Earths climate is now changing faster than at any point in the history of modern civilization, primarily due to human activities. The impacts of global climate change are already being felt in the United States. They are projected to intensify in the future, but the severity of future impacts will depend largely on actions taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the changes ( Fourth national climate assessment , 2018). This paper will examine four aspects of climate change: variation in the rainfall pattern, water levels, drought, temperature and heatwaves. It will help understand the implications of climate change and shed light on the efforts required, such as developing climate change policies and reducing emissions.
Effects of Global Warming
In the 1850s, researchers demonstrated that carbon dioxide and other naturally occurring greenhouse gases in the atmosphere prevent some of the heat radiating from Earths surface from escaping to space: this is known as the greenhouse effect. This natural greenhouse effect warms the planets surface about 60°F above what it would be otherwise, creating a habitat suitable for life ( Fourth national climate assessment , 2018). However, human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation have interfered with the greenhouse effect.
These and many other changes are clear signs of a warming world. Increase in global temperatures and heavy precipitations, shrinkage of glaciers and snow cover, and retreating of sea ice. Seas are warming, rising, and becoming more acidic, and marine species move to new locations toward cooler waters. Flooding and wildfires are on the rise and growing seasons have lengthened.
Temperatures and Heatwaves
Temperature increase and heatwaves caused by an increase in the greenhouse gas concentration is reshaping the environment around us. The rise in temperatures is posing a number of threats to human health and quality of life ( Fourth national climate assessment , 2018). High temperatures in the summer are linked directly to an increased risk of illness and death, particularly among older adults, pregnant women, and children.
Extreme temperatures also affect agriculture because it causes stress in plants and animals, leading to decreased output. Animals do not feed properly, and therefore, their immune system is weakened. The animals, therefore become vulnerable to various diseases, which influence their production in terms of milk, meat, hides, and capital when the animals are sold. The high temperatures also interferes with the plants flowering process because the flowers wither before maturity, thus no yields are achieved.
Variation in the Rainfall Patterns
Variation in rainfall patterns leads to a shift in the planting seasons. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] ( Refinement to the 2016 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories , 2019), as temperatures increase, the air becomes warmer, leading to water evaporation from land, seas, oceans, and lakes, hence the heavy rain downpours and snows. In August 2016, a historic flood resulting from 20 to 30 inches of rainfall over several days devastated a large area of southern Louisiana, causing over $10 billion in damages and 13 deaths.
Besides, climate change causes shifts in ocean and air currents, modifying the weather patterns. The air currents push clouds from one region to another. As a result, there is a change in the precipitation patterns, with some regions receiving more rain that destroys crops while other regions experience insufficient rain.
Rise in Water Level
Climate change also affects the water levels in the oceans and seas. During high temperatures, the water absorbs heat, expands, and occupies more space, leading to a rise in the ocean basins water level (IPCC, 2018). Besides, ice on mountain tops begins to melt, and the water is washed into rivers which drain into oceans, causing a rise. In time, water spills into the adjacent lands, making them unsuitable for agricultural activities. Moreover, the high water bodies increase the frequency of flooding, hence the lands prone to destructive storms. The fish habitat is also disturbed by the rise in the water bodies and they migrate towards cooler waters. Oceans are also currently absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere annually by human activities, increasing their acidity (IPCC, 2018). ( Refinement to the 2016 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories , 2019).
Drought
There are a number of ways climate change may contribute to drought. Warmer temperatures can enhance evaporation from soil, making periods with low precipitation drier they would be in cooler conditions. Droughts can persist through a positive feedback, where very dry soils and diminished plant cover can further suppress rainfall in an already dry area ( Drought and climate change , 2020) Drought has negative effects on the economy, environment and society of a country. Plants and animals depend on water, just as people do. Drought can shrink their food supplies and damage their habitats. Drought conditions can also provide a substantial increase in wildfire risk. Scientists are confident that relatively wet places, such as the tropics, and higher latitudes will get wetter, while relatively dry places in the subtropics (where most of the worlds deserts are located) will become drier.
How to Curb Climate Change
There is a need to curb climate change to reduce its effects on agriculture. First, there should be policies with proposed guidelines on reducing emissions responsible for global warming ( Climate action and support trends , 2019). This will provide a framework on how industries need to operate and those which fail to follow the set strategies to be heavily fined.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments provide governments, at all levels, with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies. IPCC assessments are a key input into the international negotiations to tackle climate change. IPCC reports are drafted and reviewed in several stages, thus guaranteeing objectivity and transparency ( Refinement to the 2016 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories , 2019). The IPCC identifies where there is agreement in the scientific community, where there are differences and where further research is needed.
Climate change is projected to significantly affect human health, the economy, and the environment worldwide, especially with the high greenhouse gas emissions. People should therefore, adopt suitable technologies which help in reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). Such expertise includes driving fuel-efficient or electric cars, using renewable energy sources, reducing water waste, and investing in energy-efficient appliances ( Climate action and support trends , 2019). Livestock emissions should also be decreased by using feeds with higher digestibility and increased efficiency in manure management. Thus, once global warming is addressed, all other climate change consequences, such as rise in water levels, change in rainfall patterns, and high tide flooding, will be controlled. In conclusion, acting sooner rather than later will result in lower costs overall for both adaptation and mitigation efforts and will offer other benefits in the near term.
National Security is closely connected to the economic processes within the country. Integration in the global economic dynamics stabilizes a countrys financial balance and affects the general success of international trade. Therefore, economic development contributes to the maintenance of National Security through establishing international relations and commercial success. A significant part of the National Security field is agriculture, food, and water security since it directly impacts the well-being of the citizens and the efficiency of economic relationships with other countries. Various strategies prove to be effective in relation to the security of each food, water, and agriculture segment. All of them require conscious attention to these fields and critical evaluation of the possible inputs and outcomes.
