Pineapples and their flavor are traditionally associated with summer and pleasures, and moreover, with certain uniqueness and exotics.
People who meet me at their life paths are inclined to experience similar emotions and feelings while analyzing the details of my appearance and character, and my friends agree that the discussion of pineapple as the sunny exotic fruit is the best variant to find the approach to my complex personality. That is why it is important to refer to my character while describing the rich taste of a unique and striking pineapple.
Why do pineapples draw people’s attention and evoke pleasant associations? Pineapples are often valued because of their extremely pleasant taste. However, there are few people who know how to reach the sweet pulp of a pineapple carefully to save the juice. Thus, it is too difficult to get the sweet and juicy pulp of a pineapple immediately because it is saved under the thick and hard peel. People cannot get the pulp if they do not know the right way to reach it successfully.
I consider the hard brown peel of pineapple as the protection from the invasions to reach the sunny yellow and juicy pulp. This kind of pleasure cannot be available for any person! Nature thinks about pineapples and protects their pulp from the negative effects of the environments.
That is why, whenever people reach the core of a pineapple, they receive the opportunity to enjoy the thick pulp full of juice and sweetness. If pineapple is protected with the hard peel because of nature’s care, I should protect my inner world independently to save the best features of my character from pleasing my friends and relatives. It is irrelevant to me ‘sweety’ for everyone, but it is significant to be ‘sunny’ for close people.
Pineapples are exotic fruits which are full of sun energy. The task is to risk and taste them. To give a lot of solar energy to people around me is also my task as the Kuwaiti person full of joy and dreams. However, I choose to be shy and protect myself from the negative impact of other people.
My inner ‘sun’ is only for people who were not frightened to peel off my hard protection. During the process of growth, a plant of pineapple overcomes several stages. At the first three stages, a pineapple resembles a red fragile and tender flower. This stage is correlated with the period of my childhood when I started to explore the world around me.
To protect my fragile inner world or ‘juicy sunny pulp,’ I grew the sheets of the thick brown peel one by one to adapt to the realities. Although my inner emotions and feelings are hidden inside, people discuss me as an attractive person because of my preserved uniqueness. I am not ready to become a typical green apple. I am a pineapple!
Pineapple is the king in the natural world of fruits and vegetables because of its obvious greatness and the crown of leaves over the fruit. Real kings are reserved and patient. Those qualities and attributes which are perceived as the signs of shyness are often techniques to protect the real meaning and the real core. Do not be afraid of peeling off the thick and hard pineapple because of a lot of pleasant surprises.
Urbanization has grown to become a popular phenomenon in contemporary society. The increased rate of rural to urban movement has caused urban food shortage, a high cost of food, and a huge reliance on imported food, among other challenges. To counter these challenges as a way of guaranteeing sustainability, towns have developed a deep interest in urban agriculture. This phenomenon helps cities to enhance the quality of life for their residents, control climate change, and stabilize economic and social development.
Urban agriculture may seem an easy concept. Introducing and implementing urban agriculture is a strenuous process that results in a myriad of benefits. Furthermore, urban agriculture faces several challenges that hamper its success. Although most urban agricultural practices began as social initiatives, most of the projects are not supported by critical scientific knowledge regarding food production.
The situation has ended up endangering their sustainability. This paper analyzes the issue of urban agriculture in various cities such as San Diego, New York City, and Philadelphia, among others. The goal is to show the interrelationship between urban agriculture and localization.
Overview of Urban Agriculture
The US has an approximated population of 324,874, 430 people. This figure represents about 4.45% of the global population. The American inhabitants live a highly developed life. In fact, close to 85 percent of them live in the municipal regions. Hara, Murakami, Tsuchiya, Palijon, and Yokohama, conducted research in one of the Philippines’ urban regions, namely Metro Manila, where they investigated the level of vegetable farming in the region.1
The researchers found that the region had a high potential for producing more vegetables, which could be used by the region’s growing population. The rate of urbanization in the Philippines and other regions has also been on the rise. This situation has raised questions among authorities concerning how to sustain the huge urban population with respect to transportation, accommodation, and food supply. Currently, the world population is approximated at 7.1billion.
The number is anticipated to double in the near future, thus posing a threat to the food supply. Urban agriculture provides a platform to circumvent food insecurity. According to recent statistical findings as Islam, Rabiul, Siwar, and Chamhuri reveal, “UA is a means of stabilizing household food security and prevents massive malnutrition.”2
As urban areas become more populated, food becomes scarce. Thus, cities must develop to provide food for the residents. As Lam confirms, promoting urban agriculture makes urban communities learn to be independent to the extent of reducing malnutrition that has been evident in the global society.3 It limits the complexities of the food supply network where food has to be transported through various cities before it reaches the ultimate destination.
According to Hara et al., urban agriculture refers to the cultivation of crops and vegetables in metropolitan areas such as Metro Manila.4 However, it also involves the rearing of animals and farming activities that occur in and around towns. Its main difference from other types of agriculture, such as rural agriculture, is that it is incorporated into the towns’ economic and environmental organizations. Laborers, consumers, and any input largely come from urban centers.
Its negative and positive impacts influence the urban residents, similar to urban policies that are ratified to govern the towns. Moreover, cities occupy a vast land that is mostly used for residential and commercial purposes. The land is barely tilted. Thus, most of the food supply comes from neighboring rural areas and foreign producers.
For example, London occupies about 160000ha, with a huge population of the UK residing in the town. However, most of the land in the city is not cultivated. Instead, it is used for other reasons, such as residential purposes. Consequently, to feed the city, most of the food products are imported. The tea that London residents consume is imported from third-world countries.
Urban Agriculture in Major Cities
San Diego City
Located in California, San Diego is one of the major cities in the US. The city has encouraged its residents to utilize the phenomenon of urban agriculture. Farming in San Diego is distinct from other areas in California, particularly because a big part of the agriculture involves scarce animals and plants. Nonetheless, the importance of farming in San Diego cannot be ignored. It is ranked the fifth most central economic activity in the area.
Since the land is rich in terms of soil nutrients, the place has recorded a high agricultural production and impressive profits. However, the city also faces various challenges that inhibit the success of urban agriculture in the area. For instance, the increased movement into the town has led to the occupation of land that could be used for farming.
The process of initiating urban agriculture appears to be technical in the town due to the bureaucratic pressure that requires participants to be skilled. Furthermore, as Ricci, Mattogno, Monardo, Palazzo, and Valentino observe, the witnessed stiff competition on agricultural products in San Diego has led to an increased interest in high-quality production.5
To overcome the challenges that are associated with urban agriculture in the city, local authorities have launched several initiatives to enhance urban farming. For example, the City Farmers Nursery was introduced in the 1970s to educate farmers on urban farming, especially poultry farming. The city also has the San Diego Foodscaping as an organization that is committed to guiding the residents on organic farming techniques.
Furthermore, it also has Seeds@City Urban Firm, which seeks to promote farming among urban youths. These programs have helped the city to make impressive progress towards investing in urban agriculture. They have helped the town to protect its endangered plants and animals while assuring the urban dwellers of their food security. Moreover, they provide an easy platform for youths to get employment, especially in underserved communities.6
The New York City
New York City is one of the most populated cities in North America. It is highly developed with reference to its impressive real-estate project. While one would not expect urban agriculture in New York, many projects have been established here to promote farming within and around the city.
