Category: Agriculture

Introduction

The problem of immigrant labor is largely exaggerated, to my mind. It is not a problem of farming, shortage of labor force, or getting cheap products; it is a problem of people who cannot work as hard as immigrants do to obtain good jobs. The topic of immigrant labor has been discussed since the agricultural industry faced the problems of farm labor shortage. “Since World War I, the Congress has allowed the use of temporary foreign workers to perform agricultural labor of a seasonal nature as a means of augmenting the supply of domestic farmworkers” (Levine 1). As you can see, single permission caused a problem which is under discussion.

Immigrant labor is a common phenomenon for modern farms on the territory of the United States of America. However, “while we see a representation of part-time (PT) work from US-born workers, most immigrant workers work full-time (FT).” (Harrison 2). It means that the US-born farmworkers do not always want to be full-time engaged, while the immigrant workers obtain such jobs as direct work. It means that all problems concerning the shortage of farm workers can be solved by inviting workers from neighboring countries for works that local workers do not want to fulfill to the full capacity.

Lazy workers of farm labor shortage

We encounter a problem of whether to support the local workers in their desire to fulfill a part-time job or to support the local farm owners who do not want to experience the shortage of labor force every time they have to gather the harvest. As a rule, we pay little attention to such aspects as who grew the products we eat; who owns the farm it grew on; who picked it; who processed it (put it into cans, or cleaned it for the produce sections, or slaughtered and prepared the meat we eat); how did it get from the farm to the store or market where we bought it. This information does not seem interesting to us as consumers, though we should know the principles hoe the immigrant labor force can influence prices or quality of products.

However, it is important to mention that “Immigration legislation sometimes has been crafted to take into account the purported labor requirements of U.S. crop growers” (Levine 2); that is why the problem of the shortage of labor forces can be solved in different ways. The first way consists in involving immigrant labor forces and not paying attention to the fact that the US-born workers do not want to work full-time year-round. The second way is to wait for US-born workers to fulfill their jobs, suffer losses, and increase prices for products to cover those losses. A good farmer would choose the second variant as the most appropriate, though it is necessary to avoid involving unauthorized immigrant labor forces.

“Unauthorized aliens, arguably, have been displacing legal workers from jobs in the agricultural industry. Farmworker advocates assert that crop producers prefer unauthorized employees because they have less bargaining power about wages and working conditions than other employees. Growers counter that they would rather not employ unauthorized workers because doing so puts them at risk of incurring penalties. They argue that the considerable presence of unauthorized aliens in the U.S. farm labor force implies a shortage of legal workers.” (Levine 3)

As you can see, all immigrant farmworkers are hired on a general basis and are paid wages for their job. “This overall finding does not preclude the possibility of spot shortages of farm labor in certain areas of the country at various times of the year.” (Levine 4) The possibility of hiring immigrant workers depends on the demand for extra labor in the agricultural sector.

In this respect, “the demand for labor is nearing or has outstripped the supply of labor, firms will in the short-run bid up wages to compete for workers (Levine 11). So, the earnings are expected to rise and it this fact will possibly cause the increase of prices for products of farm origin. As consumers, we are not interested in the farm labor shortage because it would inevitably influence the prices of farm products for the worse.

“What has recently changed is that other areas of the USA that are not as directly connected to the major migrant worker streams and that also have a dependence on full-time year-round farm workers (e.g. dairy) are now hiring Hispanic farmworkers in greater numbers than ever before.” (Findeis 9)

The dairy farms in Wisconsin are hiring immigrant workers based on full-time year-round jobs; it means that the farm owners are interested in relying on regular workers and do not want to depend on the seasonal shortage of farm labor force.

Let us imagine the full cycle of two definite products, for example, milk and potatoes. Milk is a product that is in popular demand all year round; it is produced on a dairy farm, such as the Wisconsin dairy farm, and delivered to the markets and stores in the network of a district. Potatoes present that kind of farm products which are in popular demand as well as milk, though it is produced in a definite season.

We should remember that there are “individuals engaged in planting, cultivating, and harvesting crops or tending livestock” (Levine 6); those fieldworkers who are engaged directly in farming can be hired depending on the season (one cannot plant potatoes in winter), while those who tend livestock should maintain their job regardless of the season (they are secretaries, bookkeepers, or managers). So, we can observe a tendency that full-time year-round workers are predominantly immigrant workers who want to be engaged on a full-time basis.

Conclusion

The problem of the immigrant labor force does not seem to be serious until a thorough consideration. It turned out that immigrant farmworkers are engaged in full-time year-round works, whereas the US-born farmworkers are engaged in part-time season works. It is said to happen because of the farm labor force shortage, though we can observe only spot season shortage which does not influence greatly the market, supply, demand, prices, or consumers.

The agricultural sectors which require full-time year-round workers mostly deal with products that are produced all year-round. Ordinary milk requires regular workers, unlike potatoes which demand season workers. That is why we can see some changes in the prices for different kinds of products of the agricultural sector. The aspect of immigrant workers helps to reduce prices for seasonally produced goods of the agricultural sector. Consequently, it is necessary to involve US-born farmworkers in sectors that require part-time workers instead of complaining about changes.

Works Cited

Findeis, Jill Leslie. The Dynamics of Hired Farm Labour: Constraints and Community Responses. New York, NY: CABI, 2002.

Harrison, Jill, and Sarah Lloyd, and Trish O’Kane. Overview of Immigrant Workers on Wisconsin Dairy Farms. Madison, WI: Program on Agricultural Technology Studies, 2009. Miscellaneous Publications No. Web.

Levine, Linda. Farm Labor Shortages and Immigration Policy. Congressional Research Service, 2009.

Seasonal Agriculture Worker Program (SAWP) is a governmental program that allows Canadian farmers to hire employees from the Caribbean and Mexico. Foreign workers receive temporary visas during the seasons of planting and harvest. Migrant farmworkers face problems of abuse during their working season. There are many cases of violation of labor in migrant employees, and it is essential to examine how SAWP undermines accommodations for Caribbean and Mexico migrants and seek an efficient solution.

Many struggles exist in SAWP that should be fixed. For instance, migrant farmers work up to fourteen hours a day and receive a small salary. Work conditions are horrible, but workers’ complaints do not help fix the situation. Moreover, the workplaces for immigrant workers are often overcrowded; many employees report violating attitudes towards them. There is no free access to medical equipment and attention; COVID-19 is ignored, and people have to infect each other.

Lack of proper resources such as masks, sanitizers, and gloves makes the work unsafe for health. Places where migrant farmworkers sleep are called bunkhouses. These bunkhouses are overcrowded with people, and workers have to sleep very close to each other; it raises the risk of infection with COVID-19 (Mojtehedzadeh, 2020). It is important to note that many workers are elderly; it is known that older people get infected and bear the disease in a far more complicated way than young people. Thus, the 55 years old Juan Lopes Chaparro died because of coronavirus when he got infected on the farm (Dubinski, 2020). “Lopez Chaparro’s death has caused shock and devastation to his family in Mexico,” the article reports (Dubinski, 2020, p. 2). He was a loving father of four children, and now his family is abandoned without support in Mexico.

Everything I have learned from these articles caused emotional discomfort in me. I feel disappointed and very sorry for migrant farmworkers, as I cannot imagine being violated as they are. It is a manifestation of cruelty to migrant people. Significantly, the news about death from COVID-19 shocked me, as death is always frightening and devastating. I cannot imagine that such labor conditions exist in the modern world, where most of us have access to medicine, masks, and necessary medicaments.

There are many political and economic reasons for hiring migrant workers for seasonal work. For instance, their labor is cheaper than the labor of Canadian employees. Moreover, migrant people often fail to find a job in their countries, and migration is the only option for them for work purposes. Many articles prove a violation of human rights and terrible working conditions (Dubinski, 2020). Many employees come “with no grasp of English and little formal education,” which allows dishonest employers to manipulate (Mojtehedzadeh, 2020, p. 3). Though these reasons are inhuman, programs such as SAWP continue to invite foreign workers.

Some activists say that migrant workers should have more rights and abilities to have necessary resources and a proper day schedule. Some sources state that Canada is creating a program to avoid abusive workplaces (Mojtehedzadeh, 2020). Probably, one of the best options is to implement supporting programs that will honestly assess employers. Moreover, it is worth arranging periodic checks of the living and working conditions in the workplace. Many people strive to help migrant workers, for example, local volunteers. These people often are connected with the public administration, and in case rules are violated, volunteers can report, as migrants often do not know English. Volunteer programs might help improve the situation with abusive workplaces through checks, gathering reviews and complaints, and voluntary help if needed.

References

Dubinski, K. (2020). Migrant worker who died on Ontario farm identified as Mexican father of four. CBC News. Web.

Mojtehedzadeh, S. (2020). Canada saw the migrant farmer COVID-19 crisis Coming—And it’s our job to fix it. Chatelaine. Web.

Swidden farming or shift farming refers to an agricultural system in which fields are cleared, cultivated and fallowed (Vogt, 1999). Globally, farmers have employed this system for the last eight thousand years. It has since then been associated with the shifting patterns in cultivation necessitated by soil exhaustion (Vogt, 1999).

To regenerate soil fertility and exploit nutrients in a natural vegetation soil cover, farmers have to regularly abandon and shift their farming sites. However, despite its widespread use, swidden farming is no longer sustainable in the contemporary societies in most of the developing countries (Vogt, 1999).

Although this farming technique has been efficient in the past, it has proved to be unsustainable with the current increase in the global population (Vogt, 1999).

Beyond a certain population limit, the sustainability of the technique ceases as land productivity fails to meet the ever-increasing population density. Similarly, the increase in population densities in developing countries has resulted in land scarcity as the available land is overused which leads decreased productivity value (Vogt, 1999).

With the destruction of vegetation cover, soil quality is compromised and gradually becomes poor in supporting crop farming. Through cutting, slashing and burning of vegetation cover, destruction of soil nutrients occur (Hirst, 1988). As a result, soil fertility may completely diminish for the preceding vegetation cover.

As illustrated by most communities practicing swidden farming, the technique entails cutting down trees from a virgin land (Hirst, 1988). Thereafter, the trees are used for charcoal production. In the subsequent year, the piece of land is set on fire to allow the growth of grass for cattle.

Through this process, large-scale soil erosion is usually unavoidable as there are no plant roots to provide support to the soil (Hirst, 1988). Consequently, water will eventually wash away the few remaining nutrients from the soil. Due to these negative impacts on the soil, shifting farming has ceased to be sustainable as it productivity cannot support the ever increasing human population.

Ultimately, the shifting of land ownership from community to individuals will eventually face out shifting farming, as there will be considerably limited land available for these practices (Ballard, 2009). Individual land ownership allows the subdivision of land into small portions owned by individuals or private ventures.

These small portions will necessitate innovative farming techniques to maximize and increase productivity. Therefore, as more societies shift to adopt individual land ownership in the near future, the practice of shift farming will slowly turn into an unsustainable farming venture (Ballard, 2009).

The labor and time required in slashing and burning in shift farming is enormous. Coupled with its poor returns, shift farming is currently unsustainable and uneconomical (Ballard, 2009). Instead, farmers should explore other alternative farming techniques to improve on their productivity and economic returns.

Among these preferred alternatives is the adoption of modern farming techniques that allow the production of sufficient food to feed the increasing population. Furthermore, these techniques are environmentally friendly and economically viable (Ballard, 2009).

Globally, climate change has been the main reason for dwindling farm returns. Global warming occurs due to the emission of carbon dioxide and other green house gases. Swidden farming has been blamed as a chief contributor of green house gases (Ballard, 2009).

Thus, the continued use of this system of farming results in numerous adverse effects on the environment. It is evident that swidden farming is not only unsustainable, but also hazardous to the environment.

References

Ballard, C. (2009). Sustainable farming. Mankato, Minn.: Arcturus Pub..

Hirst, J. (1988). Small-scale agriculture. Canberra: Commonwealth Foundation, Commonwealth Geographical Bureau and Dept. of Human Geography.

Vogt, D. (1999). Swidden farming and fallow vegetation in northern Thailand. Stuttgart: Steiner.

Introduction

In the history of the Americans, agricultural pesticide use has been associated with the farmers that live in the rural areas. The rural community population has exhibited an increasing trend since rural farmlands have also increased throughout the nation. This has contributed significantly to the increased usage of agricultural pesticides that has been recorded by the various bodies in the agricultural sector.

Most of the pesticides that are applied on the crops have the ability to diffuse in the atmosphere due to their relatively high volatility. Other atmospheric factors such as the movement of air cause the transfer of the pesticides from one region to another. Consequently, most people have been exposed to such pesticides. This has become a controversial issue not only in the American community but also in other regions of the world.

Exposure to the chemical causes some health problems such as eye and gastrointestinal irritation. Other health problems that are associated with the exposure include frequent headaches as well as fatigue, a phenomenon that has been rampant among people who live in areas with high atmospheric pesticide concentration.

This paper gives a detailed account of the usage of pesticides in California putting into consideration several aspects that are associated with the phenomenon. The aspects include the effect of pesticide use on the environment as depicted in human health and the economic significance of the phenomenon.

It outlines the approaches that can be effective in reducing the use of pesticides as well as an economic analysis of the same. It also gives the factors to be considered when carrying out a cost benefit analysis of the reduction the usage of the pesticides besides giving the recommendations.

Pesticide Usage in California

The global crop protection market has recorded annual sales, which have been valued at nearly $31 billion. The United States accounts for 25% of the sales. Research has shown that between 1992 and 2000, there was no remarkable decrease in the overall Agricultural use of pesticides in the U.S. (Epstein, & Bassein, 2003, p. 352).