Aim
This paper aims to evaluate the strategies applicable to the development and further maintenance of agriculture, water, and food security in Tanzania. The evaluation is directed towards the effectiveness of certain strategies. It focuses on the specific inputs to the National Security and its gradual impact on the systems of agriculture, food, and water security. The effectiveness of the strategies will be measured through potential outcomes that follow them and through the extent to which it progressively affects the level of National Security in relation to the global economic order.
Therefore, the main tools that will be applied within the assessment process are the conceptual theories related to National Security through the area of economic development. Furthermore, the theories will be addressed in the context of their relevance to the maintenance of the National Security level. Narrowly focused concepts connected to the fields of agriculture, water, and food security will be assessed based on their relation to the level of National Security and Tanzanias economic success.
Conceptual Clarification
Key concepts connected to the performance and maintenance of National Security are agriculture, water, and food security areas. All of these components have a significant impact on the international and local trading success and economic performance of Tanzania. These fields provide the goods and affect the further performance of the working class and the quality of labor applied to agriculture.1 A more distinguished focus on these fields would most likely lead to more solid outcomes within the stabilization and maintenance of National Security.
Security within the context of agriculture addresses the stability of the natural harvest that the country receives annually. Moreover, in case of a misbalance or any obstacles related to the annual harvesting, agriculture security centers on the ways to improve the overall gain from natural resources with the help of technologies.2 The strategys main concern is to prevent any possible difficulties that may occur within the seeding, cultivating and harvesting processes.
Food security focuses on the quality of the food produced by the country and its accessibility within various regions and different backgrounds. Additionally, it maintains commercial relationships with other countries by dealing with the import and export of goods, which affects the trading balance.3 The main objective behind the strategies related to food security is the development of quality assessment, improvement of production conditions, and efficient maintenance of food distribution and costs in order to track its basic accessibility.
Finally, water security regulates the amount of clean water accessible to the citizens and focuses on both quotidian and industrial use of water. The improvement strategies within this field center on developing the accessibility options and maintaining the stability of water access. Moreover, water security is related to the concept of green environmentalism, as it partially focuses on the sustainability of regular water use and considers the cost of excessive accessibility to the environment.
Conceptual Framework
Although the concepts mentioned before focus on different areas related to National Security, together, they are united within the large-scale process of application of agricultural theory. The theory of agricultural balance emphasizes that the inputting elements, such as water and labor, are equal in their importance to food and further social and commercial profit from it.4 Thus, water and food security are closely related to agricultural security as a whole, as water and food are the main components within the formula of agricultural success.
Discussion
In order to assess the relevance of National Security strategies, it is necessary to consider the internal links among the key concepts. Hence, it is necessary to consider that all the inputs and outputs within agriculture, food, and water security strategies majorly rely on each other and particularly stimulate certain results and each others growth. Therefore, the success of National Security as a whole depends on the efficiency of collaboration among precise fields of security rather than their individual performance specifically.
Currently, Tanzania is engaged more significantly in global economic activities. Thus, for the country, it is necessary to focus on the development of security of specific areas of agriculture that contribute to the trading success and international relations.5 Agricultural success sponsors the accessibility of food to the working class, which affects the productivity and general efficiency of the labor used in agriculture and beyond. Similarly, successful water security strategies affect the basic living conditions of the working class. Hence, the combination of effective strategies in both fields leads to better living conditions for Tanzanias citizens, which improves the possible contribution and performance within the international trade relations.
Analysis and Strategic Solutions
Measuring the significance of each specific field of agricultural security in relation to National Security, water security possibly has the greatest importance among all the concepts. It is justified by its direct impact on the progression of agricultural processes, such as cultivation and harvesting. Water relates to different areas of security beyond just the agricultural one and affects the productivity of technologies used in agriculture and the health level of people who participate in labor. Hence, it is applicable to primarily determine water security strategies and evaluate further agriculture and food strategies based on this initial step.
The main concern present within the water security assessment is determining the ways to improve the average quality and accessibility of water within the country. In dealing with the quality issues, it is relevant to combine the natural resources possibilities and a technological approach. Moreover, it is necessary to consider the long-term consequences of the implication of technologies within water purification and distribution processes, as excessive industrial takes might lead to sustainability issues.
Once the distribution of purified water is regulated, the agricultural cycle of cultivation gains a stable base of natural support. At this stage, in order to maintain the stable security levels for agriculture, it is necessary to apply relevant technologies and encourage labor work. Despite possible natural obstacles, agriculture security strategies have to suggest ways to maintain a stable harvest that is crucial for stable international trade.6 Furthermore, as harvesting contributes to food accessibility within the country, human labor receives natural resources support. Additionally, agricultural outcomes majorly contribute to the maintenance of international trade.
Conclusion
Although the concepts of agriculture, food, and water security are closely related, it is important to pay enough attention to the development of various strategies within each of the fields. The main thing to consider in the process of evaluation of the strategies of security maintenance and development is the impact of one security system on another. As water represents the core element relevant to the general possibility of agricultural success, it is necessary to begin the strategies evaluation with this field and to gradually apply the relevant solutions to the next affected areas. Attention to details and processes within these areas leads to higher rates of efficient interactions among them, which majorly contributes to the level of National Security. Agricultural success leads to higher rates of global economic engagement of a country, as it gains wider opportunities to offer export positions and maintain the trading processes.
Recommendations
As the National Security level is getting more relevant within the global economic order, it is necessary for the country to consider the commercial and trading outcomes and opportunities while dealing with security improvement. The efficiency of security strategies determines how stable the country is seen within the international perspective, and positive dynamics affect its relevance in the global market. Thus, the security strategies have to directly address the ways to contribute to the countrys economic success and international relations through the efficient interconnection of security processes. This way, the maintenance of higher security rates will contribute to the rapid economic development of a country.