In fact, the city is a leader when it comes to urban farming in the US. It has over 700 farms with an average minimum size of 2500feet. Urban farming in the town is not only meant for the residents to get a variety of fresh crops but also to help in accomplishing community goals such as education, conservation of the environment, and storage of rainwater, among other goals.7
Despite the success of urban agriculture, farmers in this city face various challenges. For example, issues such as getting enough input for production, such as adequate land, skilled workforce, and finance, remain a challenge. Most of the farmers in the city aspire that the government could be more committed to initiating policies that favor urban agriculture. Moreover, financing has been a challenge mainly because of social disparity where people of different races and social classes are treated differently.
Stakeholders have launched many programs to coordinate urban farming activities in the town. There is a need for the government to formalize its empowerment plans and eliminate social discrimination. Currently, over 400,000 residents engage in urban agriculture with notable projects such as Brooklyn Grange, Battery Urban Farm, and Bushwick Campus Farm being among the main sources through which New York receives fresh farm products.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia is among the most populated cities in the US. It has an estimated population of 1.5million dwellers. Urban agriculture is a popular phenomenon in the city, with most of the framing projects being the initiatives of the citizens. The growth of urban agriculture in the city has been witnessed because agriculture provides an easy solution to economic hardships as citizens opt to farm and taking advantage of the good climate and fertile land.8
Nonetheless, urban agriculture in Philadelphia has faced inconsistent growth, recording a sharp decline between 1996 and 2008. Effort from the stakeholders successfully helped to reinvent urban agriculture in the town. Various local organizations such as the Neighborhood Gardens Association and Marathon Loves Philadelphia have helped the gardeners to get and manage their farms.
The unity of the non-governmental organization and the city authorities has helped to integrate urban agriculture as part of Philadelphia’s urban lifestyle system. The city is still committed to improving the state of agriculture, as evidenced by the various legislative amendments and the ratification of new policies to favor urban agriculture.
Of great importance is the Urban Agriculture Use Category (UAUC), which outlines various categories of urban farming in the city. According to Ricci et al., UAUC is an effort that is meant to localize urban agriculture in the area since it matches the city’s vision of “promoting land-use policies and programs recognizing the value of small farms preserving regional lands.”9
Role of Localization in Urban Agriculture
The US has been moving towards producing and encouraging the consumption of local foods. Several factors, including climate change, which has reduced the quality of some imported food products, have triggered this transition. Moreover, obesity that is seen as a national threat has prompted the need to produce healthy products to eliminate the complications that come because of taking junk foods. Urban agriculture is a good illustration of the localization of agriculture in the US.
Urban farming provides a good platform for citizens to produce and consume their local foods. Indeed, localization is likely to become the norm in the American continent, particularly because importing food products, just like other commodities, is affected by fluctuations in the transportation cost. The increased fuel cost will alter the transportation cost, thus making imported food products more expensive than the current prices.
The situation will encourage the growth of a localized food economy. In a span of five years, beginning from 2002 to 2007, farms in the US increased by 4 %. Approximately 2.2million US citizens have declared farming the best practice. Most of the farms are small and owned by women. Thus, they serve the local markets. Urban agriculture also received a strong boost from the inspiration by the US First Lady Michelle Obama, who initiated farming projects in the White House.
Her inspiration has seen a 40% upsurge in the number of gardens in various towns in the US. Urban agriculture is increasingly becoming a popular concept in the US with reference to the way it has captured the awareness of many scholars who want to investigate the issue of food integrity and people’s health in the region as Wortman and Lovell confirm.10 It needs a lot of support from residents, the government, and other relevant stakeholders.
As Mok confirms, localization of urban agriculture can occur through the implementation of various strategies, which include boosting people’s awareness of the benefits that are associated with the production of family-based agricultural products.11 The aforementioned three cities have made efforts to introduce programs that encourage the production of local food products.
Philadelphia has a huge vacant land that can be used for the purposes of urban agriculture. To encourage the cultivation of local products, instead of importing them, stakeholders in cooperation with the government have introduced the Vacant Land Management in the Philadelphia project, which identifies any bare land in the city with the view of determining if the land can be used for urban agriculture. Urban farming is seen as an opportunity to promote the localization of food products.
Mok demonstrates how urban farming remains a practical phenomenon where people have grown food on the rooftops and verandas of their houses.12 The opponents of using urban agriculture to promote the localization of food products say that the setup of urban centers, which are full of real-estate projects and heavy traffic, does not provide a serene environment for agriculture.
Urban farming in New York City largely involves the cultivation of indigenous and organic products. The essence of cultivating these products is that the plan helps the residents to produce healthy farm products that enhance their quality of life while also conserving the environment. Furthermore, the production of local foods plays an essential role in increasing community wealth in various ways. First, the cultivation of local crops in New York City has created employment for the locals.
It has also boosted farmers’ income since the market is readily available, as the residents buy most of the products. Localization also ensures that the products that are taken to the market are of good quality. Lam presents the issue of re-localization as a move that has provided an opportunity through which urban dwellers can have a proper food supply, maintain good health, and/or conserve the environment.13
For instance, industrial farms prefer to use machinery to produce their products in bulk because of the large market that they to satisfy. On the other hand, in the case of urban agriculture, farmers always pay more attention to the quality and safety of products they release into their communities. A similar case can be witnessed in San Diego City, where consumers, farmers, and students work to promote the cultivation of local foods.
Their claim concurs with Beckford and Campbell’s position that consuming regionally produced foods helps in establishing a healthy community that has a stable local economy.14
Beckford and Campbell focus their study on the Caribbean region where both mature males and female family members are actively involved in agriculture to guarantee self-sustainability.15 One interesting project that operates under the Wild Willow Farm and Education Centre is committed to educating the citizens on how to initiate sustainable cultivation practices.16
Comparison between Urban Agriculture in United States Cities and Malaysia
Just as in the case of the United States, urban agriculture plays an important role in ensuring food security in Malaysia. However, in the case of Malaysia, it faces a lot of challenges and particularly external forces. According to Islam and Siwar, since Malaysia is a huge importer of food products, it is largely exposed to various forces such as land accessibility and the typology of individuals who engage in urban farming in the country17 For instance, a rise in transportation costs leads to an increase in food prices.
In the case of tragedies and harsh climatic conditions in the exporting country, Malaysia is likely to face food insecurity. To avert the insecurity matter, it must invest heavily in local farming. Although major efforts have been made to implement urban farming projects, most of them have turned futile due to poor planning and implementation policies, such as the top-down implementation approach.
Issues such as the minimal political goodwill, lack of harmonization of ideas among stakeholders, and poor land registration programs have left most of the land untilled. The government and its rural counterparts do not take urban farmers’ issues seriously.
As a result, their products do not attract a high demand as compared to the situation for the rural farmers. Poor division of land has resulted in poor land use and land disputes. In Malaysia, individuals who have stayed for long in towns find it easy to engage in farming because they are aware of the procedures that one has to follow to access land for agriculture.18
Although the poverty level in the countryside is high, food security is evident in relation to the situation in the urban areas because a big portion of rural dwellers cultivate food while those in the urban areas have to purchase it. People who live in densely populated urban neighborhoods are exposed to poor sanitation and unsafe drinking water.
Besides, they can barely access medical care. It is evident that stakeholders should invest in urban farming. Proper investment in urban agriculture can provide a solution to many problems that urban dwellers experience. Malaysia needs to invest in urban agriculture. Indeed, the success of urban agriculture in the United States can be replicated in Malaysia if the country implements some of the strategies that the United States has adopted.