However, the use of the most dangerous pesticides namely carbamates and organophosphates declined by 14% during the same period. According to Rull and Ritz (2003), the use of such carcinogenic compounds or rather pesticides decreased from 206 million kilograms (AI) in 1992 to 177 million kilograms (AI) in 2000 (p. 1584). Despite the decrease in the use of these two most dangerous pesticides in the U.S, in 2000 approximately 40% of the total mass of agricultural pesticides used to be in the riskiest group.

California is the largest as well as the most diverse agricultural state in the U.S. Its agricultural products account for more than half of the country’s fruits, vegetables and nuts. Research has shown that the state uses more nearly 22% of the total agricultural pesticides in the nation (Colborn, 2006, p. 14; Ridgway, et al., 1978, p. 105).

A report that was released by the California Department of Pesticide regulation at the beginning of the last decade revealed that California is among the states that have the highest pesticide usage in the United States-approximately 86 million kilograms of pesticides per year.

The overall use of chemicals in the treatment of plant diseases did not decrease over the past one decade. Due to this, the government introduced some conventional compounds or rather pesticides with reduced-risk compounds that would serve the purpose (Pretty, 2008, p. 451). They included eight fungicides for the control of plant diseases. The new compounds were adopted on a significant scale since the beginning of the last decade.

There has been a fluctuation on the use of pesticides in California. Research has shown that increase in pesticide use has been enhanced by greater pest pressure or projected profits. For instance, areas that have a high humidity exhibit a high usage of pesticides due to the growers’ attempts to prevent the adverse effects of the pests that emerge during that period.

In California, the rules governing agricultural applications of chemicals require the farmers to report on their pesticide usage. Some of the aspects that must be incorporated in that report are the date of application, the amount used as used as well as the ell as the geographical location of the farm in question (Hahn, 2000, p. 880).

This practice has been in practice since 1990 and the California Department of Pesticide Regulation (CDPR) acts as the regulatory body of the practice. The CDPR also ensures that the data is error free and it is kept safely.

There are some methods that have been proposed for ranking agricultural pesticides by their potential hazard as air contaminants. In devising these methods, the two most important characteristics of pesticides are put into consideration-toxicity and volatilization (Lang, 1993, p. 580).

In California, the pesticide air contaminant (TAC) ranking programme is one of the programmes that have been used to monitor the levels of pesticide residues in the atmosphere. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) does the monitoring in agricultural communities. The communities involved in this practice are selected based on area use of the monitored pesticide. It is also conducted in the regional urban centers. This presents the ability or rather opportunity to calculate the inhalation risk.

Most of the pesticides, particularly fumigants that are used in California are carcinogenic. Unfortunately, some of the pesticides have been transferred to households through several agents. This has increased the number of people who face the risk of being exposed to the dangerous compounds (Lee, et al., 2011, p. 1169).

Some of the potentially carcinogenic compounds or rather pesticides include methyl bromide and metam sodium (MITC) among others. Among other groups of people in the society, children are the most vulnerable to the lethal effects of pesticides. They have a high metabolic rate thus have a higher inhalation rate as opposed to the grownups who have a rather low inhalation rate to body weight ratio.

Among the 208, 000 people in California who live in areas where the density of the pesticides exceed the safe levels, 53,000 of them are children. The phenomenon poses a great danger to the well-being of not only children but also to the other members of the society.

Pesticide residues get into the human body through several ways. The most common ones include inhalation as well as ingestion. Ingestion is considered one of the ways when the food products have traces of pesticides (National Research Council Staff, 1993, p. 56).

The pores in the human skin have also been a pathway for the entry of pesticides into the body system (Jared, 2002, p. 10). Children have a higher probability of getting exposure to pesticides through the soil especially due to their hand-to-mouth activities.

However, the children who are born and raised within the farmlands have a high risk of exposure compared to their counterparts that are born and raised in the other places. According to Nash, the farm workers in California are approximately 22% of the 5.2 million farm workers in the U.S. (2004, p.207). This shows the proportion of Americans that have the highest probability of being exposed to the life-threatening agricultural chemicals.

Economic Analysis

As far as agricultural economics is concerned, pesticide reduction remained a debatable matter for the last two decades. The key players have not yet arrived at a consensus of whether pesticides are risk reducing or risk increasing. In agricultural economics literature, the term ‘risk’ is often used in the technical sense of whether pesticides decrease or increase profit variability, as opposed to whether the use of pesticides, on average, increase or decrease profits.

The term is sometimes used in the same way in pest management literature. However, in pest management literature, the term sometimes encompasses a variety of concepts (National Academy Press Staff, 2000, p. 101)).

The concepts include the uncertainty of the infestation itself and the uncertainty of whether an IPM technique will be as effective in controlling pests as a calendar-spray program. It also refers to a grower’s profit risk by either applying too few pesticides that make them lose the crop revenue or of unnecessarily increasing costs by applying more pesticides than necessary.

The reduction of unnecessary or cost-ineffective pesticide applications can be an economic benefit to the growers. However, in most cases the decrease in the use of pesticides must be accompanied by an increase in the cultural control practices if adequate pest management is to be achieved.

According to the Committee on California Agriculture and Natural Resources (2004), cultural practices often are more labor intensive than the use of pesticides (p. 88). Research has shown that the price index of pesticides in the United States increased by 19% between 1991 and 1997, the wage index for agricultural labor increased by 22%.

This implies that at the time of declining crop prices, it may not be economical for the individual growers to reduce their reliance on pesticide. However, economic analysis for a group of growers indicates that non-chemical methods such as breeding or the use of GM crops are more economically efficient than the use of pesticides.

Available options for dealing with the problem

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is one of the technical strategies that have been adopted in an attempt to reduce the use of pesticides. The main goal of the approach is to achieve least pesticide use or rather to reduce the pesticide load in the environment. It entails the combination of several techniques that do not call for the use of nay chemicals in the process.

They include the modification of cultural practices, the adoption of pest resistant varieties, habitat manipulation as well as biological control methods. It is noteworthy that the selection and the application of pest control methods in this particular approach are tailored in such a way that they minimize the risks to human health, beneficiary and non-target organisms as well as the environment.

However, the use of pesticides under this strategy is allowed if the pests in question are not responsive to the combined effect of the four techniques (Henke, 2008, p. 32). In the cases where pesticides are used, the USDA has postulated some guidelines that should govern the application process. The USDA requires that the cost-benefit ration should be confirmed prior to applying the pesticides. Additionally, the pesticides used should have minimal negative effects not only to human beings but also to the ecosystem.

In 1972, the United States adopted the IPM approach as one of the major components of the federal agricultural policy. The key bodies in the agricultural sector declared their goal of implementing the approach on three-quarters of the of the U.S crop coverage by 2000. The bodies include the U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency.

A study has shown that of the projected year (2000), some level of IPM was used on 70% of the U.S Crop coverage. However, the General Accounting Office (GAO) reported that the percentage was a misleading indicator of the progress of the ultimate goal-reduction of pesticide use in the nation.

Even after the adoption of the IPM approach in the agricultural policy of the nation, pathologists and pest managers have not yet reached a clear consensus that the use of pesticides should be reduced. This has also increased the debate about the issue with a significant proportion of the farmers still opposed to the adoption of the approach.

The debate can be attributed to the fact that the IPM practice does not focus on integration either for management of a particular pest or for multiple pests. Nonetheless, according to Henke (2008), many of the IPM practices, at least in theory, could affect pesticide use (p. 63).

These include the release as well as the adoption of pest-resistant cultivars via genetic engineering or traditional cultivar development, release of pheromones or other semiochemicals, advances in cultural control and use of biological control agents or rather the release of natural enemies.

According to International Centre for Pesticide Safety (2001), farm-level evaluation of the IPM benefits and costs portray a desirable picture (p. 118). It is characterized by a general reduction of pesticide use, production cost and risk as well as an increase in net returns to producers.

Microbial control agents have the potential of reducing the use of agricultural pesticides in California. However, research has shown that there is limited use of these agents in the state and there has been no indication of an increase. Lepidopteran insects can be controlled by Bacillus thuringiensis while bacterial pathogens can be controlled by Agrobacterium radiobacter and Pseudomonas fluorescens (Jared, 2002, p. 13).

Additionally, Ampelomyces quisqualis can be used to control the species of fungi that cause powdery mildew. Nematodes can be controlled by Myrothecium verrucaria. The state Department of Pesticide Regulation’s records show that producers rarely use microbial agents in the control of pests.

As far as the reduction of agricultural pesticide use is concerned, genetically modified crops have been portrayed not only to the public but also to the scientific community as a successful strategy. For instance, in Hawaii commercial papaya plantings with resistance to Papaya ringspot virus saved the papaya industry against the disease.

Genetic modification has also led to the production of herbicide-tolerant crops an aspect that has enhanced the reduction of herbicides in areas where such crops are planted. Nash argues that herbicide tolerant crops allow no-till farming, which exacerbates some disease problems but reduces soil erosion and use of fossil fuels in plowing (2004, p. 208). However, research has shown that the herbicide-tolerant crops exhibit a 5% yield reduction compared to the non-transgenic crops.

Some GM plants are tailored to produce toxins against certain pesticides. For instance, some of the crops e.g. Bt-cotton produce Bacillus thuringiensis toxin that has been successful in the control or rather inhibition of the activity of the lepidopteran insects. Introduction of the Bt-cotton in California resulted in lower insecticide use.

A similar genetic modification has been introduced to corn but its effectiveness in inhibiting the activity of insects is still under debate. However, research has shown that corn that is genetically modified with the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin is less frequently invaded by the European corn borer (ECB).

The wounds that are produced by the action of the ECB pave way for the myco-toxin producing fungi namely Fusarium verticilioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Since the borer does not invade the GM corn, it has less fumosin. This reduces the use of not only insecticides but also the insecticides.

There are also social strategies for the reduction of pesticide use. Some of them include the mandated reduction, which can be done by imposing certain measures to not only the agricultural producers but also the suppliers of the pesticides especially those are potentially lethal to human health.

They may take the form of loss of or restricted registration, taxation or even the attrition of the older chemists (chemists that supply the high-risk pesticides). Under the Montreal Protocol and Subsequent Agreements as well as the Clean Air Act, an economic mechanism has been employed to enhance the phasing out of methyl bromide.

It entails increasing taxation on the compound. In the beginning of the last decade, the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) ordered the re-evaluation of the pesticide tolerances, which was to be completed by 2006. This would lead to the elimination of most of the pesticides that present a high risk to human health.

Processor-mandated requirements are also essential in reducing the agricultural use of pesticides in the state. Some food processors restrict growers’ pesticide use. For instance, Sun-Maid™ requires that its raisin growers should submit application reports. Additionally, they prohibit the use of registered pesticides that are of greatest concern to consumers, i.e. selected fungicides and insecticides.

Another example involves the regulation of sulfur-based pesticides in grapes because sulfur residues inhibit wine fermentation. Wineries in California have extended the period between the last acceptable sulfur application and harvest making farmers to avoid the application of the pesticides on their crops.

Consumers can also dictate the use pesticides and other chemicals on crops by promoting organic agriculture. It is worth mentioning that this strategy was experienced in California during the 1990s. During that time, organic agriculture became one of the fastest growing segments of California.

Research has shown that approximately 2% of California’s farmland is organic. Despite the low yields of the organic plants, the profits are usually higher because of the premium price set for organic products. In apple production, both the conventional and the organic plants have equivalent yields. This gives the organically grown apples a higher profitability as well as greater energy efficiency than the conventionally grown apples.

The aspect that prevents many of the conventional producers from adopting organic production is the fact that the postharvest losses of many organic fruits and vegetables are higher than for the conventional ones. This would make them more costly even if harvested yields were comparable.

Factors that inhibit the reduction of pesticide control

Pesticide application is generally not driven by the presence of a disease. The perceived risk of a disease even before it occurs or even the consequences of a disease that occurred in previous years are the major factors that make producers to apply pesticides to their crops (Moats, S., & Moats, W., 1970, p. 462). This makes it hard for the farmers to avoid the use of pesticides as a preventive measure.

As aforementioned, the IPM practice is assumed as a strategy that it yields maximized benefits both to the growers as well as to the society with minimal risks incurred. However, not all the stakeholders bear the same costs and risks. The growers bear potential loss both from expenditures associate with using more pesticides than necessary and from crop loss associated with under treating. Recent research has shown that the benefit coat ration is 1.3:1. Consequently, many producers are reluctant to embrace the IPM practices.

In carrying out research about this subject, data can be obtained from the U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency. Other sources include the California Air Resources Board (CARB), California Department of Pesticide Regulation (CDPR) as well as the California Pesticide Usage Reports (PUR).

Data can also be obtained by carrying out a survey in the market involving not only farmers but also consumers. The cost benefit analysis can be calculated by factoring in the following aspects:

1. Agricultural: Yield of the crop, quality of the crop, cost of production and quality of land
2. Human Health: Disease vector control, farm worker, formulator worker, applicators and non-occupational exposure
3. Property and material damage: damage to commodities during storage, structural integrity of buildings and right-of-way maintenance
4. Environment and aesthetic impact: Non-renewable resources, tourism, home and gardens
5. Distributional effects: geographic, social, balance of payments
6. Regulation control costs: legislation and enforcement

The uncertainties in this case would be the uncertainty of the infestation itself and the uncertainty of whether an alternative method will be as effective in controlling pests as a calendar-spray program.

There are some limitations to such a study. The reference levels for pesticides vary between agencies and programs. Some of the emerging concerns as far as the effect of pesticide exposure is concerned are not fully exploited. They include endocrine disruption and neurological disruption. Additionally, data analysts or rather researches have not yet considered the effect (toxicity) of one’s exposure to multiple pesticides.