Bibliography
Hillman, Jimmye S. International trade and agriculture: Theory and policy. Routledge, 2019.
The most regulated industry in the United States has always been agriculture. During the twentieth century, the state regulation of agriculture and agribusiness in the United States was distinguished by two characteristic features (Cheng et al., 2021). First of all, the state by its intervention does not suppress the activity of farmers and agro-industrial firms, but creates equally competitive opportunities for all agribusiness enterprises. Secondly, the consequences of real-life governmental price control are the evolutionary nature of transformations in this sphere.
Prices are supported in industries that are highly susceptible to the destabilizing influence of the world market and occupy an important place in the structure of farm incomes. These include the production of wheat, rice, feed grains: corn, sorghum, oats and barley (Cheng et al., 2021). In addition, the state regulates the ceiling and floor price of cotton, soybeans, tobacco and peanuts (Cheng et al., 2021). Peculiar forms and methods of regulation have developed in the production of milk, fruits, vegetables, beef and poultry (Cheng et al., 2021). The main method of maintaining farm income in the United States is the system of compensation payments.
Grain and cotton producers receive special payments from the government to cover the difference between target and market prices (Cheng et al., 2021). The sizes of target prices are set by the Congress by calculation. In relation to corn, sorghum and barley, direct payment for the reduction of acreage is also practiced. In addition, farmers who withdraw from circulation to the deposit receive an additional payment to the market price (Cheng et al., 2021). The result of the process is a guarantee of a minimum level of income for farmers. The Congress also determines a fair level of control prices for milk, butter and cheese (Cheng et al., 2021). Subsequently, this allows the state to allow mass buying of products if market prices fall below this level. It uses them for free breakfasts for schoolchildren, assistance to the poor, food aid to underdeveloped countries, and also sells them to other states.
Reference
Cheng, K. W., Feng, C., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Land price control and employee wages: A bunching analysis of factor cost transfer. growth and change, 52(4), 2477-2508.
The contemporary world is increasing from time to time. This increase considers the growth of the population and, in return, the same growth of needs that should be satisfied. The life of a human being is hard to imagine without the extent of food, meals, and crops, as the main sources of nutrition and as a guarantee for further living. In present days the importance of genetic engineering grew due to the innovations in biotechnologies and Sciences. Scientific and technological progress provoked the decisions of many problems with the purpose to make the lives of people better and more convenient. Along with this, hazardous effects appeared as well. This menace is contemplated with nature and a man in their reciprocal connection as of the inevitable influence of nature on a man and a natural man. Nature is concerned as a background for crops, and a man as a consumer of these crops. This paper urges to work out a bilateral nature of genetic engineering in agriculture with points on its advantages and limitations.
Loomis & Connor (1992) provide a brief statistical of the population growth in the world from times of colonial expansion provided by the European countries in 1650 until the year 1990. Thus the population within these frames grew from 500 million to 5,200 billion. Todays statistical data prove that the population on earth increased to the index mark of more than 6 billion people. Such a demographic explosion terrifies scholars due to the character of geometric progression. Thus, the need for food supply is increased rapidly, and poor countries, namely those peoples from Central Africa are at risk of starvation and extinction on the whole. Thus, the need for additional crops supply and food made of it should be taken into account by the world community. Due to the investigations in the sphere of high technologies and biotechnological approach, scientists provide today many programs for resolving this vital, in the proper sense of the word, issue.
The role of nanotechnologies becomes higher and higher for using this approach in the food industry. As Jim Dingman (2008) points out, the use of nanotechnologies in food in the year 2015 in the US will be impacted by $1 trillion annually . This statement should bear in mind that genetically modified or influenced meals are present in stores and supermarkets, and human beings should be aware that this issue is incorporated into the sphere of the food industry. Ernie Hood (2004) gives a distinctively correct definition of nanotechnology, as the creation, manipulation, and application of materials at the nanoscale (Hood, 2004, pp. 740). Looking at the problem from the other side, one can get to the point of paradox that appeared in the contemporary world. It is considered with the fact, that people are trying now to solve the huge significant problems connected with food supply using tiny devices or technologies. Moreover, this scenario for the implementation of the genetic approach in the food industry presupposes the main advantages for human beings.
It is understood that along with the fast tempos of peoples growth on earth the necessity for food reserves becomes vital. That is why nanotechnologies provide a very strong flow of innovations toward the protection of crops from, for example, insects and other negative impacts. Thus the hybrids promote protection for crops being on the edge of extinction so that to stimulate their growth and endurance against herbicides and pesticides as well (Holthaus, 2006). In this case, Ariel D. Arencibia describes all possible and current advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering for crops and nature, in particular. Thus, the author is intended to state that the accurate quantification of the genetic diversity of major crops is therefore important, both scientifically and socio-economically (Arencibia, 2000, p. 30). Mankind cannot go without the genetic approach when facing a demographic boom on the planet and probable migrations of people. It is emphasized also with natural cataclysms appearing in different places of the world, which provide floods or dryness due to greenhouse gases.