Conclusion
Many citizens, organizations, and authorities in the United States are embracing the idea of urban farming as a concept that can help to strengthen food security, influence the economy positively, and/or advance the universal quality of life for the Americans. The practice of urban agriculture has been adopted in many towns, owing to the benefits that people have reaped from it, including a reduction of charges that they initially paid for purchasing imported food products.
Towns such as New York City, San Diego, and Philadelphia have successfully implemented urban farming to reinforce food security as a way of barricading themselves from the effects that come with importing food. The success of urban farming in these cities has largely been due to political goodwill and good farming practices.
Localization has played an imperative role in the success of urban farming. Besides creating community-based employment, it has enhanced the production of healthy food products and the provision of a ready market, hence boosting the economy of the cities. However, in the case of Malaysia, urban farming projects have failed because of poor implementation strategies. Malaysia should borrow some of the strategies that the US has adopted to maintain successful urban agriculture.
Bibliography
Beckford, Clinton, and Donovan Campbell. Domestic Food Production And Food Security In The Caribbean. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
Hara, Yuji, Akinobu Murakami, Kazuaki Tsuchiya, Armando Palijon, and Makoto Yokohari. “A quantitative assessment of vegetable farming on vacant lots in urban fringe in Metro Manila: Can it sustain long-term local vegetable demand?” Applied Geography 41, no. 1 (2013): 195-206.
Islam, Rabiul, and Chamhuri Siwar. “The analysis of Urban Agriculture Development in Malaysia.” Adv. Environ. Biolo 6, no.3 (2012): 1068-1078.
Lam, Sun. Urban agriculture in Kingston: Present and Future Potential For Re-localization and Sustainability. Canada: Queens University, 2007.
Mok, Hoi-Fei. “Strawberry fields forever? Urban agriculture in developed countries: A review.” Agron Sustainable Development 34, no. 1 (2014): 21-43.
Ricci, Manueala, Claudia Mattogno, Bruno Monardo, Anna Palazzo, and Pietro Valentino. “Feeding the City-Foodsheds and Urban Agriculture in San Diego.” City Safety Energy Journal 2, no. 1 (2014): 29-35.
Wortman, Sort, and Sarah Lovell. “Environmental Challenges Threatening the Growth of Urban Agriculture in the United States.” Journal of Environmental Quality 42, no. 1 (2013):1283-1294.
Footnotes
1 Yuji Hara, Akinobu Murakami, Kazuaki Tsuchiya, Armando Palijon, and Makoto Yokohari, “A quantitative assessment of vegetable farming on vacant lots in urban fringe in Metro Manila: Can it sustain long-term local vegetable demand?,” Applied Geography 41, no. 1 (2013): 195
2 Rabiul Islam and Chamhuri Siwar, “The analysis of Urban Agriculture Development in Malaysia,” Adv. Environ. Biolo 6, no.3 (2012): 1069
3 Sun Lam, Urban agriculture in Kingston: Present and Future Potential For Re-localization and Sustainability. Canada: Queens University, 2007, ii
4 Hara et al., 197
5 Manuela Ricci, Claudia Mattogno, Bruno Monardo, Anna Palazzo, and Pietro Valentino. “Feeding the City-Foodsheds and Urban Agriculture in San Diego,” City Safety Energy Journal 2, no. 1 (2014): 31
6 Ricci et al., 31
7 Lam, 34
8 Wortman and Lovell, 1283
9 Ricci et al., 32
10 Sort Wortman and Sarah Lovell, “Environmental Challenges Threatening the Growth of Urban Agriculture in the United States.” Journal of Environmental Quality 42, no. 1 (2013):1283
11 Hoi-Fei Mok, “Strawberry fields forever? Urban agriculture in developed countries: A review,” Agron Sustain. Development 34, no. 1 (2014): 24
12 Mok, 25
13 Lam, 1
14 Clinton Beckford and Donovan Campbell, Domestic Food Production And Food Security In The Caribbean (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 23
Agriculture has a significant impact on the growth and development of economies around the world. Agriculture is important for developing countries; for this reason, farmers need new technologies to support and promote its development. This shows that research studies should be undertaken to develop approaches that can promote the sustenance of agriculture and food security. Lack of food is an indicator of the failure of policies and subjects citizens to the threat of starvation.
Nations which cannot feed their people affect the future of the population; it is a very serious matter, especially when it comes to child mortalities. Therefore, with the recent launch of telecommunications around the globe, mobile phones have become transformation tools for development. The paper seeks to outline the influence of mobile phones on developing agriculture and how they help create food security around the world.
Agricultural growth
This research will enable farmers to improve their farming techniques, which will, in turn, promote economic growth. Farmers have been dependent on the shifting seasons to grow their crops. This has caused a loss because such seasonal changes have become unpredictable making farmers constantly be afraid of droughts or floods.
Some are not aware of when to plant their seedlings since they cannot determine when the rainy season may end. Farmers, through their mobile phones, may send text messages inquiring about weather conditions of their regions so as to plant their seedlings (“Beyond Voice” par 4). In addition, mobile phones can enable farmers to access farming tips that can advance their farming practices. Through message queries, farmers get access to agricultural information, which is relevant in protecting their animals and crops from pesticides and other diseases.
Mobile phones facilitate the transmission of information from one person to another. The outbreak of numerous animal diseases has caused a negative impact on farming because many animals died. Some farmers lack sufficient knowledge regarding certain diseases, and when such outbreaks occur, they incur problems that affect production.
Therefore, through mobile services, the information will be passed to farmers in case of an outbreak (“Eureka Moments” par 6). Through communication, the farmer is able to connect with the marketing agencies that buy the goods. Agriculture involves creating a link between a seller and a buyer for an effective business. Therefore, through mobile phone services, the buyer is able to reach farmers and their products. Therefore, mobile phones can play a significant role in improving agriculture and should be endorsed to develop the economy.
However, there are risks that should not be omitted in this process. The world has witnessed a drop in phone prices whereby it is easy for one to acquire a mobile phone. This reduction in prices enables farmers to use their product returns to buy phones for easy communication with customers and agricultural officers. Services provided to farmers concerning weather forecasts, market prices, among others, may be charged at high prices, which may lead to exploitation.
High charges imposed on farmers will directly result in the costs of goods, making the products expensive. This indicates that the use of mobile phones in agriculture may lead to an increase in prices so as to enable farmers to maximize their returns. Future studies should be focused on proper mechanisms that will monitor service charges to avoid the rise in cost. Agriculture involves creating a link between a seller and a buyer for an effective business. Therefore, mobile phones will encourage food production that will create food security.
The Commonwealth of Australia is situated in Oceania and is “the world’s sixth-largest country” (“Our Country” par. 10). Colonized in the 19th century, Australia has become a developed and wealthy country with a mature agricultural economy sector. Nowadays, this is one of the 20 largest world economies. The regions of the country include New South Wales (commonly abbreviated as NSW), Victoria (Vic.), Queensland (Qld), South Australia (SA), Western Australia (WA), Tasmania (Tas.), Northern Territory (NT), and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) (Australian Bureau of Statistics par. 1). The largest cities are the capitals of the states of New South Wales and Victoria, that is, Sydney and Melbourne (“Our country” par. 5). Canberra is the capital of the Commonwealth.
The current population of the country is estimated to be 23.2 million (2015 Index of Economic Freedom par. 4). Most of it is situated in the coastal regions while the center of the continent is not very densely populated.