In Contingent Variance analysis, a constant individual utility is taken as the basis for evaluating change in the supply of a non-market good. The appropriate welfare measure for the evaluation of a pesticide-related health outcome is compensating variation, which refers to the utility level before the change (Garming, Waibel, 2009, p. 127).

The utility level before change, which is also referred to the compensating outcome, would be the most appropriate welfare measure for the evaluation of a pesticide-related health outcome as stipulated below:

The utility of a farm household (Uₒ) is represented as the sum of Health (Hₒ) and other goods that are summarized as income (Iₒ). If supply with health is improved to H1 while keeping income constant e.g. through a new pest management approach, (Iₒ=I1), farmers move to a rather high utility (U1). In this case, the value of improvement in health would be defined as the amount of income the farmer in question would be willing to forego (WTP) in order to be as well off as before the change in health (utility level Uₒ with H1, I2).

The WTP value would be obtained by carrying out surveys in the agricultural market. Pre-tests, the formulation of a careful survey design as well as the use of focus group discussions would be some of the important factors in enhancing content validity. I would gradually familiarize the farmers with the problem of pesticide-related health and ask them to recall pesticide use in the previous years as well as the experiences they might have had with poisoning and poisoning symptoms.

Afterwards, I would present a pesticide with a low human toxicity but with the same pest control efficiency as the currently most used pesticide to the respondents. The difference between the prices of the two versions of the pesticides-the toxic pesticide and the pesticide with low toxicity would be used as the WTP for the study’s health attribute.

Recommendation

To reduce the usage of pesticides in California, producers should be encouraged to use alternative methods for pest control such as IPM, microbial control agents as well as growing genetically modified foods. Additionally, the government should remove all barriers that hinder growers from using the alternative pest control methods. Some of the barriers include some federal insurance policies that hinder the reduction of pesticide use in the state.

The federal farm policy is not always consistent with the goals of pesticide reduction. For instance, the farmers who rotated crops, as a measure of pesticide reduction, did not qualify for funding under the 1985 Farm Bill. There are federally subsidized crop insurance programs for most crops in California.

The programs dictate that for a grower to qualify for insurance indemnities, he/she must follow best management practices, which encompass pesticide applications. This approach is also used by the insurance farms in the private sector.

Reference List

Colborn, T. (2006). A Case for Revisiting the Safety of Pesticides: A Closer Look at Neurodevelopment. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(1), 10-17.

Committee on California Agriculture and Natural Resources. (2004). California Agricultural Research Priorities: Pierce’s Disease. Washington, DC: National Academia Press.

Epstein, L., & Bassein, S. (2003). Patterns of Pesticide Use in California and the Implications for Strategies for Reduction of Pesticides. Annual Review of Pesticide Usage, 41, 351-375.

Garming, H., & Waibel, H. (2009). Pesticide and Farmer Health in Nicaragua: A Willingness-to-pay Approach to Evaluation. European Journal of Health Economics, 10, 125-133.

Hahn, R. (2000). State and Federal Regulatory Reform: A Comparative Analysis. The Journal of Legal Studies, 29(2), 873-912.

Henke, C. R. (2008). Cultivating Science, Harvesting Power: Science and Industrial Agriculture in California. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

International Centre for Pesticide Safety. (2001). Preventing Risks from the Use of Pesticides in Agriculture. Albany, NY: World Health Organization.

Jared, W. (2002). Pesticide Exposure. Risk Management, 49(10), 9-15.

Lang, L. (1993). Are Pesticides a Problem? Environmental Health Perspectives, 101(7), 578-583.

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Pretty, J. (2008). Agricultural Sustainability: Concepts, Principles and Evidence. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 363(1491), 447-465.

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Rull, R.P., & Ritz, B. (2003). Historical Pesticide Exposure in California Using Pesticide Use Reports and Land-Use Surveys: An Assessment of Misclassification Error and Bias. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111(13), 1582-1591.

Introduction

Brazil is the second fifth largest country in the world geographically and in terms of population. In this view, Brazil epitomizes on the ongoing global tension pitying biodiversity preservation against sustainable agricultural practices and economic growth.

Brazil is a key emerging economic power, which has a GDP of US$6040 billion and a GDP per capita of US$326.21 billion in 2004 (European Commission, 2007). The country’s environment is one of the richest in the world because of not only the flora and fauna, but also because of its ecosystems, which contain an excess of 15 % of the plant and animal species known to botanists (Saxena, 2005).

The country is the source of water and also a water table of up to 12% of the available freshwater worldwide the Brazil is also undoubtedly one of the leading producers of food and biofuels in Latin America and globally (Ferreira et al., 2012).

To continue with this trend of leading in food production and water, the country should try to institute measures, which aim at reducing the negative effects of poor farming methods, while improving farming practices.

Therefore, this paper discusses how sustainable and productive agricultural practices can be used to promote economic development and conserve the environment, and thus prevent the occurrence of vicious cycle. The interdependent relationship between the environment, government and businesses lead to changes in economy and market.

Economic stability is largely linked to the governmental institutions, in connection with the society and public demands. Brazil’s environment involves an intricate cooperation between the government, society and nature. Many aspects depend on how the society views nature with the linkage to the government and how it is being treated in the economic setting.

One of the key aspects of any nation is to be able to interest the government, public or society in the products or services that are being offered to people and organizations.

Understanding the Vicious Cycle & the Brazilian Problem as a country

Ascher and Healy (1990) used this concept to demonstrate the complex interrelationships among four critical facets of socio-physical production, which are economic production, distribution of income, natural resources, and the environment.

Concerning the explanation of the relationship between economic development and environmental conservation, it is clear that economic production is the level, source, and composition of goods, and services generated by the economy at any point in time among the four facets of production.

The four facets of production include functional distribution, size distribution among recipients of different levels of income, distribution of in-kind income such as government services or gratifications from an environmental quality, as well as regional income distribution.

Available literature adds multiple citations to support this claim demonstrate that such facets of production have adverse impacts on biodiversity and the conservation of ecosystems in the country (Jain, 1998). Hence, policy makers should incorporate environmental conservation measures into agricultural development to enhance optimization of agricultural production.

The fact that Brazil’s urban regions are increasing and contributing more to the economy, gives the government a clear message that the intricate network must be stimulated in all possible ways. It is also significant to consider the interchange between the social functions, culture and the politics that are dominant and change from one region to another.

When looking at economics, there are few things to have in mind. Different cities and regions have unique and specific economies. The system of trade and relations between businesses are guided by the public, their beliefs and understanding of the government and the market. Some places have better economies with governments giving support and being one of the major clients.

Global approach would guarantee a lot of choice and possibilities for the businesses and the government. Since the pressures for local responsiveness are low, this will guarantee stable income and product or service flow for the community.

Whereas the global integration pressure is high, and decisions can be made with a slower pace and careful consideration of all options available. Because the relationship of “city-regions”, localities, urban areas, cities and provinces is so important, it would be crucial to adjust the policies and regulations to be somewhat universal, for an easier and more beneficial exchange.

In spite of the issue of vicious cycle, Brazil is on the verge of achieving long-term economic development because effective exploitation of natural resources.

According to European Commission (2007),“the dense tropical rainforest of the Amazon, the important biomes of the Savannah-like Cerrado, the arid scrublands of the Coating, the Pampas, and the wetlands of the Pantanal” are some of the natural resources endowed to Brazil (p. 11).

Given that agricultural exports comprise of about 28% of total exports, the government has prioritized agriculture as an important economic activity. However, as demonstrated by these authors, “there are rising concerns about the threats that these changes represent to Brazil’s significant biological wealth globally, including widespread deforestation and clearance of native vegetation, and rapid increases in the use of fertilizers, pesticides and other agricultural chemical supplies” (Ferreira, et al.,2012, p. 536).

On this basis, poor agricultural practices have the capacity to ignite and cause complex vicious cycle, which will ultimately cut across two, or more attributes of sociophysical production.

In the Brazilian context, it is evident that attempts by the government and other stakeholders to enhance the country’s economic development through agricultural expansion have continued to generate a multiple environmental externalities.

Government should encourage farmers to employ environmental conservation practices such as reduction of biological diversity, prevention of soil erosion in rural farming areas, conservation of watershed and natural resources, and prevention of soil and habitat degradation. It should also be included in the process of implementing the environment conservation policies and good farming methods since they are the prime stakeholders in the field of agriculture (Clement, 2005).

Therefore, the country must introduce conservation measures and ensure their implementation by the farmers as well as other players in the agricultural industry.

Vladas (2008) argues that policymakers in Brazil realize that another vicious cycle between economic development and income distribution could occur in the near future as long as farmers in the North East regions of the country continue to use harmful farming practices. Brazil has a unique relationship between people’s culture, the governments and economy are crucial.

Every culture is unique in its set of customs and traditions. Something that is acceptable in one country will be seen as impolite in another. A slow and step by step approach must be taken with such cultures. Prior research will make the outcome more productive.

Thus, even the government should make sure that specifics of a region are known, so that proper procedures and policies are implemented. Also, the government should allow people to contribute to the economy and set up conditions beneficial for entrepreneurial activity. The government’s responsiveness greatly relates to a well established and supportive communication between society and the people, as a result benefiting the economy.

The way forward for environmental policymakers in Brazil, therefore is to put in place strong institutional policies for managing resources and ensuring the long-term sustainability of the agricultural sector.

Water (2008) argues that the government, in conjunction with relevant stakeholders, must act promptly to break the vicious cycle between economic development and environmental degradation by coming up with educational and awareness programs targeting farmers who use poor farming methods to enhance their agricultural output.

Additionally, it is imperative for the government to develop clear management objectives and implementation existing policies effectively (Carneiro & Danton, 2011).

The employment of good and functional institutions and increase of awareness through educational campaigns among farmers is vital in the country’s quest to achieve increased economic development, attain enhanced agricultural output, and improve conservation of the environment. These measures are central to sustainability of productive agriculture and in prevention of the vicious cycle in agricultural sector.

An important role in sustaining and developing economy depends on the management decisions and the actions that are taken in relation to the spending and distribution of the finances and resources. Brazil’s government must enforce and promote strategies that are used in finding the most beneficial and cost-effective way of doing business. It is the most responsible, as well as an environmentally friendly decision.

It must be as efficient as possible, to gain the most financial resources. It encompasses the disposal of waste products, usage of new technologies and the general organization of the company or business matters. The constant development and bettering of products and services, will certainly lead to a positive outcome, so the policymakers should adjust to the changing market and economy, as well as the demands of the society.

It is very important because the success and future of the business depend on it. The decisions made in relation to the environmental factors, being in charge of monitoring the coordination, sustainability and strategic planning by the government, will ensure proper development of economy.

The social and environmental factors play a great role in the running of a business but more importantly a nation, as it will create a strong base for the growth of the market. The safety nets that rest on law and fair control will create stable and guaranteed soil for the economy. As previously discussed, industrialization has brought about a significant change to the lives of nations, individuals and the public.

Industrial globalization has led to all countries cooperating for mutual and own benefit, so new technologies have become a great part of any nation.

Even though the advantages of technology greatly outweigh the disadvantages, there are now, many more ways to abuse the information that can be instrumental to the success of nations. The laws that are being made and governments must carefully monitor the innovations that come into existence, as there are many people who will take advantage of the developed nations.

It is clear that as a result, governments and businesses are forming alliances, cooperating in the common fight against crime and moving towards prosperity and future possibilities. This will also have great consequences in solving the division between classes and strengthening certain regions of the nation.

The relationship between the government, how people view their country and environment is evident from all angles. Both politicians and people are beginning to understand that the only way to continue into the future is through cooperation and mutual respect and support.

The economy depends on individuals, matters they run, society and the government, so society must make sure that there are always laws and regulations that preserve and protect nature and people.

Conclusion

For the Brazil to achieve economic development, it has to embrace the policies of environmental conservation and implement them effectively. Since agriculture is the backbone of the country’s economy, it essential to improve productivity in a sustainable manner to support the livelihoods of farmers in Brazil.

It is noteworthy that the success of these environmental conservation measures is highly dependent on the extent to which stakeholders encourage good farming practices. Owing to laxity in the implementation of conservation policies results in the continuation of harmful and destructive practices of farming that are detrimental to the sustainability of the environment, and thus resulting in vicious cycle.

References

Ascher. W., & Healy, R.G. (1990). Natural resource policymaking in developing countries: Environment, economic growth, and income distribution. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.

Carneiro, J., & Danton, T. (2011). Agriculture and biodiversity in the Brazilian social Sciences: A possible state of the art scenarioinnovation. The European Journal of Social Science, 24(3), 225-246.

Clement, A. (2005). The economics of a safe minimum standard of conservation. The American Journal of Agriculture, 60(24), 10-18.

European Commission (2007). Country strategy paper 2007-2013. Web.

Ferreira, J., Pardini, R., Metzger, J.P., Fonseca, C.R., Pompeu, P.S., Sparovek, G., & Louzada, J. (2012). Towards environmentally sustainable agriculture in Brazil: Challenges and opportunities for applied ecological research. Journal of Applied Ecology, 2(1), 1-23.

Jain, C. (1998). Agricultural Intensification by Smallholders in the Western Brazilian Amazon. Journal of Regional Science, 15(2), 55-60.

Saxena, D. (2005). Agricultural development in Uttah, The Geographer, 32(1), 20-28.

Vladas, G. (2008). Conservation of Environment. Journal of Environmental Physiology 23(1), 21-32

Walter, C. (2008). Overview of India’s Agricultural Economy. Asia Pacific Development Journal, 10(2), 15-20.

Most countries described as third world counties practice agriculture on a wider range in the rural areas. This is preferred as the best alternative of getting money to purchase basic needs like clothing, shelter, education and medication. Post modernization in countries like Nigerian rural areas showed how several men went to the urban area to find jobs and send money back home to their wives.