The idea of crops protection with the implementation of molecular controls to make crops resistant to new classes of herbicides is maintained in the invention which was underlined by Daniel D. Chiras (2005) in Human Biology. Thus, genetic engineering is helpful for crops because of making them resistant to drought, frost, pests, disease, and herbicides (Environmental Issues, 2009). This advantage goes without saying in terms of better conditions for crops planting. Clifton E. Anderson (2003) in the same response evaluates the benefits of genetic engineering for farmers. Miller & Spoolman (2008) outline that notwithstanding the pest-resistant capacity of genetic engineering; this technology also is effective to resist genetically altered crops that produce natural pesticides (Miller & Spoolman, 2008, p. 148). Also if the danger of crops decrease appears, nanotechnologies and genetic engineering will be helpful to clone different specimens of plants. This idea is outlined in the investigation work by Lawrence Alderson (2000). Thus, this researcher points out that the conservation of genetic research provided an extinction of more than 30 breeds of livestock on the British Isles during the twentieth century because of a lack of proper genetic stimulation for these animals. Moreover, genetic engineering can make it possible for people to breed cows with milk and meat of high quality, ships with more wool, pigs with less fat, and more meat (Environmental Issues, 2009). Genetically modified bacteria can make the problem of environmental pollution solved due to the ability of such microbes to absorb and break down the oil and heavy metals in water, air, and land (Environmental Issues, 2009). It will surely make the planet cleaner and safer. Many of such organisms were implemented into the wild already.
Michael Kent (2000) in his book Advanced Biology promotes other advantages of genetic engineering which touch upon the DNA structure of organisms so that to take genetic probes for their further use in artificial DNA synthesis. The author describes the current as well as potential use of this technology for prevention from genetic diseases utilizing location, isolation, modification, and transferring of donor genes toward host cells (Kent, 2000, pp. 406). Though, as it is seen, the practical use of genetic engineering along with nanotechnologies goes beyond ordinary understanding of all benefits which these technologies present for people in terms of their health improvement. Furthermore, genetic engineering gave many scientists possibilities to look into the mystery of a human gene and provide further researches in the field of human cloning.
Along with straightforward advantages, which can be assumed in terms of bioengineering, people are confronted with limitations and even dangers of suchlike a trend in science. Many people consider genetic engineering non-ethnic because they do not want to value domestic animals as a sort of machine. Moreover, crops may lose genuine genes due to o suchlike manipulations and may extinct, as a result. About livestock, disadvantages touch upon a reduction in genetic diversity; potential and unforeseen health problems from genetically altered products (Environmental Issues, 2009). Pest and herbicide resistance of crops can probably kill insects and organisms which represent food for different types of animals. In return, it will cause a misbalance in the ecosystems (Environmental Issues, 2009). Such universal plants may also mutate due to genetic modifications and present danger for human beings. Releasing genetically engineered organisms into the wild is an issue of great concern for today.
The extent of natural fruits and vegetables along with gramineous plants lose their qualities due to the implementation of genetically modified organisms (GMO) in products. This point constitutes the fact that a dangerous approach of genetic engineering in its biodiversity presents a hazard for human beings health (Sparks, 2005). Sally Deneen (2003) provides in her article the fact that the risk of GMOs is considered with several possible implications for health. As this field of biotechnology is not well studied, thus, there is no positive feedback according to the effects after use of suchlike food. Moreover, many companies earn large sums of money due to, for example, the modification of soy. Such widespread within the society consideration about the danger coming from the genetically transformed organisms find controversy in the book by Pool and Esnayra (2001), where the authors state the results of the National Research Council, which proved that there is no strict dichotomy between the health and environmental risks that can be posed by transgenic and conventional pest-protected plants (Pool & Esnayra, 2001, pp. 2-3).
Miller & Spoolman (2008) also provide a scope of last data about the researches of GM food and probable risks, and along with the National Research Council (Pool & Esnayra 2001) which claimed that no harms are coming from GM food after more than seven years still, there is no assurance that such food is safe for health. Many scholars tend to think in this prospect that it will be seen after years, others insist that GM food is mutating little by little. Nevertheless, the mechanism of producing genetically engineered food is widely used at the moment. Thus, Miller & Spoolman (2008) admit in their work:
Critics recognize the potential benefits of genetically modified crops. But they warn that we know too little about the long-term potential harm to human health and ecosystems from the widespread use of such crops. They point out that genetic engineering mixes genes from widely differing species, which has never occurred in nature or even in selective breeding (Miller & Spoolman, 2008, p. 145).
Such worries are not surprising. The thing is that nature is a highly balanced system, and the mechanisms in it are ordered to work as they were programmed primordially. One can logically suppose that those things which do not fit in nature can be rejected in it, or can cause several problems in the normal functioning of the biosphere. In the case of people, such disorder can al[so cause dysfunctions and the effects can be reflected on further generations of people. There is no assurance that such changes in the biological structure of organisms will improve the well-being of living organisms. Moreover, almost every scholar in this field expresses doubts about the future implementation of biotechnologies. Here the factor of a more rational approach toward the issue is significant, because any declension in the way of current researches on GM food may provoke negative results in practice.
Thus, the issue of genetic engineering still has many points which are poorly studied at the moment. The perspectives of this innovative technology strive beyond any possible dangers with lack of crops, livestock, and products so that to satisfy the needs of human beings. Among the advantages are protection, cultivation, cloning, etc. The issue of disadvantages props up against the worries of people according to possible harms to the environment. It is so due to probable total modification of nature which may reflect suchlike modification of human beings on the genetic molecular level.
Reference List
Alderson, L 2000, Genetic Diversity Blueprint, Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 59, Washington.
All the News That Fits 2006, The Washington Times, pp. A19, Washington.
Anderson, CE 2000, Genetic Engineering: Dangers and Opportunities, The Futurist, Vol. 34, pp. 20, Washington.
Arencibia, AD 2000, Plant genetic engineering: towards the third millenium : proceedings of the International Symposium on Plant Genetic Engineering, 1999, Havana, Cuba, Volume 5 of Developments in plant genetics and breeding, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Chiras, DD 2005, Human biology, Ed. 5, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury.
Deneen, S 2003, Food Fight: Genetic Engineering vs. Organics The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, E, Vol. 14, pp. 26.