Culture, History, and Nature
Australian culture is very diverse as the country is multiracial, which is reflected in all the aspects of people’s life: from food to religion. This is at least partially the result of the historical development of the country. The aboriginal people of Australia had supposedly migrated to Australia from Asia about 50,000. Even though the first Europeans to visit Australia were the Dutch (it happened in the 17th century), it is Captain James Cook who is commonly credited with this discovery. The first European settlement to appear in Australia in 1788 was a penal colony. However, in the following years, free settlers were attracted by the land, and soon the status was abolished (“Our Country” par. 2-5).
The climate in Australia is temperate, sub-zero temperatures being a rare occurrence. However, due to the mountain snow, in certain states of Australia (New South Wales, for example) ski resorts are functioning (“Our country” par. 7-9). At the same time, it has been stated that “Australia is the world’s driest inhabited continent with the largest variability in rainfall” (Hochman et al. 110). The latter fact poses particular difficulties for the agricultural development of the country.
Politics and Economy
The gross domestic product (GDP) of Australia amounts to $999.6 billion, with 2.5% 5-year compound annual growth (see fig. 1). The government of Australia has put an emphasis on developing a free economy since the 1980s, and it appears to still regard this factor as a priority nowadays. For example, in 2014, the government stopped controlling the price of electricity (2015 Index of Economic Freedom par. 7).
The political environment of the country has been described as stable, the property rules as secure, judicial system as independent and unbiased (2015 Index of Economic Freedom par. 5-7). These factors, along with the high monetary stability and firm control over inflation, have earned the country the fours place in the 2015 Index of Economic Freedom (part 1). Australian start-up companies are encouraged with the help of flexible licensing and simple regulations. Apart from that, the country possesses a stable banking system of privately owned banks (2015 Index of Economic Freedom par. 2-8).
Fig. 1. Real GDP and GDP per person from the Australian Bureau of Statistics; Research and Experimental Development. Higher Education Organisations, Australia; Cat. no. 5204.0; ABS, Canberra, 2013; Austats’. Web.
Agricultural Industries in Australia
Overview. Major Produce
The history of agriculture in Australia is relatively recent: since the settlement in 1788, it expanded slowly at the beginning of the previous century, after which it flourished, developing at a particularly rapid pace between 1960 and 1990 (Bellotti and Rochecouste 21). Nowadays, the agricultural industry in Australia is very well-developed. More than half of Australia’s land is dedicated to the industry (Hochman et al. 111). The agricultural economy sector of the country includes vegetable, berry, and fruit (apple, pear, citrus) growing, rice and other grain growing, sugar cane growing, cotton growing, cattle (beef, sheep, pig), and poultry farming as well as other industries. The Australian Bureau of Statistics offers a chart of the number of agricultural industries in every region of the country (see table 1).
Table 1. Business with main agricultural activity, by state and territory, years 2009-2010
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics; Research and Experimental Development. Higher Education Organisations, Australia; Cat. no. 1301.0; ABS, Canberra, 2013; Austats. Web.
The regulation of the industry is provided by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture. The Department works with the development and implementation of relevant policies, provides quarantine and inspection along with the certification of the exported goods. Apart from that, it is concerned with the protection of the natural country’s resources and the economic and environmental research and advice (The Australian Government Department of Agriculture Website par. 1-5). At the same time, free trade is promoted in Australia, and government intervention (including subsidies as well as quotas) is discouraged (Bellotti and Rochecouste 21).
Farming Systems and Technology used
Australian farmers are especially initiative regarding innovation, and they have demonstrated the willingness to experiment and develop their business (Bellotti and Rochecouste 31). Australian organizations like the National Association for Sustainable Agriculture have been emphasizing the importance of increasing the efficiency in resources use and minimizing the negative impact on the environment, including the preservation of biodiversity which has been reflected in the regulations of the Department of Agriculture (The Australian Government Department of Agriculture Website par. 1-5). As a result, conservational agriculture, which is regarded as a solution towards increasing and maintaining efficiency and sustainability, has become popular in Australia (Bellotti and Rochecouste 21).
Fig. 2. Sources of agricultural water from the Australian Bureau of Statistics; Research and Experimental Development. Higher Education Organisations, Australia; Cat. no. 4618.0; ABS, Canberra, 2013; Austats’ Web.
The agriculture of Australia can be regarded as innovative. In the future, further intensification of agriculture with regard to ecological development is to be expected. The technologies used in the industry are, in many cases, aimed at the efficient management of scarce resources, one of which is water (Hochman et al. 110).
Water Consumption
The issue of irrigation in Australia can be regarded as a difficulty since the water use depends on rainfall and, therefore, draughts can become a major problem (Hochman et al. 112). The sources of agricultural water include irrigation channels, on-farm dams and tanks, and groundwater. The percentage of using recycled water and other sources is very small (see fig. 2).
Fig. 3. Agricultural water use for irrigation from the Australian Bureau of Statistics; Research and Experimental Development. Higher Education Organisations, Australia; Cat. no. 4618.0; ABS, Canberra, 2013; Austats’. Web.
In 2012-2013, the total water consumption in Australia was 19,749 GL, 17,898 GL used by industry, and 1,851 GL by households as is stated in the catalog number 4610.0 of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (para. 4). As for the agricultural use of water, it amounted to 11 561.9 ML (see fig. 3).
Organic Farming
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (catalog number 1301.0) states that organic produce constitutes about 1% of the retail turnover, its annual growth estimated between 10% to 25% (para. 14-16). The market of organic food exists in Australia for more than 20 years, and about one-third of the product is currently meant for export (Lockeretz 225, 227).
The National Association for Sustainable Agriculture, Australia (NASAA) plays a significant role in the process of organic farming popularization, development, and control (Lockeretz 225). Given the benefits that are commonly attributed to the industry (the chemical-free environmentally-friendly products that cannot cause addiction and does not contain genetically modified elements), its popularity in the country is expected to continue to increase.
It should be pointed out that GMO moratoria in Australia are not all-encompassing and vary depending on the region (Paull 7). However, the overall area of certified organic land in Australia is bigger than that in any other country, as it constitutes over 12.0 million hectares of certified organic land (Paull 8).
Export. Australia is a major agricultural exporter; its key export produces being “beef, wheat, sugar, wool, barley, dairy, and wine” (Bellotti and Rochecouste 21). According to the Australian Government Department of Agriculture Website, about one-third of the overall agricultural produce of the country is being exported (par. 1). Apart from that, a program aimed to help small exporters has been launched in 2013 (The Australian Government Department of Agriculture Website par. 3). It involves funding the small export projects to improve access to the market for small businesses. As a result, the export rates of the country appear to have been growing relatively steadily for the past several decades (see fig. 4). The inspection and certification of the exported goods are carried out by the Department of Agriculture.
Social Structure
Given the relatively scarce government support, farmers of Australia have proved to be initiative and have been expressing interest in the implementation of the new technologies discussed above. For example, the Crop Science Society (founded in 1975) has become a major forum for the communication between farmers and scientists (Bellotti and Rochecouste 22). As a result, the development of agriculture in Australia is, in many ways, promoted by the farmers themselves.
Unfortunately, certain characteristics of the Australian workforce could be regarded as a disadvantage. The issues of Australian agriculture “include depopulation, ageing, poor service infrastructure, and growing inequalities, particularly in the area of health” (Alston 200). The depopulation is caused by the fact that younger people tend to leave the rural areas, preferring white-collar jobs in the cities, which results in the aging workforce of the Australian agriculture business.
Fig. 4. Exports and Imports, relative to GDP from the Australian Bureau of Statistics; Research and Experimental Development. Higher Education Organisations, Australia; Cat. no. 5204.0; ABS, Canberra, 2013; Austats’. Web.