This encouraged urban growth, which saw many peasant families get extra cash to add to their farm incomes. The reason behind this ideology is that, unemployment has been rampant in the developing countries. In order to enhance productivity, most government states decided to encourage agricultural modernization.

The need for agrarian reform was inferred by many policy makers. This was to solve the issue of poverty by increasing the peasant earnings. For example, the need to consolidate farms in order to enhance large-scale farming for exportation was suggested by the state.

This idea would help most women out of poverty as the state would help them sell their products. However, this concept did not yield any result as most people decide to work on their small plots to cultivate for subsistence purposes (Handelman, 2011, p.167). Due to underdevelopment in third world countries, the state considered the need for integrated rural development to reduce poverty in rural areas.

Different policies were pursued to reduce on small corn production and discourage farmers from practicing agriculture for local production. There was a need for removal of trade barriers to allow for competition.

The impact of this policy is that it would encourage more agricultural products in the country and discourage local production. In addition, the imported products would compete with the local products and in the end discourage the farmers from producing corn. The removal of tariff barriers would enhance agricultural modernization. To modernize agriculture, there are elements that can be addresses.

For example, using modernized farm equipment for cultivation, encouraging the use of genetically modified seeds to increase yields at the shortest time possible. The government wanted to discourage cultivating of small plots, as they were not economically efficient. However, this ideology failed because this is what the women and their families depend on for survival.

Reviewing the idea behind dependency theory, it showed that most developed countries were dependent on subsidies due to poverty. These include things like fertilizer and seeds. Country A also depends on foreign aid to assist poor people to have a better living standard.

Therefore, to modernize agriculture, Country A need external help especially in monetary terms to purchase modernized tools like machinery and tractors that will be used for cultivation.

Kenya and Nigeria are some of the countries faced with situations like in Country A. Most women in the rural areas are marginalized, and practice farm work most of the time. There are situations when children die of diseases because their mothers cannot afford to pay for hospital bills. According to the Millennium Development Goal 1, the need to address poverty was important.

This would see most peasants get access to good hospitals and medications to reduce on deaths. This is the reason men went out to the neighboring cities to get extra cash. However, it was never enough to meet the expenses that women needed. Therefore, to avoid all this issues, they sell the maize they have in stock to meet their heavy daily needs.

However, there is democratization in Kenya as compared to Country A. Government controls the prices of commodities so that the imports do not compete with the locally available products. In the end, this idea boosts the economy as more revenue is got from the imported goods and locally available products (Griffiths, 2011, p.17).

Reference List

Griffiths, R. J. (2011). SOC300: Developing World 11/12: 2011 custom edition (21st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Handelman, H. (2011). SOC 300: The challenge of Third World development: 2119 custom edition (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Longman – Pearson Custom Publishing.

Brief Outline of the topic of the proposed research

The European Union is one of the largest economies in the world and a considerable trade partner for the United States of America.

The two blocs are also agricultural trading partners and leading competitors where food market is involved. According to Haas (2007), “The European Union (EU) and Unites States’ (US) governments provide support to their respective agricultural sectors” (p.43).

This strategy is one of the relevant factors in the success experienced in this sector.

Several policies exist in both regions of the world. It is crucial to compare them to establish the effect that they have had on the respective countries. With the population of the world said to be over seven billion and increasing every day (Anatole 2012, p. 17), agriculture is increasing in significance.

Countries around the world have adapted policies aimed at increasing their agricultural output and shifting balance of trade to their advantage (International Food & Agricultural Trade Policy Council 2011). This is the case in the US and the EU, as they try to meet the agricultural demands of the 21st century.

Therefore, how do the agricultural policies in the US and the EU compare? What effect do they have on agricultural output?

Currently, the economies are experiencing budgetary issues, which continue to inform the agricultural policies being developed. Based on all these factors, it is vital to conduct a study comparing the agricultural policies in these countries.

In this regard, the dissertation is proposed with the title ‘The Agricultural Policy in European Union and the United State of America.’

Aims and objectives of the research

The first objective will be to identify the existing agricultural policies in France, Germany, and Spain. The next objective will be to investigate the agricultural policies in the United States of America.

To achieve the main aim of the study, the third objective will be to analyse the common agricultural policy in the European Union and its effects on the member countries with the use of Germany, Spain and France. To achieve these objectives and aims, several questions will need to be answered in relation to the study aims.

1. What are the existing agricultural policies in Spain, France, and Germany?
2. What are the existing and proposed agricultural policies in the USA? The question of the details of the common agricultural policy in the EU will also be answered.
3. How do the agricultural policies compare for these countries.

Importance of the proposed research

With the integration of members and enlargement of the European Union, the existing agricultural policies in the member countries will be overtaken by the common agricultural policy. Few investigations have been done detailing the effects as well as comparing it with the policies in the USA.

As indicated above, the EU and the US are principal partners and competitors in the field of agriculture with each of the economies receiving a significant contribution from the sector. A significant government support in the countries goes to the agricultural industry.

According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), “the European Union and the United States together account for more than 60% of all government support to agriculture among the main developed economies” (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

Some of the latest developments in the policy reforms in the EU include the proposed reforms in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) with the US congress said to have passed significant agricultural bills in the year 2012 including the Farm Bill (Bureau & Louis-Pascal 2009, p. 5: Monke & Johnson 2010, p. 12).

A common feature for both of these economies is the bio fuel policies, which are inseparable from the agricultural objectives of the member counties and states (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

An attempt will therefore be made in this dissertation to compare the agricultural policies for the bloc with that of the United States to see if the two are similar.

With the increase in population and geographical size that the European Union is likely to have from the member countries, the bloc could use the experience of the United States to set up relevant policies to support her growth.

Summary and outline of proposed research topic

Agricultural policies are statements by governments and authorities that are aimed at ensuring welfare, sustainability, and distribution in the agricultural sector (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

Agriculture in the European Union specifically in Germany continues to be regulated by the existing agricultural policies, and public support is its mainstay.

The European Union has adopted the CAP that is aimed at establishing a market-oriented and sustainable agricultural sector (Mewvissen, Van Asseldonk & Huirnde 2008, p. 53).

As an example of a member state in the European Union, Hardaker reveals that Germany’s agricultural policy is geared towards consumer protection and ‘greening’ of the policies (an example is BMVEL 2001)(2000, p. 42).

The CAP in the European Union was proposed in 1960with the founding members of the European Community such as Germany and France having emerged from severe food shortages and hence requiring food security (‘Study of European Union Common Agricultural Policy2008, p. 2).

The agricultural policy in France has been based on the aim of boosting her economic development in the past.

The adoption of the CAP in the EU could mean a standardisation of the existing agricultural policies in the member countries. The strategy could have both positive and negative impacts on this sector. According to (Garridoet al 2009), after Spain joined the EU in 1986, it is therefore party to the CAP in the bloc (p. 94).

The United States has a well-established agricultural policy. Several amendments to the law on food and agricultural production have been made.

The agricultural policy here has undergone the transition through four stages of traditional developing, maturing, and modern stage with Schultz noting that traditional society was marked by poverty and primitive technology (1964).

The current agricultural policy in the US is market-oriented with several factors such as laws and international treaties affecting the output (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

One of the findings from the dissertation as revealed by (Hellerstein 2010) is that the agricultural policies in the US and EU are similar and that the two countries are outstanding competitors and partners in the global agricultural trade (p. 78).

Proposed chapter outline of dissertation thesis

The dissertation will begin with the literature review where the appropriate information will be discussed based on the existing studies. This approach will establish the suggested theories in the literature reviewed. Analysis of the information will then follow to make the first chapter.

After the analysis, the methodology for the dissertation will then be discussed with details of the exclusion and inclusion criteria. The second chapter will then be written based on the data collection and results presented to the supervisor for proof reading.

The results will be those obtained from the pilot study and the actual study. After the dissertation is complete, the data and collusions will be presented in the form of a document. The final draft will then be presented after proofreading and correction.

Literature review

The policies in the US and the EU are similar on many aspects. Literature describes the historical changes in them. The Common Agricultural Policy governs the EU. As shown by the case studies of some of the member countries, some challenges have been witnessed on its implementation.

Both policies are focused on environmental conservation now with the protection of the farmers being a key similarity. A number of studies and discussions on existing and proposed agricultural policies in the US have also been done and so has the relationship between the policies in the two places.

These will then be discussed in an attempt to answer the questions raised by the dissertation.

Methods review

In Germany, the primary objective of the 1955 law on agriculture (LWG) is the provision of sufficient food to the population (Wohlleben 2006, p. 243).

This has then lost with the development of a new objective to protect the consumers of agricultural produce, which has mainly developed following the Bovine Spongioforme Encephalopathie (BSE) crisis (Wohlleben 2006, p. 243).

A new shift in policy has also been observed as revealed by Wohlleben with the country opting to “green” its agricultural policies, and an example is the BMVEL 2001(2006, p. 243).

The effects of the CAP are observed with agriculture increasingly becoming market-oriented and sustainable (‘Regional Growth and Policies in the European Union 2007, p. 20).

Agricultural policy in Germany has some contribution from many areas. Due to federalism, Wohlleben (2006) asserts that the responsibility is at the federal, local, and EU level, with responsibility being split between the levels (p. 24).

In response to the BSE crisis, some of the policy changes at the federal level include the formation of Ministry of Consumer Protection and Agriculture (BMVEL) (Garrido, Bielza & Sumpsi 2003, p. 73).

The distribution of responsibility by the policy ensures that food production, distribution, and consumption are integrated with quality assurance (Garrido, Bielza & Sumpsi 2003, p. 73).

Ewa’s study on German agricultural policy did a literature review highlighting some of the existing agricultural laws in the country and their effect on the agricultural sector (2012, p. 23).

An analysis of the laws and literature done on the agricultural reforms was then done with recommendation being made. He concluded that the agricultural policy in Germany is a federal government responsibility that could be considered a specific case of the general social policy (Policy Schemes and Trade in Dairy Products 2011, p. 29).

The CAP that German is signatory to has been found to be mainly protectionist with an increase in agricultural output resulting to dumping in the third world countries (Lars n.d.).

The policy has also been a subject of debate in the country. Germany being a ‘net payer’ to the EU has consistently pushed for limitation of expenditure and reform in the policy as revealed by Scrieciu (2007, p. 16).

France is among the founders of the European Union and a chief proponent of the CAP in the bloc. In the development of an agricultural policy in Poland that would be concurrent with the CAP in the EU, French agricultural policy was investigated and recommendations based on the study (Policy Schemes and Trade in Dairy Products 2011, p. 29).

The study analysed some of the past policies in France beginning with the 1960s where CAP was proposed (Garrido, Bielza & Sumpsi 2003, p. 73).

The treaty of Rome is a significant article in the study with article 39 detailing some of the objectives of the policy as being to increase productivity, increase standards of living, stabilise markets ensure food security, and provide adequate consumer prices (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

According to Garrido, Bielza, and Sumpsi (2003), the Mansholt Plan in the same period that the CAP was being set up was proposed to move small-scale farmers from the land to ensure that farming was done on a larger scale (p. 73).

Currently, the country is a beneficiary of CAP with a significant amount of money in the country from the EU being in the form of subsidies (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

The country has therefore, resisted any of the policy changes and reforms over the past with steps being taken to minimise the effects of the new policies on the farmers and consumers initially benefitting from the EU’s CAP (Garrido, Bielza & Sumpsi 2003, p. 73).

The policy here is common to that in Germany with the conservative nature being observed, as it is common to the member countries using the CAP. The study was based on the review of the laws and policy statements in France over the years. This strategy was an effective way of comparing the EU agricultural policy with that of France.

Spain is the last member of the EU that the dissertation uses to make a comparison. The agricultural policy here was not harmonised with that of the other EU member until the country joined the union in 1986.

One of the documents used for the study on Spain’s agricultural policy is that by Young and Hansen, which investigated the effect of the CAP and the Spanish economy (2011, p. 26).

The paper reviewed the policies in the country and adaptation in the Central and Eastern European Countries and problems in the adaptation of CAP (Garrido, Bielza & Sumpsi 2003, p. 73).

The methodology used was gathering of data from secondary sources and mainly the government and organisational papers detailing the performance of the agricultural sector in Spain (Marius 2005, p. 78). The data and literature obtained from the study was then analysed and used to make conclusions.

In the paper, the main findings were categorised into CAP history in Spain and elsewhere in the EU, results of the negotiations with the Central and Eastern European Countries, with the last part dealing with the similarities with the other EU countries (Banse, Van Meijl, Tabeau & Woltjer 2008, p. 20).

The study recommended that, due to the financial implications of expansion of the EU and the adaptation of CAP, the EU has been experiencing pressure from Spain (Marius 2005, p. 78). The methods used for the study are relevant and accurate with generalisability to the EU being easily made.

A study conducted by the Congressional Research Service aimed to compare the EU and the US program support for farm commodities and conservation in 2010 (Marius 2005, p. 47). The methodology used in the study was similar to the studies highlighted above.

It utilised data from professional organisations and global bodies. The report detailed the results and data published by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) by using it to make the comparisons (Marius 2005, p. 78).

According to Garrido, Bielza, and Sumpsi (2003), OECD’s annual Producer Support Estimate (PSE) was of particular use in the study with data from the estimates being used to make valid conclusions (p. 73).

For comparison, “estimates of the Aggregate Measurement of Support (AMS) for agricultural programs, as compiled by individual World Trade Organisation (WTO) member countries and notified to the WTO as part of their membership obligations” was used (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 23).

The other source of statistics for the study was the annual budget expenditures for agricultural programs as given by the particular countries (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 23).

From the data, program support across the countries indicated that, since the mid-80s, “the total farm support in the United States and EU has declined as a share of total gross farm receipts” (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 24).