Dingman, J 2008, Nanotechnology: Its Impact on Food Safety, Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 70, No. 6, pp. 47, Atlanta Environmental Issues.
Holthaus, GH 2006, From the farm to the table: what all Americans need to know about agriculture, Culture of the land, Culture of the land: a series in the new agrarianism, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington.
Hood, E. (2004). Nanotechnology: Looking as We Leap, Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 112, No. 13, pp. 740, Washington.
Kent, M 2000, Advanced biology, Advanced Science Series, Oxford University Press US, New York.
Loomis, RS & Connor, DJ 1992, Crop ecology: productivity and management in agricultural systems, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Messer, N 2006, SCM studyguide to Christian ethics, SCM-Canterbury Press Ltd, London.
Miller, GT & Spoolman, S 2008, Sustaining the Earth Cengage advantage books, Ed. 9, Cengage Learning, Stamford.
Pool, R & Esnayra, J 2001, Ecological monitoring of genetically modified crops: a workshop summary, National Academies Press, Washington.
Sparks, DL 2005, Advances in Agronomy, Volume 88, Advances in Agronomy, Serial Publication Series, Gulf Professional Publishing, London.
It is common to believe that agriculture is a major sector for developing countries, especially rural territories because it does not require vast investment in the innovations and the implementation of the newest technologies. Nevertheless, regardless of a traditionally acceptable economic myth, there is a severe debate around this statement because the role of agriculture in countries economic development is perceived as marginal. That is why, in The Role of Agriculture in African Development, Diao et al. pay special attention to the heterogeneity of discussions, therefore attempting to determine the role of agriculture in overcoming the challenge of poverty in rural areas of Africa compared to alternative theories of economic growth (1375). The motivation for choosing this article for writing the commentary is that the authors focus on an unconventional approach to perceiving agriculture. In this way, the drive is to find out which argument is more realistic in the modern world the growing role of agriculture or alternative growth theories.
The chosen articles central theme is the ambiguous influence of agriculture on the development of African countries. The primary focus is made on rural development and the reduction of poverty, which are the most critical challenges in the mentioned region. This themes choice is explained by the fact that most people in the Sub-Saharan areas dwell in rural territories, commonly characterized by severe poverty. More than that, for the same reason, agriculture is the only type of economic activity available to them, as there are no adequate funds and opportunities for getting involved in the business. In this way, availability of options for agriculture and appropriate land resources and climate, contribute to the overall acceptability of the claim that it is agriculture that should become the major sector for fostering economic development in this region.
The rationality of the growth method mentioned above is most commonly explained by the effectiveness of agriculture-based economic upturn in most countries. Nevertheless, Diao et al. claim that Asia-specific models and the success of the Green Revolution in Asia do not apply to African conditions due to substantial differences in climate and land resources as well as the level of needed skills and equipment necessary for the development of the agricultural sector (1375). In this way, the authors central argument is the belief in the inconsistency of conventional economic freedom the leading role of agriculture in robust economic growth.
To support the argument, the authors of the article review opinions of both skeptics of the criticality of agriculture and its proponents. More than that, they analyze a series of case studies based on African economic development and its major conditions. Finally, the economic model is developed to find out whether the generally accepted economic wisdom is applicable to the Sub-Saharan region in Africa, which is characterized by the heterogeneity of economic conditions and gigantic gaps in the level of agriculture development.
To begin with, the role of agriculture in the economic development of states is perceived as passive. It is conventional economic wisdom based on the incremental contribution of the agricultural sector to supporting industrialization by necessary food and labor (avoidance of unemployment). This idea is generally recognized. Nevertheless, it is as well the subject of severe criticism because most skeptics see agriculture as a tool for rural development. At the same time, they accept that agriculture can become the driver of economic progress only under the constant modernization of this sector. It means that in the case of viewing agriculture within the context of industrialized states, the belief in the leading role of traditional agriculture is not related to real economic evidence and conditions. More than that, there are specific requirements for turning this sector into one of the economic drivers. For instance, the domination of large farms is unlikely to benefit the development of a particular country. It means that the operation of small farms, instead of several big ones, helps the economic development of states (Diao et al. 1375).
Based on the above-mentioned conventional wisdom, it is evident that it should apply to Sub-Saharan Africa due to numerous small farms and their operation in rural areas. Nevertheless, there are both supporters and critics of this belief. In this way, proponents claim that agriculture is the only sector to develop strong bonds between the state and citizens, thus reducing poverty in the rural areas and contributing to their economic growth. Moreover, they suggest that in the case of agriculture-led growth, the chances of increasing investment in this sectors development, especially technologies and innovations, will be directly connected to the economic upturn due to the allocation of additional funds. It means that reducing poverty might be related to increased employment within the sector and the potential increase of effective ties between farms and the state (Diao et al. 1376).
On the other hand, critics claim that agriculture cannot become the key economic driver because of the inadequate agricultural development level in Sub-Saharan Africa. More than that, companies and firms operating in this sector are known for low economic performance and poor productivity, which supports the fact that agriculture cannot become the foundation of economic growth. Also, the problem is aggravated by ineffective government programs and policies in this sector. In this way, the challenge is characterized not only by the lack of investment in agricultural development but also failing to address negative agro-ecological conditions, such as soil deterioration. Finally, critics point to the fact that food prices are determined externally instead of focusing on the domestic supply. It means that there is no motivation for the domestic farmers to develop the sector under consideration and allocate funds in the national agriculture because it is easier and more economically beneficial to get involved in import or other forms of economic activities (mining or manufacturing) (Diao et al. 1376).