As the workforce diversity increases and changes, the Australian government attempts to respond, for example, through the legislation aimed at eliminating age discrimination (Kossen and Pedersen 74). Still, the issue of aging and diminishing farming workforce in the country remains a problem to be solved (see table 2).
The unemployment rate in the country is 5.6% (2015 Index of Economic Freedom par. 4).
Table 2. Employment in the Australian agriculture industry
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics; Research and Experimental Development. Higher Education Organisations, Australia; Cat. no. 6291.0.55.003; ABS, Canberra, 2013; Austats. Web.
Recommendations to Invest in Australia
The globalization of Business and Cross-Cultural Communication
Globalization, as a process of international integration, has embraced the life of modern society on all levels, including the social and cultural ones (Alston 198). Australia has proved to be a competitive agricultural producer, which turns the country into an appealing investment option.
The issue of cross-cultural communication arises in the context of globalization and international trade and investment. With the increasing diversity of economic contacts, the necessity for cross-cultural communication skills becomes especially relevant. Those include, first of all, the need to take into account the differences between the partners belonging to different cultures and as well as exploiting the advantages offered by the similarities in their worldview (Reeves 7-14). Such an approach towards international businesses helps to avoid misunderstandings and increases the efficiency of communication along with the outcome of deals and cooperation.
Investing in Australia
Porter’s diamond model could be used to describe the opportunities offered by the Australian agriculture industry. The model includes a number of determinants of the competitiveness of an industry, namely the “factor (input) conditions, home demand conditions, related and supporting industries and industry strategy structure, and competitiveness” (Ozgen 64). The input factors of Australia have been characterized above, and, as it has been mentioned, they include both positive (for example, the vast volumes or the innovative nature of agriculture) and negative ones (for instance, water or population issues). However, as it is pointed out in the diamond model, the positive input factors can be used to eliminate the negative effect of the adverse ones, which can be illustrated by the usage of innovative technologies for ecologically efficient agriculture.
Apart from that, the role of government as a factor capable of modifying the first three of the determinants is pointed out in the diamond model (Ozgen 64). One of the pluses of investing in Australian agriculture is the fact that the government is encouraging a free economy in the country. Definitely, this presupposes lesser support. Still, in the 2015 Index of Economic Freedom, Australia is ranked number 4, which makes it one of the five economically free countries of the world and an appealing place for business development (par. 1).
The political environment of the country has been described as possessing effective anti-corruption measures along with with “well-established and transparent political processes, a strong legal system, and a professional bureaucracy” (2015 Index of Economic Freedom par. 6). Possibly, as a result of sound economic politics, Australia has enjoyed more than two decades of economic expansion, which increases its appeal as an investment option (2015 Index of Economic Freedom, par 5). Finally, being one of the 20 largest world economies, Australia is expected to stay among them for the next several decades and, possibly, achieve a higher ranking in the future (Smialek par. 2). All of these factors make investing in Australia an appealing option.
Works Cited
2015 Index of Economic Freedom. The Heritage Foundation, 2015. Web.
Alston, Margaret. “Globalisation, Rural Restructuring And Health Service Delivery In Australia: Policy Failure And The Role Of Social Work?” Health & Social Care in the Community 15.3 (2007): 195-202. EBSCOhost. Web.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Research and Experimental Development, Higher Education Organisations, Australia. Cat. no. 1301.0, ABS, Canberra, 2013. Austats. Web.
—. Research and Experimental Development, Higher Education Organisations, Australia. Cat. no. 4610.0, ABS, Canberra, 2013. Austats. Web.
—. Research and Experimental Development, Higher Education Organisations, Australia. Cat. no. 5204.0, ABS, Canberra, 2013. Austats. Web.
—. Research and Experimental Development, Higher Education Organisations, Australia. Cat. no. 6291.0.55.003, ABS, Canberra, 2013. Austats. Web.
Bellotti, Bill, and Jean-Francois Rochecouste. “The Development of Conservation Agriculture In Australia—Farmers As Innovators.” International Soil and Water Conservation Research 2.1 (2014): 21-34. ScienceDirect. Web.
Hochman, Zvi et al. “Prospects For Ecological Intensification of Australian Agriculture.” European Journal of Agronomy 44.1 (2013): 109-123. ScienceDirect. Web.
Kossen, Chris, and Cec Pedersen. “Older Workers In Australia: The Myths, the Realities and the Battle Over Workforce ‘Flexibility’.” Journal of Management & Organization 14.1 (2008): 73-84. ProQuest. Web.
“Our Country”. Australian Government Official Website. Australian Government, 2015. Web.
Ozgen, Eren. “Porter’s Diamond Model and Opportunity Recognition: A Cognitive Perspective.” Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal 17.2 (2011): 61-76. ProQuest. Web.
Paull, John. “GMOs and Organic Agriculture: Six Lessons from Australia.” Agriculture and Forestry 61.1 (2015): 7-14. EBSCOhost. Web.
Reeves, Dory. “Cross-Cultural Communication: A Critical Competence for Planners.” Planning Practice and Research 26.5 (2011): 597-613. EBSCOhost. Web.
Smialek, Jeanna. “These Will Be The World’s 20 Largest Economies In 2030.” Bloomberg Business 2015. Web.
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture Website. The Australian Government Department of Agriculture, 2015. Web.
One of the main challenges of the process of urbanization is the fact that the land around the urban areas is allocated to other economic activities at the expense of agriculture. It is clear that every urban area in the United States is characterized by the lack of food production through agriculture, and this challenge results in the dependency on the rural areas for access to fresh food from the farms. The industrialization process in the United States led to the development of alternatives for agricultural products through processed foods.
It is clear that processed foods have more calories and are cheaper; hence, the urban populations, especially the people living in poor neighborhoods, prefer buying the processed foods rather than the expensive Fresh agricultural products. Urban agriculture is a viable solution to the underlying issues that have caused the inability of the urban populations to access Fresh agricultural products.
Urban Agriculture
Urban agriculture is a movement in different urban areas across the United States, including Chicago, which has developed innovative ways of utilizing the little agricultural land available in urban areas to produce fresh food products. The movement has developed various groups in the urban areas that provide education to the people in the poor neighborhoods on the innovative ways that can help them in producing Fresh agricultural products.
For instance, the movement has been advocating for the use of greenhouse technology in agriculture to produce vegetables within the urban areas. The climatic changes that have adversely affected the ability of farmers in the rural areas to generate high yields in their farms have led to a reduction in the number of fresh products reaching the grocery stores in the urban areas. The urban agriculture movement looks to ensure that every family in the cities can afford some fresh products in the grocery stores (“Promoting Farms, Community Gardens & Home Growing in Chicago” par. 1).
The Urban Agriculture Movement in Chicago
One of the main reasons that the urban agriculture movement has targeted Chicago is the fact that the city is one of the largest cities in the United States, and it has been associated with a dense population of commercial buildings and residential flats. This has led to the inability of the urban dwellers in the city to produce fresh agricultural products in the city. One of the reasons that the population in Chicago has been growing sluggishly is the fact that the economic vitality of the metropolitan region has lost its vitality; hence, many people have been migrating to other urban areas.
Another reason is the fact that more than 1.3 residents in the region are living in poverty, and they compete for the available, affordable resources, including Fresh agricultural products from rural areas. While more than 14% of the population lives below the poverty line in the metropolitan region, it is apparent that the unemployment rate in Chicago will continue to increase; thus, people will have a harder time in accessing Fresh agricultural products because of their elevated prices (Tray par. 2).