The decrease is mainly in commodity programs support, with an observed increase in support for non-commodity programs (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 25). Examples of programs where support in the two countries was recorded to increase included programs for rural development and the conservation of farmland (Orden, Blandford & Josling 2010, p. 97).

Despite the observed changes, Dewbre, Thompson, and Dewbre (2007) point out that the non-commodity programs still maintain a smaller percentage of the farm recipients (p. 27).

The US was observed to have a slightly higher percentage of farm receipts in the above programs as compared to the EU with non-commodity shares of input being 0.7% lower than that of the EU (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

In the United States, several laws govern the agricultural sector. A multiyear farm bill in the US provides a means of comprehensively addressing agricultural issues with several modifications being made frequently to the existing laws (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 23).

One of the omnibus farm bills is the P.L. 110-246, the Food, conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

According to CRS Report RS22131 (2008) and CRS Report RL34696 (2008), the bill “covers a range of areas, including commodity crops, horticulture and livestock, conservation, nutrition, trade and food aid, agricultural research, farm credit, rural development, energy, forestry, and other programs”.

Farm sustenance in the US “…consists of programs providing direct and indirect support to the producers and consumers in the sector with only selected commodities being supported” (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 26).

According to Potter and Ervin, “Grains, cotton, oilseeds, dairy, and peanuts are eligible for both fixed “decoupled” payments and “counter-cyclical assistance” payments: the total producer subsidy is based on past production” (1999, p. 31).

Further support is provided by Young and Hansen to the producers of these commodities and those not included in the list via crop loans and subsidies related to loans (2011, p. 28).

Several minimum pricing systems support the dairy and sugar industries with quotas being subjected on some commodities to limit the destruction of the local markets from imports therefore protecting the local farmers (Swinbank & Josling 2012).

Crop insurance is also common in the country with farmers receiving payments in the case of disasters (Swinbank & Josling 2012).

The 1985 farm bill passed by the United States congress was the first of a series of bills passed to ensure that farmers adopt farming practices that are environmentally friendly (Josling & Swinbank 2011, p. 28).

According to Swinbank and Josling, “Conservation programs administered by USDA can be broadly grouped into land retirement and easement programs and so-called “working lands” programs” (2012, p. 28).

They go ahead to state that the land retirement and easement programs stop crop production from certain lands with the aim of converting it to the original vegetation such as forests and wetlands (Swinbank & Josling 2012).

This revelation is contrary to working lands programs that are aimed at encouraging environmental conservation on agricultural land that is currently used for production (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 32). As discussed above, CAP governs the policies in the EU member states (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 35).

The primary use of the policy was observed in the buying of farm commodities from the member states when the prices fell below the expected thus cushioning the farmers from any losses (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 35).

As with the US, the EU also levied a tax on imports to prevent cheaper imports from undermining the output from the member countries because of the high prices established after the interventions (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 35). Several problems were experienced with CAP.

As Potter and Ervin state, “During the 1970s and 1980s, the CAP accounted for as much as 70% of the total EU budget. The CAP was also criticised by EU trading partners for distorting world markets and interfering with global agricultural trade” (1999, p. 35).

A change in the CAP that has been experienced since 1992is the gradual move to a more market-oriented support for the agricultural sectors in the member countries (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 35). In line with these changes, the policy has changed to comply with the requirements of the World Trade Organisation (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 35).

The CAP has also mutated to fit other requirements of the member states and international standards, which include the need to improve the rural living standards to protect the animal rights (Young & Hansen 2011, p. 29).

One of the similarity with the US policy is observed in “1992 (the MacSharry Reforms) and 1999 (Agenda 2000) reduced EU commodity support prices towards market levels that required that some farmland be taken out of production” (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 35).

As indicated above, the focus of program support in the US is on only a few commodities, which have been given. The EU has an agricultural policy that provides support to a larger scope of commodities and livestock products. The existing farm structures and organisations in both countries and member states are different.

According to Potter and Ervin, “the United States has roughly twice the farmland base of the European Union with fewer but significantly larger farms than the EU” (1999, p. 35). Comparatively, the size of land available for farming in the EU is smaller, but with a relatively larger number of farms (Hans van & Frank van n.d).

The researches discussed above are relevant to the dissertation and the suggested research since they will help in the making of comparisons between the agricultural policies in the EU and US. The limitation of the methodology is that most of the researches were based on secondary sources of information.

The results are therefore subject to errors. The evidence supports the existence of substantial differences between the agricultural policies in the United States of America and the European Union.

The two blocs have embarked on Bio fuel policies thus pushing the agricultural sector to experience critical reforms based on the observed changes (Hans van & Frank van n.d).

Research findings

In the literature review, significant differences emerge between the EU and US agricultural policies. There are also a number of similarities in the two areas. These observations create the need for analysis of the policies.

In the European Union, the key component of the agricultural policies in the countries that have been discussed is the Combined Agricultural Policy.

According to Potter and Ervin, the policy forms the backbone of the decisions made in relation to agriculture in the EU with members having to fulfil the requirements of the policy (1999, p. 35).

The body that regulates the agricultural industry in the EU is described as being a constituent of the organisation. The aims are to protect the local farmers and consumers (Wohlleben 2006, p. 243).

In the US, the policy is mainly in the form of bills and laws passed by congress concerning the promotion of agricultural sustenance and protecting the farmers (Atici 2005, p. 10). A characteristic of the policy is the provision of quotas for some of the imports as a way of limiting the dilution of the market with cheaper agricultural goods.

The farmers here receive subsidies for selected produce. Insurance companies and the government protect them from losses by insuring the crops (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 35).

Due to the frequent loss of produce to disasters, a measure that the government has taken is the provision reimbursements for farmers affected by such calamities. The CAP in the EU is expected to be reformed in the next years.

The US congress has also made significant changes to the agricultural policy as Potter and Ervin (1999, p. 35) report.

The European Union is also discussed to have a larger number of its population being involved in farming as compared to the US, which has larger sizes of farms and a larger area of land available for farming (Potter & Ervin 1999, p. 36).

The policies in both countries are reported to be moving towards ‘greening’ the agricultural production process with the emphasis being made on environmental conservation efforts. According to Potter and Ervin, this means that more land is being abandoned strategically to allow the growth of natural vegetation (1999, p. 39).

For Germany and France who are the founding members of the European Union, the CAP is a characteristic that has shaped farming with Spain joining them over the years.

The agricultural policy in the US has developed over the years with reforms in the sector contributing to the observable agricultural developments in this country. The policies in the US and the EU are similar in a number of ways as discussed in the literature review.

A considerable similarity is the aim and objectives, which are to protect their farmers and consumers as well as ensuring continued agricultural output. Some of the other observations in the policies in the countries are the purpose for which they were initially set up.

The most recent of the reforms as Young and Hansen state are those detailed in the Mid-term Review of 2003 (2011, p. 26).

These are also highlighted in Garrido, Bielza, and Sumpsi’s literature where they explain that they were meant to complete decoupling for cereals besides reducing support for rice with milk and sugar being spared later (2003, p. 73).

These reforms were recently followed by the Agenda 2000 reforms in the year 2003 (Garrido, Bielza & Sumpsi 2003, p. 73). The reforms were meant to reduce the prices of beef in the local markets with the introduction of environmental conditions (Garrido, Bielza & Sumpsi 2003, p. 73).

In the US, series of reforms in the policies are suggested with transformation from traditional to modern policies taking place stepwise. The traditional policies are conservative and hampered by the low levels of technological innovation in this age.

The modern policies in the US are informed by the desire to cushion the population of the high consumer prices of commodities to protect the farmers from the cheap imports that are available (Haas 2007, p. 17).

Under the laws and bills passed by the United States congress, a number of consumer products are subsidised with others having the quota system of management (Haas 2007, p. 17).

The strategy according to Haas protects the local agricultural economy to ensure that agricultural traders are not exploited (2007, p. 17).

For the European Union, the policy is broader. It covers more commodities than the United States. Farmers have the advantage of receiving price subsidies and financial support from the government with France being a prime beneficiary of the policy (Haas 2007, p. 17).

Germany and France were some of the nations in the EU that Moyer and Josling noted to have multifunctional agriculture with Austria and Italy joining them.

Though many countries were not noted to practice globalised agriculture in Moyer and Josling’s book, Mewvissen, Van Asseldonk, and Huirnde state that this paradigm is emerging in many of her member countries (2008, p. 53).

The World Trade Organisation has contributed significantly in the way CAP is shaped in the European Union, and this is based on experiences where CAP contributed to trade imbalance between it and the trading partners (Bullock & Salhofer 1998, p. 23).

According to Bullock and Salhofer, the comparison between the policies in agriculture for the two blocs are incomplete without considering the protection accorded to the industry (1998, p. 23). They state that the EU’s agriculture is more protected and that the gap is narrowing each day (Bullock & Salhofer 1998, p. 23).

Some of the agricultural sectors in the US are reported to be progressing to being uncompetitive with sectors in the EU becoming more competitive (Haas 2007, p. 17). In most of the literature reviewed, the dairy industry and sugar industries in the countries are reported to be out of line with the rest of the sectors.

Review of concepts and theories

From the above literature review, several theories and concepts are suggested, and others supported. One of the concepts that emerge is consumer protection characteristics of the CAP for the European Union (Baylis, K. et al. 2005).

The researches support the theory that the CAP was designed to protect the EU member states and that this strategy has served to the advantage and disadvantage of some of the members (Haas 2007, p. 17).

In the example above, France is described to be a beneficiary of the CPA. In the past, it has resisted the proposed changes by various members. The benefit is in the form of subsidies, and the government here has moved to protect the citizens after some of the changes were put in place.

Moyer and Josling discussed four theories that include dependent agriculture, competitive agriculture, multifunctional agriculture, and globalised agriculture where a large international chain is formed by the industry.

In their book ‘Agricultural Policy Reform’, Moyer and Josling highlight some of the theories in the US and EU in the field of agriculture (2002).

They stated a paradigm shift from a state-assisted mode of agriculture to one that is market-liberal, with the agricultural sector in the US shifting from a small industry to a competitive one over the decades.

In their book, the two authors continued to explore their proposed paradigm shifts in agriculture for the two countries by comparing them to conflicting paradigms brought about by globalisation of agriculture (Moyer & Josling 2002).

According to Moyer and Josling (2002), the theories that the authors discussed include dependent agriculture where the industry needed government’s support and competitive agriculture where the industry started competing for resources.

These were later on followed by the multifunctional agriculture theory with the industry being able to provide public goods and the present globalised agriculture where a large international chain is formed by the industry.

In the US, the competitive paradigm shift/theory is most evident in the non-program crops with dependent agriculture persisting in the dairy and sugar industry. The theory is supported by Potter and Ervin who state that the sugar industry relies mostly on government policy to protect farmers in a bid to maximise output (1999, p.34).

In the EU, the foremost theories mentioned include the ‘MasSharry Reforms’ that took place in 1992 (Wohlleben 2006, p. 243).

According to Wohlleben, these reforms introduced direct payments while at the same time cutting the prices of grains in the bloc to come close to those in the world market levels (2006, p. 243).

Moyer and Josling conclude that, in the EU, dependent agriculture remains present though with reducing dominance (2002, p. 35). They also noted the emergence of competitive agriculture among the main agricultural states in the EU though the states used for comparison were not among them (2002, p. 27).

Research design and methods

The proposed research paper will be based on secondary analysis on the ground of case study research. A case study research will be the most appropriate format to establish the relationship between the agricultural policies in the European Union and the United States.

The type of research will also provide a lot of information since most of the concepts to be discussed are mainly in the outstanding universal publications. Haas (2007, p. 17) states that the use of a case study in research is effective especially in fields such as international relations and real life events are to be studied.

References

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Introduction

Water is a very essential element in life. Several challenges can lead to water scarcity. Rainfall cannot be fully relied on as the main source of water. Due to the challenges posed by water scarcity, new innovations continue to be made as means of combating water scarcity in many regions of the world.

Super absorbent polymers are generally made of molecules that have the ability to hold and store water in very small volumes. This is possible due to the extreme concentration of molar masses in the molecules and a huge number of recurrent units in the molecules (Zhou Zhenmin, 2009).

As a result of chemical reactions, the molecules are sequentially joined into monomers. Hydro gels ensure that an area is constantly dumpy. The super absorbent polymers and the hydro gels are water absorbent materials (Zhong, Zheng, Mao,Lin, & Jiang, 2012).

Both the polymers and the hydro gels do not get absorbed by the plants. They are only used as water retention materials. In hospitals, they can be used for absorbing and solidifying water and blood (Zhang, Yuan, Wang, Gu, & Zhang, 2007).

Physicians use them together with dressing materials to absorb water from patients’ wounds when dressing the wounds (Zhang, Tanaka, &Shibayama, 1992).

In agriculture, they are used to provide water to the plants. Fire fighters use super absorbent materials to extinguish fire (Yandong Zhao, Junfu Zhang, Jinfeng Guan, &Weilun Yin. 2009).

The comparison of United Arab Emirates to other countries in terms of weather and environmental characteristics

The United Arab Emirates has the same environmental characteristics as countries such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Iran, Mexico and Israel but so many of the mentioned countries have not embraced the use of super absorbent polymers in agriculture and especially in the reduction of the amount of water used in irrigation.

The mentioned countries should embrace the use of super absorbent polymers as they share the same environmental characteristics with the UAE.

Such attempts would help these countries to enhance agricultural production, to conserve soil moisture and to also prevent the loss of water through methods of agriculture like irrigation. Super absorbent polymers are used in the United Arab Emirates which is located in a hot region (Nonwovens& Technical Textiles, 2009).

The UAE being a hot region has discovered ingenious ways of using the super absorbent polymers for several purposes.