To answer the central research question, Diao et al. consider case studies, which focus on six African countries (1377). They are chosen based on the share of agriculture in the gross domestic product, climate conditions, and people living in rural areas. That said, both land-locked and coastal countries are taken into consideration because of the different climate conditions, which directly influence the development of agriculture. Moreover, the authors point to the fact that most of the population in the selected countries live in rural areas, and the share of agriculture in GDP is substantial. Finally, the range of agricultural products varies greatly from fruit and vegetable to livestock and cotton.
Based on the case studies, the authors conclude that agriculture can be used to foster the economic development of Sub-Saharan countries. Nevertheless, there is a series of requirements to meet to guarantee stable economic growth. For instance, it is critical to focus on creating adequate bonds between agricultural and non-agricultural activities. In this way, the distribution of GDP shares between different sectors is the only way to support economic upturn. It means that efficient pro-poorness bonds between the state and different sectors of the economies are imperative because one of the sectors productive operation cannot help to overcome issues in the rest of the divisions of economic activities (Diao et al. 1378). The reallocation of funds can explain it from agriculture to other economic sectors and labor division in the economy.
That said, agriculture-led development is beneficial for overcoming the challenge of poverty in rural areas, even if it does not help to achieve overall higher economic development rates. Several factors can explain it. The first and the most evident one is the decrease in unemployment rates connected to the generation of working opportunities. Moreover, there is an indirect link between agriculture-led growth and poverty reduction, which comes down to the drop in domestic food prices. In this case, people spend less on domestically grown products. For the same reason, it is helpful for the reduction of poverty in urban areas. At the same time, the decrease in food prices leads to lowered dependence upon imported goods (Diao et al. 1379).
Still, regardless of the detailed presentation of major facts and relevant conclusions, this article has several significant limitations. First and foremost, the authors focus on six countries. Even though the case studies are thorough, the provided information cannot be used for making assumptions on the influence of agriculture on the development of all African countries. It means that the findings cannot be generalized. More than that, the case studies focus on the short-term period, which means that even though the findings are significant, they are not relevant in case of developing long-term policies and making conclusions regarding the development of the regions in the medium or long run (Diao et al. 1380).
At the same time, the article can be viewed within the broader context its correlation with other studies and perspectives on the influence of agriculture on the development of the Sub-Saharan region. It is essential to mention that the researchs foundation is a detailed literature review, paying special attention to both supporters and critics of agriculture-led economic growth. Nevertheless, the authors do not pay attention to specific risks connected to the development of agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa, pointing to positive aspects only. For instance, according to recent studies, the development of agriculture is commonly connected to manage risks, which were ignored. These risks are related to weather and insects, which have a negative influence on crops and potentially lead to delays in deliveries and affect the level of prices in case of the changes in the harvest.
More than that, intensive development is commonly connected to financial uncertainties because some of the farms borrow funds before the beginning of the planting season. Their ability to repay loans is determined by harvests so that some of the loans are not covered in case of increased risks mentioned above, as they entail lower harvest (Meyer 7). It means that under the given conditions, agriculture can become the foundation of stable economic growth only in case of adequate and efficient financial and insurance services, i.e., governmental support, which nowadays is underdeveloped in the region under consideration (Proctor 7). Still, the growth of the agricultural sector is impossible without adequate development of the transport network needed to guarantee timely deliveries of fertilizers and harvested products, and increasing access to rural areas (Banjo et al. 6).
At the same time, governments should not become the only source of support for economic players involved in agriculture because of the common instances of corruption in governmental bodies that lead to deterioration of resources and the lack of protection of farmers. In this way, it is essential to seek the support of influential companies and non-governmental organizations, due to their robust influence on the governments and the launch of potentially fruitful initiatives in the region (Hall 4). Finally, regardless of the influence of agricultural development on the poverty level, it is as well connected to the change of social relations. It means that this sectors growth might entail unpredictable changes in social justice and relations between different social classes due to the necessity to guarantee equal pay for different genders or the protection of employment rights. So, potential economic growth is potentially connected to the strengthening of dominant positions of the rich (farm and landowners) and social differentiation based on wage volume (Tsikata 4).
Nevertheless, regardless of potential limitations, this article makes a significant contribution to the understanding of African economic development. Based on the primary conclusion that agriculture-led growth model is more effective for overcoming the challenge of poverty (pro-poor growth) than industrialization, it can be used to develop effective policies and strategies for governing the states. The focus on agriculture can be explained by the fact that it is not technology and skills-intensive, like in manufacturing or other industries (Diao et al. 1382). More than that, it helps understand that only an efficient combination of actions in different sectors would contribute to successful and stable economic transformations, leading to growth. It is connected to the fact that only rural areas can enjoy the direct benefits of agriculture-led growth. It means that to foster urban areas development, it is critical to pay special attention to other sectors of the economy, such as mining and manufacturing.
It also points to the existing challenges in the development of the regions, such as the lack of governmental support, underdeveloped and ineffective transport networks, limited access to rural areas, and significant influence of varying risk factors on the productivity of agricultural activities. Finally, this article can be viewed within a broader context. Even though the authors focus on the Sub-Saharan region, the results can be extrapolated to other areas in Africa. The reached conclusions can be used for a better understanding of the development in other African states, which face similar challenges and operate under a similar approach to economic growth (in case of taking this article as the foundation for future research).
Works Cited
Banjo et al. Rural Transport: Improving Its Contribution to Growth and Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa. SSATP, 2012.
Diao, Xinshen, et al. The Role of Agriculture in African Development. World Development, vol. 38, no. 10, 2010, pp. 1375-1383.
Hall, Ruth. Rural Resource Grabs or Necessary Inward Investment? The Politics of Land and Water in Africa. International Institute for Environment and Development, 2015.
Meyer, Richard L. Financing Agriculture and Rural Areas in the Sub-Saharan Africa: Progress, Challenges, and the Way Forward. International Institute for Environment and Development, 2015.