In 2013, the Mayor of Chicago launched the Farmers for Chicago network to enhance urban farming. By 2011, urban farmers accounted for over 13,000 pounds of the locally produced farm products, which fetched about $45,000 in sales (“Mayor Emanuel Launches New “Farmers For Chicago” Network For Chicago Urban Farmers” par. 8). The network has actively engaged in the recovery of dormant land in the city of Chicago because of the lack of land to farm is one of the main challenges facing the urban farmers. The network currently holds over 15 acres of land in Chicago, which is used for commercial farming and training farmers in the city.
The Advocates for Urban Agriculture (AUA) is one of the movements that have developed agricultural projects in Chicago to increase access to fresh products. The movement has helped the residents to start small farms in their homesteads, and group farming projects through the use of technology to utilize small lands to increase productivity (“Promoting Farms, Community Gardens & Home Growing in Chicago” par. 1). There are 62 urban farms in Chicago, and 54 business entities are involved in the promotion of vertical farms in the city. The farms have been increasing the products in the 24 seasonal markets in the metropolitan region (Popovitch par. 9).
Environmental Benefits of Urban Agriculture
It is apparent that the food miles in the United States have been increasing as access to Fresh agricultural products decreases. People have to drive long miles before accessing a grocery store with affordable products. Similarly, producers from rural areas require transportation to deliver products to various stores in urban areas. These transportation activities have led to an increase in the carbon footprint associated with access to fresh food products in the United States (Howard par. 2).
Urban agriculture has been identified as an environmentally sustainable approach to access to food products because it has a relatively lower carbon footprint. The reduction of carbon dioxide in the cities will have a positive influence on the health and wellness of the urban dwellers. People at risk because of the high air pollution rates in the urban areas will enjoy serene environments in urban farms. Additionally, in cities like Chicago, the urban farms and the associated markets will provide employment to some of the people.
Rooftop farms and other areas associated with urban agriculture will ultimately provide serene environments for people to relax in the cities because of the fresh air and green environment. It is apparent that an increase in the vegetation within the urban areas will have a positive effect on the quality of air because the plants will naturally reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the air while increasing the supply of oxygen through the process of photosynthesis (Howard par. 3).
As the world fights to reverse the effects of global warming on the climate, urban agriculture is one of the most effective ways of producing organic farm products without incurring any pollution, especially regarding water and the air in the urban areas (West par. 9). Over the past half-century, the carbon footprint of Chicago has increased by more than 25%, and the transportation system accounts for 21% of the footprint, whereas buildings and energy production and consumption processes account for 70% of the pollution (“Climate Change 101” par. 4). By increasing the vegetation in the city, the authorities look to reduce the amount of carbon in the environment.
Challenges
One of the main challenges of urban agriculture is the lack of space for agricultural practices. For instance, Chicago city has been developed into a concrete forest in some regions because of the large number of buildings that hinder access to sunlight, which is required for agriculture. Lack of water is also a major issue that might hinder the success of the various projects aimed at producing vegetables and fruits in residential farms.
Additionally, the technology required to support urban agriculture is relatively expensive; hence, most of the people in poor neighborhoods cannot finance the projects. The target population also lacks the knowledge and skills to practice urban agriculture, and the various movements advocating for urban agriculture lack sufficient resources and personnel to educate the entire urban population (West par. 12).
One of the challenges facing farmers in Chicago is the lack of sufficient water for irrigation in their city gardens. The authorities have revealed that more than 86% of the farmers are still using public water networks in their farms, which could create a water shortage in the city (Baskoro par. 5). There are also worries that the use of fertilizers and herbicides might lead to soil and water pollution in the urban areas through the runoff water from irrigated farms.
Solutions
Different research groups have developed innovative ways of ensuring that urban farmers use smaller amounts of water in their farms. For instance, the ‘FarmHere’ organization has developed an irrigation approach that reduces the water required in a farm by 95% (“Farmed Here: Sustainable Indoor Farming” par. 1). Additionally, urban agriculture associations are actively providing training to farmers looking to establish vertical farms. The 24 seasonal markets in Chicago have also been giving commercial farmers in the city a positive reception to their products.
Conclusion
The urbanization process in the United States led to the dependency of the urban dwellers on the rural populations for the production of Fresh agricultural products. The growth in population in the urban areas has led to an increase in the demand for fresh vegetables and fruits, but the environmental challenges in the rural areas have limited the ability of farmers in producing sufficient food crops. This has led to an increase in the prices of farm products, which has subsequently led to the inability of the poor members of the urban communities to afford Fresh agricultural products.
Works Cited
Baskoro, Harkyo. What’s The Problem with Urban Agriculture? 2015. Web.
The geographic Pacific Northwest region (PNW, Cascadia) is situated in the western part of North America and surrounded by the Pacific Ocean on the west and by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Geographers and other scientists have different points of view on the definition of its boundaries; however, it is commonly accepted that the Pacific Northwest includes the Canadian province of British Columbia and the U.S. states of Washington and Oregon. The large variety of marine and terrestrial resources made agriculture the secondary food source and allowed for the development of storage-based subsistence economy in the Pacific Northwest, especially in Oregon.
At early stages, the Pacific Northwest dwellers did not develop agriculture because of abundant natural resources. Hunting, fishery, and gathering were enough to procure food (“Northwest Coastal People” par. 2). The Pacific Northwest dwellers benefited from the fact that the Northwest Coast was abundant in Pacific salmon. In their continuous learning of how to exploit this, they developed a system of fishing tools and used it for procuring other marine species such as shellfish, whales, oysters, etc. In summer, the Pacific Northwest dwellers gathered berries and roots and hunted for elks, bears, mountain goats, and deer. With such a variety of food sources and relatively low mean minimum temperatures, the Pacific Northwest dwellers were not particularly interested in agricultural development (Olen et al. 8).
Scientists often study the importance of aquatic and terrestrial resources in the evolution of the Pacific Northwest peoples. Ames samples five sites where archeologists found the evidence that marine mammals, large and medium land mammals, such fish species as salmon, smelt, sturgeon, mollusks, and plant foods were the significant part of the Pacific Northwest societies’ economy (216). The list includes the Five Mile Rapids site that is situated near the Dalles, Oregon. The economy of Oregon may be defined as a storage-based subsistence economy, in which salmon industry took the predominant part. According to Ames, “deposits at Five Mile Rapids at the upstream end of the Columbia River Gorge dating ca 7600-9800 B.P., produced 150,000-200,000 salmon vertebrae”, which makes it possible to conclude that storage played an important role in the development of Oregon subsistence economy (216).
There are six pieces of evidence that suggest the salmon storage-based economy in Oregon: rectangular surface dwellings and villages (major food processing and storage facilities); use of wooden boxes as coffins “indicates that the technology and skill needed to make storage boxes was present”; “use of mass-harvesting techniques, including nets and weirs”; “large numbers of smelt and salmon remains”; tools that might be a part of a “gear for processing fish for storage”; and “head element/vertebrae ratios are currently viewed as the definitive indicator of salmon storage on the coast” (Ames 217). Moreover, Oregon hunter-gatherers’ way of life may be characterized by a concept of sedentism, which means living in one place for a long period of time. All these factors make it possible to define the Oregon economy as a storage based subsistence economy.
The U.S. states of Washington and Oregon and the Canadian province of British Columbia are often defined as the Pacific Northwest territory. At the early stages of their development, they widely used the natural marine and terrestrial resources to procure food. Archeologists found many shreds of evidence that the abundance of the Northwest Coast in food resources contributed to the development of the storage-based subsistence economy in those regions.