The purpose of this study is to focus on the possibility of the use of super absorbent polymers in agriculture in other parts of the world too with an aim of reducing water used in irrigation (Vico&Porporato, 2011).

Focus on potassium polyacrylate, sodium polyacrylate, cellulose polymer, polyacrylamide, rechargeable solid water, solid water technologies in Australia and zeoplant will provide a thorough examination of the available super absorbent water polymers and the features associated with each of them.

Potassium polyacrylate

Potassium polyacrylate is commonly referred to as solid rain. It was developed by engineer Sergio Rico of the National Polytechnic Institute in Mexico. He was inspired by how babies’ diapers work. He observed that diapers are capable of storing large amounts of liquid in a very small space.

Water in potassium polyacrylate is stored in molecular form. Potassium polyacrylate changes the water molecule into a hydro gel but does not change the chemical structure of the water. Potassium polyacrylate’s water retention capacity is 500 times that of its own weight.

The potassium hydro gels are meant to be placed near the roots of plants. They work with all types of trees ranging from seedlings, fodder, food crops and forests. Potassium polyacrylate solid blocks are capable of replenishing themselves (Wilson, 2012).

With potassium polyacrylate, only minimum evaporation takes place eventually saving on the amount of water required.

Potassium polyacrylate works very well with water soluble fertilizers meaning that when combined with soluble fertilizers, it can nourish the plants by ensuring slow release of nutrients from the fertilizers to the crops.

This constant supply of nutrients to the plants ensures that plants are healthy and that the productivity of plants is increased by 100%.Potassium polyacrylate can be placed in the plant’s hole just before transplanting can take place.

This ensures that the crop is hydrated throughout by the moisture released by the potassium polyacrylate solid or capsule. With the use of potassium polyacrylate products, farmers are able to save on irrigation costs and reduce the costs by 75%.

A survey carried out in the UAE showed that the application of potassium polyacrylate in plants ensures that the plants stay up to 5 months without been watered (www.aquawarehouse.net/data_en.pdf). Water salinity affects water retention and water absorption capabilities.

The presence of lime, iron and phosphate in the water is known to greatly affect the water holding and retention capacities of potassium polyacrylate (Vico&Porporato, 2011). Potassium polyacrylate has several advantages.

To create and use a potassium polyacrylate polymer, one only needs to follow very simple instructions of just mixing the right amount of water with the right amount of potassium polyacrylate. Potassium polyacrylate takes only 15 minutes to solidify and form the polymer. (farooqis2cool.hubpages.com/…/The-Man-Who-Invented-Solid-Rain -).

With the formation of potassium polyacrylate solid blocks, it is quite easy to transport them. Potassium polyacrylate is good in absorbing chemical spills. This is ideal especially in industries where dangerous and hazardous chemicals or chemical spills may be emitted on roads during transportation.

Cleaning of such chemical spills can be tricky. Potassium polyacrylate is very much applicable in horticultural farming since it requires constant irrigation where it can be used as a substitute for irrigation (The WaterCAMPWS ,2012).

To irrigate large sectors of land, high capital costs are required. Research indicates that traditional irrigation methods incur a lot of costs in terms of labor, energy and time especially if overhead irrigation is employed. A lot of work is involved in the construction of network water pipes.

A lot of money is also required in the purchasing of the irrigation materials which are the pipes, the sprinklers and so on. Once the potassium polyacrylate is put into the ground, it usually takes several months before it replenishes itself.

Potassium polyacrylate is used effectively in regions that experience long draughts like the United Arab Emirates and some parts of South and North Africa. In these regions, potassium polyacrylate polymer solid blocks can be used in reforestation since they are capable of providing moisture to the trees for a long period of time.

In these regions, the forest cover is usually very low (Tejero, Zuazo, Bocanegra&Fernández, 2011). To increase the forest cover, new forests may be created and the water retention capacity can be enhanced with the use of potassium polyacrylate right from the stages of growth of the seeds in the tree nurseries to that of transplanting them to the areas where they will be planted.

Potassium polyacrylate can be used to ensure that the trees are properly hydrated (Spangler, 2012). Food security poses a big challenge to arid and semi arid areas. Potassium polyacrylate polymers can be used to fight the challenges of food crises.

Since potassium polyacrylate comes in form of small capsules that are easy to transport and are very affordable, farmers can use them for plants and food crops. Farmers will be guaranteed of full productivity of all their food crops through the use of polyacrylate polymers.

Surveys and pilot projects carried out in the dry regions of the world indicate a 100% rise in the productivity of the crops if potassium polyacrylate is used (Ruiqiang Zhang, &TianmingGao. (2011). Most of the hot regions have sand and cotton soils whose water retention capacities are very low.

Potassium polyacrylate polymer solid blocks can be used to enhance the water retention capabilities for sand soils (Liu Xiaochu, Ling Jingpeng, Yao Li, Wu Hualong, & Tao Jianhua, 2010). Cotton soils are known for poor drainage capabilities.

Potassium polyacrylate polymers are able to fix these types of challenges since they provide continuous moisture throughout the period of their uses. Arid and semi arid areas are frequented by dangerous forest fires especially during the hot season.

These fires spread so fast especially if there are presence of strong winds. Use of potassium polyacrylate is an ideal way of extinguishing forest fires. The water retained in potassium polyacrylate is exactly what stops the fires in these types of situations.

United Arab Emirates being a semi arid region has experienced the challenge of maintaining green lawns and landscapes. This can be very well fixed by the use of potassium polyacrylate other than depending on rainfall for water.

Sodium polyacrylate

It is widely used in most consumer products. Sodium polyacrylate uses the principle of osmosis (Rechargeable solid water, 2009). Osmosis refers to the movement of water molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.

Sodium polyacrylate can attract water molecules from liquid water to itself since its water concentration is low.

With distilled water, sodium polyacrylate is capable of absorbing distilled water up to 800times its weight and 300times that of non- distilled water (depts.washington.edu/chemcrs/bulkdisk/…/notes_Sodium-Polyacrylate.pdf).

Hard water essentially consists of calcium, zinc and iron. Sodium polyacrylate is used as a sequestering agent in most detergents (Qu, G., & de Varennes, A.2010).This helps the detergent to dissolve into the chemicals found in hard water (Orzolek, 1993).

The detergent then becomes effective in the removal of dirt and also in the clearing of foul smells. Sodium polyacrylate is used as a coating agent. It is used to coat some electrical wires that are likely to pass through dump areas.

The sodium polyacrylate coating helps to ensure that the electrical wires do not come into contact with any moisture. With fire accidents posing a big challenge at homes and in industries, there is a great need for fireproof walls, doors, furniture and equipments.

Sodium polyacrylate is used to coat all these components by providing them with its fire proof capabilities (Nonwovens & Technical Textiles, 2009). Sodium polyacrylate is used by florists to retain moisture in freshly cut flowers making them to last longer.

Nasal astronauts are required to keep some form of moisture during their space expeditions. They use special spacesuits which are treated with sodium polyacrylate. This helps them to prevent rashes (National, 2012).

Sodium polyacrylate is also used as a thickening agent. This helps the component to hold and absorb so much water. This is the concept used in babies’ diapers and hair gels. Through osmosis, water molecules are drawn from the urine. The climatic conditions in the United Arab Emirates are generally hot.

Sodium polyacrylate may be used in horticulture more so in the flower industries. Sodium polyacrylate may be used to preserve the flowers’ freshness after harvesting and during delivery for export markets since the hot weather can drastically reduce the quality of the flowers. Sodium polyacrylate is known to be non toxic.

However, it causes irritation of the eyes and the nose. Care should therefore be exercised when handling it for example through the use of gloves and face masks to prevent it from coming in to contact with the face.

Cellulose polymer

Cellulose polymers are made of organic compounds and comprise 33% of plant matter (Liu,Ling,Yao,and Wu & Tao,2010).With the use of a glucose monomer, a molecule can dissolve in other chemicals to form a polymer that is the organic compounds in cellulose form a cellulose polymer (Li, & Wang, 2005).

Through glucocisidic bonds, starch monomers bind to form cellulose polymers (Bruce et al, 2008). Most of the cellulose polymers come from plant matter (Leiva, & Skees, 2008). The molecular weight of a monomer is measured in units called dimmers (Krul, Nareiko, Matusevich,Yakimtsova, Matusevich, &Seeber, 2000).

Cotton is known to have the highest percentage of cellulose at 90% followed by wood at 50%.Cellulose is usually odorless. It is also tasteless. A super absorbent polymer from cellulose is formed by a cross link of carboxymethly cellulose and vegetable starch from either a cassava or a potato.

A survey was carried out to test the efficiency of this type of cellulose polymer (academic journals.org.ssem/pdf/pdf2012/july/nnadi%and%20 Brave.pdf). Two plant nurseries were used.

One plant nursery was treated with cellulose polymers and the other one was not. Radish seeds were eventually planted into the two nurseries. The two nurseries were continuously given water for two weeks and then water was stopped for the next three weeks.

Two weeks later, the plants from the nursery that was not treated with cellulose polymers showed serious signs of dehydration effects. On the nursery that had been treated with cellulose polymers, 73% of water retention was noted. Cellulose polymers offer good germination energy to plants.

Cellulose polymers are made of degradable materials. This makes them environmental friendly. They are characterized by very short life spans of up to 6 months.

Though they are highly absorbent, their absorption capabilities are not as high compared to potassium based and sodium based polymers. They can only retain water up to 20 times their own weight.

Polyacrylamide (PAM)

This is a type of polymer that is capable of absorbing water up to 400times its own weight. It has a longer life span compared to potassium polyacrylate and sodium polyacrylate. It is also cheaper compared to potassium polyacrylate and sodium polyacrylate (www.indiantextilejournal.com/articles/FAdetails.asp?id=1932).

When hydrated, polyacrylamide forms crystals that look like water (Nonwovens, 2009). Light can pass through the crystals though it cannot be refracted.

When polyacrylamide crystals are put in a glass, they are invisible but when they are removed from the glass they become visible (Guiwei, deVarennes, Martins, Mourato, Cardoso, Mota, Gonçalves, 2010). That is the reason why sometimes they are called ghost crystals.

Polyacrylamide polymers are made in various forms of either dry granules or solid blocks. Polyacrylamide polymers are ideal for use in agriculture to provide water to the plants.

Since polyacrylamide polymers’ granules or solids are placed in the plant rooting system, there is no water flow or movement that takes place forcing the soil to erode. Polyacrylamide polymers are then said to reduce soil erosion up to 95%. With polyacrylamide polymers, it is possible to undertake hydraulic mulching.

Water and seeds are put in a state and environment that speeds up germination. In coal processing, water is essentially required. After the coal processing, water should be eliminated from the coal and this can reduce transportation costs of the coal.

Polyacrylamide polymers are very ideal for use in coal processing to absorb the water in the coal after the processing. Coal is mainly processed in the Middle East, United Arab Emirates, some parts of South Africa and some other parts of North Africa. Polyacrylamide polymers can be used in all these regions.

These regions are semi arid characterized by light textured types of soils. With traditional irrigation methods, soil erosion can be very excessive leading to mass erosion of the top cover soils in the long run. These regions are frequently faced with food shortages that makes then turn to importing food for their populations.

With the use hydraulic mulching, speeding up of seeds germination will shorten the time taken in food production processes.

Rechargeable solid water in the UAE

This type of polymer is insoluble in water. A gel like suspension is created when the polymer is put in water. Water recharging can take place in 30 days intervals.

Rechargeable solid water is ideal for plant nurseries, forests, horticulture, landscaping and commercial and domestic farming. Rechargeable solid water is ideal for arid and semi arid areas (www.outsidetheboxdistributors.com/solidwater.html) (www.gumtree.com.au/s-plants+large/page-5/k0).

Liquid fertilizers can be mixed with rechargeable solid water to provide continuous release of plant nutrients. Rechargeable solid water is non toxic. It is also biodegradable. It has a 2 years lifespan. In the United Arab Emirates, landscapes need to be kept green especially in airports, school grounds and other public grounds.

To ensure lawns, flower beds and potted plants remain green throughout; rechargeable solid water can be used. With traditional irrigation, huge sums of money may be used constantly to irrigate these landscapes. More time will be required for continuous irrigation. A lot of water will also be saved.

Solid water technologies in Australia

The solid water technologies are efficient in providing water to the plants for they offer a steady supply of water to the roots of the plant (Gao, Wang, Li, Fu, Wu, Wang, & Wang, 2008). They are environmentally friendly for they comprise of organic matter.

This technology is ideal for tree nurseries, flower pots, flower gardens and kitchen gardens. This is because its frequency of drainage can last for a maximum of 3 months and has a one year life span (www.strategicforesight.com/Arab%20Water%20World.pdf).

Zeoplant

Zeoplant is normally used to amend soils. When added to the soil, it treats it with natural minerals and organic components (Farooq, 2012). Its water retention capacity is increased. This can reduce irrigation costs by 85%.

Zeoplant can retain water up to 420 times its own weight. Zeoplant can be used basically in all types of soils. Zeoplant is very ideal for areas like the semi arid areas in the Middle East and UAE.

Recommendations

The innovation of super absorbent polymers is a great milestone towards overcoming the challenge of water shortage in the UAE and other dry regions in the world. Stakeholders should join together to make sure problems brought about by water shortage crises are dealt with effectively.

Potassium polyacrylate commonly called solid rain best suits the climatic conditions of the United Arab Emirates. The climatic conditions in the United Arab Emirates are generally dry creating water scarcity especially for agriculture.

With its high absorbent features and ability to work with all types of crops, potassium polyacrylate is the best polymer for the United Arab Emirates. It can therefore replace water irrigation in this country.

Zeoplant is also ideal for use in the United Arab Emirates due to its ability to amend soils and ensure that the soils retain the required moisture and nutrients for crop development.