Proctor, Felicity J. Rural Economic Diversification in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Institute for Environment and Development, 2014.
Tsikata, Dzodzi. The Social Relations of Agrarian Change. International Institute for Environment and Development, 2015.
Cars are an essential part of daily transportation and comfort, but the ones fueled by fossil derivatives emit greenhouse gases and pollute the air. Electricity-based alternatives are an excellent solution for mass car use because there is no emission and they work on electricity only. The core idea of the project is designing an agricultural electric tractor fueled by an eco-friendly power source with an appealing look and design.
Main text
The main focus audience of the electric tractor is a farmer and any agricultural worker. However, it will be important to provide them with charging stations and collaborate with the government. Electric tractors will lessen the overall pollution, and there will be less poising of agricultural products by fumes. In addition, the tractors are not high-speed vehicles, which allows placing large batteries in it; thus, increasing its volume of work.
Recently, the development of inductive-capacitive machines, they combine the principles of operation of both mechanisms, but have not yet been in mass production and are not used as industrial converters. Based on these facts, inductive machines can most often be found. However, the Tesla cars partially operate on these mechanisms (Paterson et al. 1982). It is necessary to create a magnetic field in order to run these engines. It is formed in a smooth air gap that exists between the stator, a part of the structure that does not move, and a rotor, a moving part of the machine. Transforming energy, the units are able to launch into action a variety of mechanisms.
It is important to analyze and provide a demonstration of how the electric tractor will operate and the principles behind it. Electromechanical units that convert energy are used in various fields of human activity. The uniqueness of their action is that they can perform both the functions of engines, transforming electrical energy into mechanical energy and functions of generators, which is changing mechanical energy into electrical power. For example, Nissan Leaf can serve as an illustration of these ideas (Kulkarni et al. 1143). The principle of reversibility has made electric cars very popular. These technologies are applied for simple and complex mechanisms, to generate various types of energy. To concept is demonstrated in the picture below.
Figure 1. Electric tractor concept.
In everyday life and industry, tractors are simply indispensable, and they are constantly modernized and improved. With the invention of innovation, their cost is reduced, and quality indicators are developed, so these machines are becoming more and more accessible to consumers. However, these vehicles lack an outstanding design, which would make the agricultural industry and farming more appealing and market presentable. The proper conceptual design will lead to more popularity in the media and increased funding (Newman, p. 59). The main unique feature of the given electric tractor is an electromagnetic interaction that makes it possible to convert one type of energy into another. Chinese BYD companies are designing electric tractors by applying the given interactive forces (George and Besselink, p. 151). Electronic machines are inductive when a magnetic field is involved in a transformation, and capacitive when an electric field is included. The latter type of unit is used extremely rare because it has very large losses.
Since such mechanisms are used in almost all areas of human activity, they are constantly modernized, supplemented by new elements, and developed. Scientists create electric cars that run on ecological, nuclear, and natural fuels, for example, on wind and river energy. The main task of science today is to increase the quality characteristics of aggregates, simplify control mechanisms, improve efficiency and lower the cost of installations.
There are many advantages of electric tractors and cars overall, such as cost reduction, pollution decrease, less noise, and affordability. An electric vehicle is a great way to save on fuel. The cost of gasoline is gradually increasing, and often, fuel costs take up a large part of the family budget, and the energy bill for recharging batteries should be significantly less than these costs.
A running engine does not emit any harmful gases or other substances so that by itself it does not pollute the environment. The electricity production process needs to be considered and evaluated. Ideally, to minimize the environmental impact, it should be provided from clean and renewable energy sources. Therefore, the harmful substances are still released during the operation of an electric car, the only pollution occurs at the location of electricity production and not in the city.
Electric motors are quite capable of delivering quiet and smooth acceleration, and they also can give high levels of speed. Moreover, gone are the days when buying an electric car meant spending a fortune. A modern electric car can even be repaired by hand, and at the same time, this vehicle has a lower maintenance cost. There was a time when batteries were costly, but mass production decreased the price. The electric motor does not need lubrication, and it is not mandatory to visit the oil-maintenance stations as often as with gasoline-based engines.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the improvement of new technologies makes the tractors available to a wide range of farmers, and measures are taken to develop the overall maintenance and extend the machine’s lifecycle. It is convenient to use such mechanisms on an agricultural and industrial-scale since each of the types of engines has broad functionality.
Works Cited
George, Ashwin D., and Igo Besselink. “Rear Suspension Design for an In-Wheel Drive Electric Car.” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, vol. 230, no. 2, 2016, pp. 147-159.
Kulkarni, Ambarish, et al. “A Quarter-Car Suspension Model for Dynamic Evaluations of an in-Wheel Electric Vehicle.” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, vol. 232, no. 9, 2018, pp. 1139-1148.
Newman, Daniel. “The Car and the Commons.” Review of Radical Political Economics, vol. 48, no. 1, 2016, pp. 53-65.
Paterson, Sam, et al. “Design and Development of the Sunswift EVe Solar Vehicle: A Record-Breaking Electric Car.” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, vol. 230, no. 14, 2016, pp. 1972-1986.
Within a rapid growth of population, increased scarcity of resources, as well as dramatic climate changes, the agricultural sector is currently facing a number of challenges. These are essential issues to consider since they might jeopardize the natural resources, ecosystems, and livelihoods in general. The impacts on agronomics may lead to economic and social outcomes, and affect nutrition security within its core dimensions, including “food accessibility, food availability, food utilization, and food systems’ stability” (Ramasamy et al., 2017, p. 17). Objects and sensors with access to the Internet can be supplied anywhere for the information gathering on humidity level and crop health.