Works Cited
Ames, Kenneth M. “The Northwest Coast: Complex Hunter-Gatherers, Ecology, And Social Evolution.” Annual Review of Anthropology, 1994, pp. 209-229.
“Northwest Coastal People.” First Peoples of Canada. 2016. Web.
Olen, Beau, et al. “What are the Major Climate Risks for Agriculture in the U.S. Pacific Northwest?” Oregon State University. Web.
Jethro Tull is regarded as one of the influential change agents who contributed to the development of the agricultural industry. He was born in 1674 in Berkshire (“Jethro Tull”). He received a good education as he studied at Oxford University. He wanted to become a politician, but weak health made him change these plans. He was a representative of the British gentry, so he had some land. When he married, he started farming just, which was common for his class.
Tull contributed significantly to the development of new methods and strategies, but he is widely famous for his invention. Brodie et al. note that there are certain doubts that he was the inventor of the seed drill (8). Nevertheless, the majority of researchers agree that Tull created a seed drill that was a revolutionary invention for that time. In the 17th century, seeds were simply thrown to the ground, which was associated with quite significant losses. Tull notices that this method was ineffective, and losses were not to be tolerated. He believed that the majority of seeds were lost as they could not root (“Jethro Tull”). First, he told his people to be more exact and throw seeds to the whole, but his commands were ignored.
Therefore, the inventor decided to create a machine that would put seeds into exact holes that were covered with land. The drill also had blades that pulled up roots making the soil better for crops. His seed drill was very effective as seeds were distributed evenly and did not overcrowd each other, which resulted in good harvests. In order to prove the effectiveness of his methods, he did not use manure for over a decade. His seed drill proved to be effective.
However, people did not want to use his invention at first. Farmers did not believe that they could achieve good results without manure as they saw fertilizing as the most important thing. Some people opposed it as they were afraid that the machine could take away their jobs. Irrespective of opposition and disbelief, Tull continued promoting his invention and his methods. The inventor published the book, “The New Horse Hoeing Husbandry,” where he revealed his innovative ideas. The interest in the scientific method and innovation in agriculture made people pay attention to Tull’s seed drill. It is noteworthy that similar drills were developed at that period, but Tull made his invention well-thought and effective. His major principles are still used in agriculture.
It is possible to note that the inventor undertook quite the correct steps to promote his machinery and methods. Using the approach, making other people use it was the first measure. The effectiveness of the strategy was proved, but rather a limited number of people knew about it. Writing a book was the next step that helped Tull make his invention famous. Importantly, his book was associated with certain controversy as some people did not believe in his method, but still, the drill and his strategies were discussed.
To sum up, Jethro Tull contributed considerably to the development of effective agricultural methods. His seed drill can be regarded as a prototype for modern drills. It is also noteworthy that Tull managed to promote is innovation successfully, even though it faced certain opposition. The inventor drew people’s attention to his ideas, which facilitated the change and evolution of agricultural tools and methods.
Works Cited
Brodie, Graham, et al. Microwave and Radio-Frequency Technologies in Agriculture: An Introduction for Agriculturalists and Engineers. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2016.
Agriculture is an economic branch that provides food to the population through growing plants and livestock. At the dawn of humankind, people obtained food through gathering and hunting and then switched to the development of farming methods – this phenomenon is called Neolithic Revolution. Historians have developed several theories about the reasons why many communities preferred settled agriculture over hunting and gathering. Despite the advantages of old methods of finding food and the disadvantages of agriculture, the transition could occur due to the human factor.
Several theories are suggesting what exactly became the causes of the Neolithic revolution. According to Oasis Theory, after the Ice Age, people united with animals near water sources (“Environmental archaeology,” n.d.). Following Braidwood, who disagreed with the first theory, people naturally came to an understanding of how to use new sources of food and developed ways to domesticate plants and animals (“Environmental archaeology,” n.d.). However, some evidence indicates that the transition took place after the appearance of the first settled societies. In this case, the Neolithic Revolution’s reasons could be the need for controlled food sources and the need to get more. Thus, the transition to agriculture could occur for social reasons.
The development of agriculture took place through the domestication of animals and plants. Domestication is a process when through a selection made by man, organisms – plants and animals – change their qualities; for example, they give more fruits. As a result, domesticated species depended on humans and their efforts to grow them. In this way, people refused foraging and hunting in favor of production. Scientists can learn how exactly people ate with archaeological findings, in particular, elements present in bones and other remains (Kelly & Thomas, 2013). Based on these pieces, they build theories about the relationship of people with nature.
The transition to agriculture, mainly growing grain, was a long process and was followed by significant achievements of people in engineering, science, and other spheres. However, scientists wonder why this transition occurred because more and more arguments indicate that this change led to a lower quality of life (Martin & Wadley, 2000). For example, hunters and gatherers worked less and only for themselves, and in agriculture, there were long working days and the need to work for the common good. Moreover, in settlements that developed faster due to agriculture, diseases spread more quickly. Nevertheless, people chose to create a society and develop with the help of agriculture.
The suggestions about the social origin of agriculture provide the basis for several more theories. For example, food supplies that could be done through domestication could serve as a demonstration of power. Martin and Wadley (2000) proposed another interesting theory explaining people’s choice in favor of agriculture. Scientists believe that food obtained from domestication, particularly cereals and milk, caused addiction (Martin & Wadley, 2000). This effect was possible thanks to exorphins – opioid substances in food. Behavioral changes caused by these elements forced people to abandon the old lifestyle in favor of the new – more uncomfortable. Exorphins have made people more calm and tolerant of a sedentary lifestyle, long hours of work, and the establishment of a hierarchy in social relations.
Various properties of new food sources, in addition to saturation, could push people to choose agriculture. For example, an assumption made by Kahn (2013) suggests people were forced to cultivate grain due to the desire to move away from strict social laws and instincts, which served as a protective mechanism. Beer was made on the basis of fermented grain, and allowed people to be less afraid and be more open to communication and revealing new ideas. Thus, the transition to agriculture is not just a natural path of development but a choice that people have made.
In conclusion, the Neolithic Revolution is the transition from hunting and foraging to production – agriculture. It is a critical process that has determined the directions for the development of the human economy. Scientists constantly find new archaeological artifacts, which allow building theories about how this transition took place. More and more evidence suggests that agriculture is a human choice, not a natural step of development. In particular, this is evidenced by the fact that gathering and hunting were more convenient – they took less time and allowed to take care of only our own needs. Agriculture, in turn, required oppression of own desires and long hard work. Theories about what forced people to make such a choice also differ – from changing behavior due to opioid substances in food to a desire to demonstrate power.
References
Environmental archaeology and the problem of the domestication of plants and animals. (n.d.). [PowerPoint slides].
Kahn, J. P. (2013). How beer gave us civilization. New York Times. Web.
Kelly, R. & Thomas, D. (2013). People, plants, and animals in the past. In Archaeology: Down to Earth (5th ed.) (pp. 132-150). Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc.
Martin, A., & Wadley, G. (2000). The origins of agriculture-a biological perspective and a new hypothesis. Journal of the Australasian College of Nutritional and Environmental Medicine, 19(1), 3-12. Web.