Sodium polyacrylate may have some limitations since care must be exercised when handling it due to its irritability to the skin, eyes and nasal membranes. Polyacrylamide may also not be ideal because it has been linked to toxicity in plants.

To some extent, the polymer is absorbed in water molecules creating the likelihood for it to be transferred to other plants. There are not many major research projects that have been undertaken in this field (Fang, Ma, Yu, Ahuja, Malone, &Hoogenboom, 2010).

Governments in developing countries should aggressively train chemical engineers to avoid over reliance on engineers from the developed countries (Esteves, 2011).

Governments should offer full scholarships to their students to go and study about polymers in developed countries (Blanke, Rozelle, Lohmar, Wang, & Huang, 2007). The costs of most super absorbent polymers are relatively high and may not be affordable to peasant farmers (Bidisha, Joerg, &Yakov, 2010).

Governments involved should look in to giving tax subsidies towards super absorbent polymers. In areas of extreme poverty, the governments concerned should look in to providing super absorbent polymers for free to farmers (Berber, Hafez, Minagawa, Tanaka, & Mori).

Though there are clear instructions on how to use the super absorbent polymers, training of farmers on the uses of super absorbent polymers should be encouraged.

This would also eliminate the misconceptions that are likely to arise due to failure by the farmers to understand the role played by super absorbent polymers (Asghar,Samad, & Hashaikeh, 2012).

Training farmers can be done by use of creating demonstration farms where individual farmers or groups can visit the farms for learning purposes (AquaWarehouse, 2009). Countries that employ the use of water absorbent polymers especially in agriculture must also come up with clear guidelines on their usage.

The use of guidelines would spell out standards required for use of water absorbent polymers that any country would wish to implement (AquaWarehouse, 2009).

The standards set would apply to all manufacturers, importers and suppliers of the water absorbent polymers. It is also good for them to create a body with a mandate to check on the standards of the water absorbent polymers (Andry, Yamamoto, Irie, Moritani, Inoue& Fujiyama, 2009).

Conclusion

Proper use of water absorbent polymers can play a major role towards the improved economy of any country (Achtenhagen&Kreuzig, 2011).

Research has proved that with the use of water absorbent polymers, irrigation costs drastically go down, plant mortality is greatly reduced and there are minimal risks of hydro gels getting absorbed by the plants (Abdulai, Owusu&Bakang, 2011).

Public awareness campaigns especially through the media should be carried out so as to make most people aware of the availability of water absorbent polymers. The use of other conventional methods of water conservation should not be ignored (Abd El-RehimHegazy&Abd El-Mohdy, 2004).

References

Abd El-Rehim, H. A., Hegazy, E. -. A., &Abd El-Mohdy, H. L. (2004). Radiation synthesis of hydrogels to enhance sandy soils water retention and increase plant performance. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 93(3), 1360-1371.

Abdulai, A., Owusu, V., &Bakang, J. E. A. (2011). Adoption of safer irrigation technologies and cropping patterns: Evidence from southern ghana. Ecological Economics, 70(7), 1415-1423.

Achtenhagen, J., &Kreuzig, R. (2011). Laboratory tests on the impact of superabsorbent polymers on transformation and sorption of xenobiotics in soil taking 14C-imazalil as an example. Science of the Total Environment, 409(24), 5454-5458. Web.

Andry, H., Yamamoto, T., Irie, T., Moritani, S., Inoue, M., & Fujiyama, H. (2009). Water retention, hydraulic conductivity of hydrophilic polymers in sandy soil as affected by temperature and water quality. Journal of Hydrology, 373(1–2), 177-183. Web.

Aqua Warehouse. (2009). Keeps and saves water for when you need it. Web.

Asghar, A., Samad, Y. A., & Hashaikeh, R. (2012). Cellulose/PEO blends with enhanced water absorption and retention functionality.Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 125(3), 2121-2127.

Asociados, D. (2012). LIuviasolida. Web.

Berber, M. R., Hafez, I. H., Minagawa, K., Tanaka, M., & Mori, T.An efficient strategy of managing irrigation water based on formulating highly absorbent polymer-inorganic clay composites. Journal of Hydrology, (0). Web.

Bidisha, M., Joerg, R., &Yakov, K. (2010).Effects of aggregation processes on distribution of aggregate size fractions and organic C content of a long-term fertilized soil. European Journal of Soil Biology, 46(6), 365-370. Web.

Blanke, A., Rozelle, S., Lohmar, B., Wang, J., & Huang, J. (2007).Water saving technology and saving water in china. Agricultural Water Management, 87(2), 139-150. Web.

Esteves, L. P. (2011). Superabsorbent polymers: On their interaction with water and pore fluid. Cement and Concrete Composites, 33(7), 717-724. Web.

Fang, Q., Ma, L., Yu, Q., Ahuja, L. R., Malone, R. W., &Hoogenboom, G. (2010). Irrigation strategies to improve the water use efficiency of wheat–maize double cropping systems in north china plain. Agricultural Water Management, 97(8), 1165-1174. Web.

Farooq. (2012). The man who invented solid rain. Web.

Gao, J., Wang, A., Li, Y., Fu, Y., Wu, J., Wang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2008). Synthesis and characterization of superabsorbent composite by using glow discharge electrolysis plasma. Reactive and Functional Polymers, 68(9), 1377-1383. Web.

Guiwei, Q., de Varennes, A., Martins, L. L., Mourato, M. P., Cardoso, A. I., Mota, A. M.,… Gonçalves, M. L. (2010). Improvement in soil and sorghum health following the application of polyacrylate polymers to a cd-contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 173(1–3), 570-575. Web.

Krul, L. P., Nareiko, E. I., Matusevich, Y. I., Yakimtsova, L. B., Matusevich, V., &Seeber, W. (2000). Water super absorbents based on copolymers of acrylamide with sodium acrylate. Polymer Bulletin, 45(2), 159-165.

Leiva, A. J., &Skees, J. R. (2008). Using irrigation insurance to improve water usage of the rio mayo irrigation system in northwestern mexico. World Development, 36(12), 2663-2678. Web.

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Liu Xiaochu, Ling Jingpeng, Yao Li, Wu Hualong, & Tao Jianhua. (2010). Engineering quality control of solar-powered intelligent water-saving irrigation. Informatics in Control, Automation and Robotics (CAR), 2010 2nd International Asia Conference on, 3 254-257.

National. (2012). Scientist creates solid rain to help states with drought. Web.

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Orzolek, M. D. (1993). Use of hydeophylic polymers in horticulture. Web.

Qu, G., & de Varennes, A. (2010).Use of hydrophilic polymers from diapers to aid the establishment of spergulariapurpurea in a mine soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 178(1–3), 956-962. Web.

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Ruiqiang Zhang, &TianmingGao. (2011). The research on how different irrigation amount affects the vegetation of degraded grassland. Water Resource and Environmental Protection (ISWREP), 2011 International Symposium on, 3 1658-1659.

Spangler, S. (2012). Water absorbing crystals. Web.

“Solid rain” captures water in a solid for irrigation. (2012). Web.

Tejero, I. G., Zuazo, V. H. D., Bocanegra, J. A. J., &Fernández, J. L. M. (2011). Improved water-use efficiency by deficit-irrigation programmes: Implications for saving water in citrus orchards.ScientiaHorticulturae, 128(3), 274-282. Web.

The Water CAMPWS. (2012). Super absorbent polymers. Web.

Vico, G., &Porporato, A. (2011). From rainfed agriculture to stress-avoidance irrigation: II. sustainability, crop yield, and profitability. Advances in Water Resources, 34(2), 272-281. Web.

Wilson, S. (2012). SOLIDWATER. Web.

Yandong Zhao, Junfu Zhang, Jinfeng Guan, &Weilun Yin. (2009). Study on precision water-saving irrigation automatic control system by plant physiology. Industrial Electronics and Applications, 2009.ICIEA 2009. 4th IEEE Conference on, 1296-1300.

Zhang, J., Yuan, K., Wang, Y., Gu, S., & Zhang, S. (2007). Preparation and properties of polyacrylate/bentonite superabsorbent hybrid via intercalated polymerization. Materials Letters, 61(2), 316-320. Web.

Zhang, Y. -., Tanaka, T., &Shibayama, M. (1992). Super-absorbency and phase transition of gels in physiological salt solutions. Nature, 360(6400), 142-144.

Zhong, K., Zheng, X., Mao, X., Lin, Z., & Jiang, G. (2012). Sugarcane bagasse derivative-based superabsorbent containing phosphate rock with water–fertilizer integration. Carbohydrate Polymers, 90(2), 820-826. Web.

Zhou Zhenmin. (2009). Influence of irrigation water-saving on groundwater table in the downstream irrigation districts of yellow river.Natural Computation. ICNC ’09. Fifth International Conference on, 3 421-424.

Introduction

Being the fifth largest country in the world both in terms of geographical size and population, Brazil epitomizes the ongoing global tension pitying biodiversity preservation against agricultural sustainability and economic development.

Available statistics demonstrate that Brazil is a critical emerging economic power with a GDP of US$604.0 billion and a GDP per capita of US$3,326.21 in 2004, and that the country’s environment is one of the richest in the world not only because its fauna and flora is found nowhere else on earth, but also due to the fact that its ecosystems contain in excess of 15 percent of the plant and animal species known to science (European Commission, 2007).

Holding up to 12 percent of the available freshwater worldwide, the country is undoubtedly one of leading producers of food and biofuels in Latin America and globally (Ferreira et al., 2012).

But while Brazil continues to play an increasingly important role in the global challenge to supply food to a growing and more affluent human population through agricultural expansion activities, hence driving rapid economic development, available literature demonstrates that such events have also had significant adverse impacts on biodiversity and the conservation of ecosystem services in the country (Ferreira et al., 2012).

This paper borrows from Ascher and Healy’s (1990) concept of vicious cycle to demonstrate how Brazil may be sucked into the vicious cycle, entailing economic production, the environment, income distribution and resources, if policies are not put in place to address adverse impacts caused by agricultural expansion.

Understanding the Vicious Cycle & the Brazilian Problem

In their influential reading, Ascher and Healy (1990) employ the vicious cycle metaphor, which essentially is a circular constellation of forces tending to act and react upon one another in such a manner as to keep a poor country in a state of poverty, to demonstrate the complex interrelationships among four critical facets of sociophysical production namely economic production, distribution of income, natural resources, and the environment.

In the four key attributes, economic production is described as the level, source, and composition of the goods and services generated by the economy at any point in time, while income distribution is perceived as including functional distribution, size distribution among recipients of diverse income levels, distribution of in-kind income such as government services or gratification from environmental quality, as well as regional income distribution.

Likewise, natural resources have been described as a broad assortment of substantial natural endowments such as land, water, timber and minerals, while environment refers to the natural systems that provide the background or surroundings for human activity (Ascher & Healy, 1990).

Unlike other less advanced and developing countries, Brazil is on the verge of achieving long-term economic development that is partially fuelled by effective exploitation of natural resources (Ferreira et al., 2012), which not only include “the dense tropical rainforests of the Amazon, but also the important biomes of the Savannah-like Cerrado, the arid scrublands of the Caatinga, the Atlantic Forest, the grasslands of the Pampa and the wetlands of the Pantanal” (European Commission, 2007 p. 11).

Reports released by The Economist (2010) and Food Agriculture Organization (2012), cited in Ferreira et al. (2007), show that the phenomenal expansion of Brazilian agriculture has been at the core of its most recent economic expansion, corresponding to 28% of the country total exports.

However, as demonstrated by these authors, “there are rising concerns about the threats that these changes represent to Brazil’s globally significant biological wealth, including widespread deforestation and clearance of native vegetation, and rapid increases in the use of fertilizers, pesticides and other agricultural chemical supplies” (p. 535-536).

This observation, in my viewpoint, has the capacity to ignite a complex vicious cycle which will ultimately cut across two or more attributes of sociophysical production

Exposing the Adverse Relationships

Ascher & Healy (1990) have taken considerable effort to demonstrate the interrelationships between the various facets, such as the vicious cycle between economic development and environment and vicious cycle between economic development and income distribution.

In the Brazilian context, for example, it is evident that attempts by government and other stakeholders to enhance the country’s economic development through agricultural expansion have continued to generate a multiplicity of environmental externalities, such as reduction of biological diversity, soil erosion in rural farming areas, watershed damage, depletion of natural resources, soil and habitat degradation due to continued use of harmful pesticides, rise of slum areas, as well as health-related conditions brought about by overcrowding and increasing lead emissions from automobiles (Carneiro & Danton 2011; Ferreira et al., 2012).

In the same vein, it emerges that the urge to achieve sustained economic development has catapulted policymakers into availing vast tracts of previously virgin land for cultivation aimed at increasing agricultural yield.

Although a sizeable proportion of farmers are employing modern practices to increase acreage and agricultural output, many are still using poisonous pesticides and farming practices that contribute substantially to soil erosion and degradation. Consequently, it can be suggested that a vicious cycle between economic development and environmental degradation has already set in.

But more importantly, environmental policymakers in Brazil should realize that another vicious cycle between economic development and income distribution will set in the near future as long as farmers in North-East regions of the country continue to use harmful farming practices to expand their agricultural production and benefit from international food markets.

When agriculture will no longer be sustainable due to ongoing poor farming practices, these farmers will lose their economic backbone, and hence, the income inequalities will increase.

Conversely, it can be argued that these farmers will not only lack the capacity to take care of their social and health needs but will also continue to haphazardly exploit available natural resources for economic gain, resulting in a vicious cycle that will have major adverse impacts on biodiversity and the conservation of ecosystem services in the country.

