthened, and the possibility of stress is reduced. Moreover, compliance with hygiene rules minimizes the chance of infections entering the body.

Explain the Mechanisms of Disease and the Responses of the Immune System

The mechanism of disease (pathogenesis) is the process of illness occurrence and development. Depending on the type of illness, various mechanisms are identified:

• Acute disease  the cause is viruses, bacteria, or infections. Usually short-term and fast-curable.
• Chronic  genetics, injuries, diseases. Last a long time, poorly cured.
• Auto-immune  poorly studied reasons. The body attacks healthy tissues, perceived as foreign.

Specific organs produce or accumulate lymphocytes  white blood cells. As soon as pathogenic bacteria, microbes, viruses penetrate the body, lymphocytes begin to produce antibodies. These proteins are the weapon of immunity, and they attack alien organisms. If immunity functions normally, a person recovers. Moreover, lymphocytes have immune memory  if a familiar microbe enters the body again, they meet it with a large number of antibodies, and humans recover faster and easier.

Describe How the Integumentary System Functions to Prevent Disease

Skin is a barrier organ, and, most importantly, like the thymus, it is a place where certain types of immune cells mature and immunological reactions proceed. All kinds of cells capable of carrying out broad-spectrum reactions are presented in the skin barrier (Chrisler, Spec, Escota, & Davies, 2019). It gives reason to consider the skin as an organ of the immune system.

Analyze How Opportunistic Infections Can Take Hold, Using Your Knowledge of the Cycle of Infection and the Immune System

This type of infection is often hidden in the body and cannot manifest itself when immunity usually works. For the occurrence of opportunistic diseases, a susceptible host is required. Usually, it is a person with understated immunity; the reason for its decline is  HIV, chemotherapy, antibiotics, and many others.

Describe Preventative Strategies That Control Transmission of Disease

Vaccination prepares immunity for possible diseases. Hygiene, as using only personal belongings (such as a towel, a toothbrush), washing hands, and maintaining cleanliness, destroys bacteria around. Intelligent behavior in case of disease  keeping distance or staying home helps not to spread the virus. Another strategy  safe sex can help overcome STD transmission.

How Alexs Immune and Integumentary Systems Work Together to Prevent and Respond to Disease? How HIV Alters the Bodys Ability to Protect Itself

Immune and integumentary systems work to protect the human body from disease. Integumentary systems try not to pass bacteria into the body, producing their immune cells. If the infection does penetrate the body, the immune system uses lymphocytes to fight them, recognizing and destroying harmful bacteria. HIV, in turn, affects immune system cells, and they can no longer fight other viruses.

Then, Explain Using the Chain of Infection, How a Virus-Like HIV Could Have Infected Alex

The human immunodeficiency virus is an infectious agent for which biological fluids act as a reservoir. The portal for exit and entry in such a case can be wounds and genitals. The means of transmission is direct contact with the blood system or mucosal cell membranes. The virus is so strong that anyone is a susceptible host for it.

How Is It That an Opportunistic Infection Was Able to Develop? Why Kaposis Sarcoma?

When immunity is unable to fight infections, even minor diseases can attack the body. Such diseases are called opportunistic and appear when immunity is significantly weakened. For example, Kaposis Sarcoma is usually triggered by the herpes virus, which, on condition of immunity functions normally, does not affect health (Chrisler et al., 2019).

Alex Is Concerned About Possibly Infecting Someone Else with The Virus, Explain to Him How He Can Help Prevent It

Since the most significant number of HIV infections in the world occurs through sex acts and in drug injections, a person in most cases can change and control similar processes (Chrisler et al., 2019). First of all, condoms, if used continuously and correctly, create sufficient obstacles to HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. Second, a non-infected person cannot be a donor to prevent the virus from entering the bloodstream of other people. Moreover, medical manipulations and cosmetic procedures (piercing, tattoo, shaving) with skin and mucous membrane disorders are dangerous. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent blood from entering medical instruments and other personal care items that may disrupt the skin. Lastly, it is essential to carefully behave with wounds and prevent the ingress of liquids into the body of another person.

References

Chrisler, C., Spec, A., Escota, G. V., Davies, B. (2019). Comprehensive Review of Infectious Diseases. Netherlands: Elsevier Health Sciences.