The article “Can Big Data Feed the World?” mentioned an array of technologies that can boost agricultural processes and provide the world with more food. Such technologies included data-driven planting, hyper-local weather forecasts, following food, and plant breeding through using Big Data. Data-driven planting is associated with providing farmers with detailed information on crops they plant, soil characteristics, data on territorial boundaries, and so on. Hyper-local weather forecasts use technologies to assess real-time atmospheric conditions for facilitating enhanced farming and avoid negative implications of climate fluctuations. Big Data plant breeding is a technology that modifies breeds of plants for achieving their desired traits; for example, hybrid farmers have used Big Data for improving strawberry plants through various breeding programs. The following food is another strategy that allows farmers to improve the quality of their crops; it implies tracking for illness prevention, profit increases, and waste reduction.
Big Data is expected to feed the world in the future by analyzing large volumes of data associated with predicting the weather, finding appropriate regions for farming and agriculture, and eliminating possible adverse outcomes. To prevent widespread hunger, international organizations involve large corporations such as IBM in the development of technological solutions for data collection and management. Current solutions include cloud-based information systems that track weather from millions of locations each day. This means that farmers who use such solutions can make informed decisions about their next steps of effective crop management and upkeep. Apart from improving operations of farmers, Big Data is expected to reduce waste and thus increase the amount of food available for consumption
Predictive weather farming has become an essential component for forecasting possible dangerous situations for crops and developing emergency strategies to address such dangers. “Can Big Data Feed the World?” mentioned that IBM, which is a large technological corporation, has entered the arena of agriculture for contributing to the generation of hyperlocal weather forecasts. Such technological solutions allow farmers to access data on the weather in their region every ten minutes for making accurate forecasts. Through predicting possible changes in weather, farmers will have opportunities to make reasonable decisions. These decisions can vary depending on the nature of crops and the processes involved in their control and management. Three different types of decisions that could be supported by predictive weather farming include the following:
Quantities of water needed for the adequate maintenance of crops: knowing about upcoming rain or high humidity levels is likely to reduce the unnecessary watering of crops, which could subsequently reduce water waste;
Making changes in crop varieties and sowing dates: a non-intensified strategy that is supported by weather forecasting to managing a wide variety of crops;
Introducing crop variability in different geographical regions: predictive weather forecasting can give farmers knowledge about the possible weather conditions in different regions and thus allow making decisions on which geographical region would suit which crops.
Big Data is helpful to individual farmers and the agriculture sector overall because it provides opportunities to manage big amounts of data, which leads to enhanced capabilities of decision-making (Wolfert et al. 69). With the management of large data amounts come great shifts in roles and relationships associated with power among “traditional and non-traditional players” (Wolfert et al. 69). The introduction of Big Data is expected to contribute to the effective farm management that includes such processes as sensing and monitoring, analysis, and decision-making, as well as interventions. When it comes to specific technology solutions that use Big Data for the enhancement of farming, Climate Pro developed by Climate Corporation can provide farmers with opportunities to increase their profit by $100 per acre when investing $15 per acre (Noyes). Developed with the help of statistical algorithms and models, Big Data solutions for farmers are gaining momentum in their use among farmers that care about their profitability and want to improve agricultural processes to enhance the industry overall. The enhanced profitability of individual farmers is expected to lead to the improvement of the agricultural industry as a unity because of the possibilities to base relevant decisions on actual and real-time data that directly influences farmers’ outcomes.
The Big Data gap is associated with the unequal territorial distribution of technological resources for enhancing farming. For instance, there are many more Big Data solutions for farmers in developed regions such as the U.S. and Europe where technologies have reached high levels. However, these regions are not enough to produce food for the entire world. Filling such a gap will be achievable through the provision of Big Data technologies for all countries around the world free of charge. Governmental cooperation should focus its efforts on making sure that such regions as Asia, Africa, and South America are also taken into consideration when developing Big Data solutions for farming. As to the recent developments in this field, Gilpin mentioned that the Open Data Alliance was planning to provide farmers with free of charge Big Data services and encourage them to share their findings across other platforms.
Japan has a significant population on a small territory. Its soils are not fertile, and the percent of land available for agriculture is relatively low. It leads to a situation when the amount of food necessary for living is not enough. Domestic food production satisfies only one-third of it. The required amount is calculated based on the number of calories needed for all Japanese populations in total. In addition, Japan has no close cooperation about food imports with neighboring Asian countries, such as China. Thus, the food importation to the country is not adjusted in the best way. Problems, security and self-sufficiency Japan is dependent on other countries when it comes to the food supply. As mentioned, it cannot provide itself with food in the necessary amounts and should import it. When prices on food rise or food supply shorten, the country might undergo calorie insufficiency. Food is essential for the population’s life, and if it is not enough food, standards of living fall drastically, even despite Japan being a developed country. In addition to that, cataclysms are frequent in Japan. It undergoes tsunamis and earthquakes, which destroy its infrastructure regularly. To cope with the hardships of food supply, Japan needs a flexible and robust regulation in the food and agricultural fields.
The Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas Basic Act of 1999
The Food, Agriculture, and Rural Areas Basic Act was enacted to maintain food security in Japan. It provides a wide range of measures to maintain a food supply: both domestic production and import. It explores developing domestic food production, for example, using technological advances for increasing productivity. Another aim is waste minimizing during production, importation, and storage. In emergency cases, there are regulations of price to ensure that everyone will be able to buy food. The total amount of calories of available food is calculated. If this amount is less than the sum of daily intakes of calories for all people, then emergency measures are provided. Basic Plans, established five years ahead, are based on this sum. They consists of measures, procedures and other implementations to ensure that the population will receive the necessary level of calories
Implementation of the Act
The Act promotes cooperation in fields of food production and trading at national and international levels. It establishes connections with farmers’ organizations and businesses in Japan, which stimulates development and regulates them. In addition to cooperation in food trade with other countries, it stimulates promoting agriculture industry in developing countries of Africa. It also includes implementing the laws, procedures, and other measures for all actions connected with food: trading, production, distribution, storage. According to it, the government regulates businesses to ensure that they will evenly distribute the food at reasonable prices. Those measures include the quarantine control of imported food to prevents epidemics, too. After the series of catastrophic events, such as Tsunamis and the tragic explosion in the Fukushima atomic reactor, the chapter of “Localized and short-term insecurity” has been added for such events.
Importance of the Act
The main feature of the Act, which makes it extremely important for Japan, is the framework of rules, procedures, measures, and laws that make the country’s food supply more reliable. Regulation of business and agricultural organizations helps to ensure that food will be accessible at fair prices. Those measures also stimulate the development of the agriculture industry: taking the unfertile Japanese lands, only with the help of technology it is possible to grow enough food there. Cooperation with other countries eases food import and, consequently, public access to food. Establishing agricultural production in developed African countries will help to obtain cheap eats in the future. Emergency measures established in the Act make the losses of food storage minimal. In Japan, where cataclysms are usual, such actions are essential to provide a good quality of life.
Challenges and Conclusion
Despite the food supply in Japan is usually normal and people do not suffer from starvation, Japanese people understand the instability of the situation with food (Akihiko, 2017). The country has a necessity in strong regulation of food supply and distribution; still, it should be flexible to ensure easy access to the food and its even distribution. Government organizations analyze risks connected with food supply each year, and the results of that analysis are public. Technologies are widely used to improve agriculture: from 1945, the yields of crops in Japan rises each year (Akihiko, 2017). However, one of the problems is the decreasing population of Japanese farmers: food production decreases with them as well. In general, The Food, Agriculture, and Rural Areas Basic Act is very helpful for the country: it ensures that the food supply is stable and no people are starving.
Reference
Akihiko, H. (2017, August). Formation of Japan’s food security policy: Relations with food situation and evolution of agricultural policies. Norinchukin Research Institute Co., Ltd.