Way Forward

The way forward for environmental policymakers in Brazil, therefore, is to put in place strong institutional policies for managing resources and ensuring the long-term sustainability of the agricultural sector.

The government, in conjunction with relevant stakeholders, must act with immediacy to break the vicious cycle between economic development and environmental degradation by coming up with educational and awareness programs targeting farmers who use inferior farming methods to enhance their agricultural output.

Additionally, it is imperative for the government to develop clear management objectives and sufficient implementation capacity of the existing policies to ensure that the beneficial urge to achieve economic development through agricultural expansion does not shift into unwarranted destruction of the country’s strikingly rich biodiversity and ecosystem.

These interventions, in my view, will arrest the vicious cycle before it gains momentum towards a hazardous level.

References

Ascher. W., & Healy, R.G. (1990). Natural resource policymaking in developing countries: Environment, economic growth, and income distribution. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.

Carneiro, M.J., & Danton, T. (2011). Agriculture and biodiversity in the Brazilian social sciences: A possible state-of-the-art scenario. Innovation: The European Journal of Social Sciences, 24(3), 225-246.

European Commission. (2007). Country strategy paper 2007-2013. Web.

Ferreira, J., Pardini, R., Metzger, J.P., Fonseca, C.R., Pompeu, P.S., Sparovek, G., & Louzada, J. (2012). Towards environmentally sustainable agriculture in Brazil: Challenges and opportunities for applied ecological research. Journal of Applied Ecology, 49(3), 535-541.

Introduction

Climate change has a socio-political angle with great impact on economies. The impact of damages associated with such natural phenomena depends on vulnerabilities of social, political, or economic nature to individuals and entire communities. For instance, devastation associated with floods is usually high in populations with poor economic systems and poor political policies with regard to social amenities.

Populations that focus less on disaster preparedness and more on recovery stand a higher chance of experiencing distress socially and economically. This assertion holds, as the social, political, and economic fronts create vulnerabilities and reduce adaptability to climate change and subsequent environmental changes.

A look at the link between socio-economic and political activities to climate and environmental change gives a better picture and understanding of the concept. This paper looks at the city of Los Angeles and the practice of urban agriculture as a case study to enable the exploration of some of the components of climate change coupled with how political policies and social lifestyles affect vulnerability and adaptability to climate change.

General context

The city of Los Angeles is one of the most populated cities in the world. With a population of 9.8 million people as at the year 2010, the city is second in ranking in the United States after the New York City.¹

Urban agriculture is a form of agriculture that takes into account most essential components of agriculture including food production, animal husbandry, and aquaculture and it incorporates these components into the urban setting with modifications depending on the available space for agricultural activities and the climatic changes in a region.²

In most cases, urban agriculture takes place in intra urban settings such as spaces inside buildings and pieces of land within an urban setting whether communal, private, or state-owned.

Unlike conventional practices in rural settings with plenty of lands, urban areas require considerations such as the effects that such farming activities may have on the surrounding environment and urban policies on agriculture in the city dwelling. The following is a people’s facts in LA.

Source: United States Census Bureau³

Additionally, in most cities, the objectives behind urban agriculture vary from being social recreational for relaxation purposes to subsistence and commercial use. Most people in urban dwellings grow plants in containers and bags made of different porous materials that allow room for air circulation.

Balconies and rooftops are some of the main areas where people grow plants in buildings while those with little strips of land outside their residential dwellings, such as yards and flowerbeds, utilize them to grow plants of their choice.

Flowers and herbs are some of the commonly grown plants in Los Angeles mainly because they require little space and have high aesthetic value, while some people grow vegetables such as carrots and tomatoes for subsistence and economic benefits.

Hotels have also caught adopted the trend and some utilize small spaces to construct fishponds that provide additional sources of fish supply for the business as well as means for disposing of leftovers without harming the surrounding environment.

The policy and planning dynamics (‘playing field’)

A brief look at the city’s history reveals the population growth rate is high and corresponds with the city’s success in economic growth. The city became part of the United States in the year 1848 after the Mexican-American war whose conclusion resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildago, which allowed the American government to purchase the entire state of California from Mexico as part of the treaty’s terms.⁴

Although the population at the time was substantially high, the area’s wealth in resources sustained it well. However, in 1900, the population grew to a hundred and twenty thousand people, thus straining the city’s water supply and necessitating the remodeling of the water system.

In 1913, the completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct under William Mulholland’s supervision corrected the water problem, ensuring that the growing population had enough water for its continued growth.⁵

To cater for the growth in population, the city’s government, which comprises a city council under a mayor, has formulated policies that allow the building of structures with limited zoning restrictions over the years.

Although the city government’s need to build housing structures that cater for the growing population while making adequate use of the available surface area is understandable, the resultant effect is dwindling space for which to grow food for the people.

Agriculture, which is an essential sector with regard to food production, mostly gets very low priority in terms of policies in Los Angeles, thus leading to importation of food from other cities within the country.

One of the main advantages of urban agriculture is the provision of natural beauty to areas crowded with buildings at little financial costs. Rooftop gardens enhance a building’s beauty while providing admirable environments for recreational activities and relaxation.

The second and most important advantage of this discussion is that urban agriculture provides an avenue for food safety for people living in the metropolitan area. Although most agricultural activities in the city take the form of subsistence and leisure farming, urban agriculture creates great opportunities for food security.⁶

Vegetables such as tomatoes and herbs like rosemary that require little space to grow to make perfect contenders for the types of foods that residents in buildings can increase for sale and personal use instead of placing reliance on food imported from other cities and states.⁷ Such farming may appear insignificant in terms of quantity of food, but collective efforts make a difference statistically.

Lastly, urban agriculture acts as a recycling mechanism, thus keeping the city clean by reducing the amount of organic waste that the county council has to handle. Organic waste from food acts as a good source of fertilizer for growing food plants and food for fish, thus transforming such waste into a valuable resource.⁸

The only plausible disadvantage with the practice of urban agriculture in the city is that most residents lack knowledge of how to deal with issues such as pest control and use of chemicals.

Population demands in cities such as Los Angeles have led to the innovation of new agricultural practices like urban agriculture. The community’s socio-cultural practices also favor entertainment activities such as art, film, and theater as opposed to agriculture, thus limiting the potential of urban agriculture to improve the lives of Los Angeles residents.

Urban agriculture efforts involving the community reduce the city’s vulnerability to natural hazards such as droughts that are predominant in temperate areas such as Los Angeles.⁹ They also encourage adaptability to the rising population, which creates an inevitable change in the environment and possible climatic changes. Los Angeles lies in an area with numerous fault lines.

The development of the city in the region has made the area vulnerable to earthquakes, most of which are low in density. However, earthquakes sometimes result in floods due to shifts in inland positions.

Although most buildings in the metropolitan area comply with building regulations set by the Los Angeles Department of Building and Safety (LADBS) with regard to earthquake preparedness, having trees and other vegetation would help shield the buildings from some of the strain created by the impact of floodwater on the foundations of most buildings.

The city’s building codes such as the Green Building Code encourage a greener environment for the inhabitants of Los Angeles by promoting recycling and initiatives that improve the city’s beauty through planting trees and flowers in public areas and communal spaces.

The Los Angeles Agricultural Commissioner Department of Weights and Measures (ACWM) at Arcadia has also indicated its approval for community-based urban agriculture through research on the protection of the environment and generation of ideas that involve community participation such as the small farm food safety and cost-sharing program.

The department has also initiated the California Aeration Plan that aims at making the usually warm environment cooler through the introduction of urban agriculture. Los Angeles has a subtropical-Mediterranean climate that has sunshine during most days of the year with an average of thirty-five days of precipitation usually during winter.

Although most buildings implement measures to deal with the heat within the buildings through air conditioning, controlling the environment outside requires cost-effective and long-lasting solutions such as planting trees.

It is important for the authorities to review policies on urban agriculture and use of buildings to maximize the space available for the creation of food security in the region.

Although the city has little land available for agriculture, it is possible for the authorities to implement innovative ideas such as rooftop gardens and basement fishponds that create food security and possible economic value for individuals living in such buildings.

The concept increases the community’s adaptability to the environmental and climatic changes while reducing vulnerability through mitigation of effects natural hazards cause.¹⁰

Analysis of the link between policy framework (including the playing field) on the adaptation practices

One of the biggest challenges that urban agriculture faces in Los Angeles lies in the city’s governance with regard to policymaking. Although the city’s country government encourages the creation of a greener environment, its policies restrict the actualization of the theoretical benefits such agriculture would have on the population.

Most policies favor the aesthetic value of architecture and ignore those that come from urban agriculture. For instance, building codes by the LA Department of Building and Safety discourage animal husbandry and planting certain crops by considering them as a hindrance to the achievement of architectural excellence and possible nuisance.

The regulations also raise concerns regarding the food production process and the use of chemical pesticides by considering them hazardous to the environment and the people. Unlike in rural regions where soil and rain occur more abundantly, urban agriculture utilizes the use of containers made from porous material such as wooden boxes to hold grounds necessary for planting.¹¹

The porous nature of such containers makes it possible for air to circulate within the container, but it creates the possibility of chemical pesticides and fertilizers penetrating the container and creating a possible health hazard for people living inside the building.

Additionally, the county government places more focus on other economic ventures such as the development of the film industry and encouragement of international trade to the detriment of urban agriculture. The government argues that international business and the entertainment industry generate more than enough income to satisfy the nutritional needs of residents through the importation of food from other states.

According to the authorities, the argument provides enough reasons for it to focus on business ventures as opposed to creating policies that encourage small-scale urban agriculture. The downside to this argument is that it overlooks the possible benefits that communal urban agriculture presents including a reduction in transportation costs for food importation and food security for the area’s residents.

Lack of proper support and encouragement from the city’s council also limits the amount of knowledge that city residents have on the benefits of urban agriculture.¹² For instance, by encouraging people to grow their food, the government would reduce the vulnerability level of the community to climate hazards such as droughts. It would also reduce the impact that natural disasters such as floods would have on the residents.

In essence, factors such as economic stability help mitigate the damage by natural disasters due to climatic changes. When an individual can save money on food by growing his or her food, he or she has more financial resources to mitigate the damage that natural hazards cause.

Conclusion

Although the city of Los Angeles is mainly an urban metropolitan setting with little land for agriculture, urban agriculture creates the possibility of agricultural success and food stability for the resident community through innovative ideas that maximize the use of spaces such s rooftops, balconies, and basements.

The concerned authorities should change some of the city’s policies and encourage agriculture in the same way they push for international trade and entertainment to reduce the city’s vulnerability to climate change hazards and increase adaptability to climatic and environmental changes. The outstanding lesson from this case is that authorities can start encouraging agricultural activities within cities to promote food security.

Reference List

Bernstein, S 2011, Aquaponic Gardening: A step-by-step Guide to Raising Vegetables and Fish Together, New Society Publishers, Canada.

Carpenter, N 2010, Farm City: The Education of an Urban Farmer, Penguin Books, London.

Carpenter, N 2011, The Essential Urban Farmer, Penguin Books, London.

Castillo, G 1990, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: a legacy of conflict, University of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma.

Cockrall-King, J 2012, Food and the City: Urban Agriculture and the New Food Revolution, Promethius Books, New York.

Despommier, D 2010, The Vertical Farmer: Feeding the World in the 21^st Century, Thomas Dunne Books, Washington, D.C.

Mulholland, C 2000, William Mulholland and the Rise of Los Angeles, University of California Press, Berkeley.

Nelson, D, Adger, N & Brown, K 2007, ‘Adaptation to Environmental Change: Contributions of a Resilience Framework’, Annual Review of Environment and Recourses, vol. 32 no.1, pp.395-419.

Prowse, M 2003, Toward a Clearer Understanding of Vulnerability in Relation to Chronic Poverty. Web.

Rich, S 2012, Urban Farms, Abramson Books, New York.

U.S Census Bureau 2010, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010, Bernan Press, Lanham.

U.S Census Bureau 2012, State & County Quickfacts: Los Angeles County, California. Web.

Footnotes

¹ U.S Census Bureau 2010, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010, Bernan Press, Lanham, p. 48.

² S Bernstein, 2011, Aquaponic Gardening: A step-by-step Guide to Raising Vegetables and Fish Together, New Society Publishers, Canada, p. 82.

³ United States Census Bureau 2012, State & County Quickfacts: Los Angeles County, California.

⁴ G Castillo 1990, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: a legacy of conflict, University of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma, p. 79.

⁵ C Mulholland 2000, William Mulholland and the Rise of Los Angeles, University of California Press, Berkeley, p. 54.

⁶ N Carpenter 2011, The Essential Urban Farmer, Penguin Books, London, 91.

⁷ J Cockrall-King 2012, Food and the City: Urban Agriculture and the New Food Revolution, Promethius Books, New York, p. 68.

⁸ S Rich 2012, Urban Farms, Abramson Books, New York, p. 96.

⁹ M Prowse 2003, Toward a Clearer Understanding of Vulnerability in Relation to Chronic Poverty.

¹⁰ D Nelson, N Adger & K Brown 2007, ‘Adaptation to Environmental Change: Contributions of a Resilience Framework’, Annual Review of Environment and Recourses, vol. 32 no.1, p. 399.

¹¹ D Despommier 2010, The Vertical Farmer: Feeding the World in the 21^st Century, Thomas Dunne Books, Washington, D.C, p. 75.

¹² N Carpenter 2010, Farm City: The Education of an Urban Farmer, Penguin Books, London, p. 103.

i The U.S Census Bureau offers detailed data on the US population and other demographic factors and thus it was of great help in researching this paper. Even though urban agriculture does not form the backbone of LA’s economy, people should adopt urban agriculture to cut down the current overreliance on imported food products from other states which will also reduce the danger of food shortages should market forces and climate changes compel other states to withhold their produce.