Therefore, data can be available to farmers via tablets and smartphones due to manual and automated options. Thompson (2019) states that the application of drones (UAVs) in agriculture, specifically in the United Kingdom, can promote the enhancement of the crops and reduce the usage of pesticides. According to Puri et al. (2017, p. 510), the agriculture drones are beneficial for “agriculture farm analysis, time saving, higher agricultural yield, GIS mapping integration, and imaging of crop health Status.” Based on the estimation of Grand View Research, the commercial scale for the agricultural drones is expected to “exceed USD 3770 million by 2024” (Patel, 2018, para. 15). However, the drone system enforcement is currently facing strict British laws due to its potential threat to life and ethical issues.
Analysis of the External Macro and Micro Environment of Agriculture
In terms of changes in the external environment, one should consider the political, economic, social, technological, legislative, and environmental changes, which is known as PESTLE analysis. According to the PESTLE analysis report of the UK, the agricultural sector decreased by a mean rate of 2.67% during 2002-14, with agrarian output reached GBP9.56 billion ($15.51 billion) in 2014 (MarketLine, 2015). Agriculture in the United Kingdom is a labour-intensive and highly mechanised sector, which produces 60% of nutrition needs with under 1.6% of the workforce. Agriculture in the UK is a highly technological industry, which engages only 1.4% of the population. This geographical region has a high population density and a comparative lack of land. With that said, only a third part of gross output is involved in arable farming.
With regard to the opportunities and threats concerning different stakeholders, they might be involved in the inventory stage of the project. This includes the ministries of agriculture, farmers associations, crop production boards, and farmers’ cooperatives and unions, commercial pesticide users, the pesticide industry, and others. The importance of stakeholders varies by country and can also be impacted by the extent of the project. As such, the extent limitation might as well limit the number of stakeholders interested in the project. The expansion of the scope by involving available pesticide and outdated stocks in agriculture requires the broadening of the list of stakeholders and clear determination of their roles during project implementation.
Conclusion: Advice to BEA19 Technologies Ltd.
The key forces that may impact BEA19 entering the agriculture market involve the political, economic, and societal sectors. To be more specific, the weakening relations with the European Union, lack of skilled personnel, regulatory control over indigenous innovations, and the loss of export market shares are the challenges for the country to consider. Furthermore, the increase in R&D (research and development) expenses is noted as a positive factor, however, there is a challenge of the enhanced cyber-attacks.
The use of drones is an evolving and fundamental approach in the farming and agricultural sector in general since they are capable of completing a variety of tasks. This implies sprinkling pesticides, taking farm photos with GPS technology, and supplying information about water and fertilizer level. This tracking device can be easily monitored manually or with the aid of on-ground IoT sensors. Such technology provides current data and significantly contributes to the overall advancement of the agriculture industry. Ultimately, the critical challenge within the agriculture sector implies balancing economic expansion with progress in ecological status, which is complicated by the enhanced competition from emerging markets.
Reference List
MarketLine (2015). PESTLE country analysis report: United Kingdom. MarketLine.
Puri, V., Nayyar, A. and Raja, L. (2017). Agriculture drones: a modern breakthrough in precision agriculture. Journal of Statistics and Management Systems, 20(4), pp. 507–518.
Ramasamy, S., Semedo, M., Castro Salazar, R. and Frick, M. (2017). Tracking adaptation in agricultural sectors: Climate change adaptation Indicators. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
The intensification of the deep penetration of information technology (IT) in all areas of life has naturally led to the development of strategies to use it everywhere to optimize processes. One such area for which IT provides particular value and enables significant streamlining of operations and production is the agricultural sector. In particular, this industry continues to face challenges, including increasing demand due to population growth, the disruptive effects of climate crises and supply chain disruptions, demands for greener, higher quality products, and the growing popularity of this sector among younger consumers. Addressing these challenges is a crucial challenge for today’s agriculture industry, so stakeholders need to make the most of opportunities that facilitate optimization, including IT resources.
The most attractive and rapidly growing Internet technology is blockchain. In simple terms, a blockchain should be defined as a continuous chain of virtual blocks containing unique information of any kind. Traditionally, blockchains have been associated with cryptocurrency technology, but in reality, blockchains can contain any information, including agricultural data (Bodkhe et al., 2020). A unique property of blockchain is the inability to delete or edit the information that has already been entered, but the ability to add new information, resulting in distributed ledger chains of increasing power. Another essential property of blockchain is the transparency with which users with access can access registry entries, which saves high workflow costs. The following sections will discuss in detail how blockchain can be used in the agricultural sector and what potential problems this could lead to. Thus, this paper aims to situate blockchain technology within the agricultural industry in light of the corresponding comprehensive review.
Using Blockchain in the Agricultural Sector
The main production task of the agricultural industry is to adequately provide the population with high-quality products that meet not only food security standards but also demand. However, rapid population growth and increasing environmental awareness among consumers are putting additional strain on the industry and creating demands for greater transparency in farm operations. Research shows that 9 out of 10 respondents believe it is essential to know about the availability of quality certificates for agricultural products, as well as compliance standards and the fertilizers and chemicals used in growing food (Figure 1.1). These responses lead to the conclusion that the agricultural industry must invest in developing transparency and consumer loyalty to meet needs effectively.
Figure 1.1— Results of the consumer survey in identifying critical requests from the agricultural industry (Lenniy, 2022).
The technological transformation of the agricultural industry is already underway today, as realized through the use of IT sensors and drones to track growth dynamics, map territories, and automate soil quality analysis. In this sense, transferring blockchain expertise from other industries to this sector would not only support current trends and demonstrate the industry’s high commitment to technology but also literally simplify most of the operations being managed. One such operation is supply chain management, the efficiency of which is critical to agriculture. Reduced logistical productivity leads to supply disruption and potential hunger and affects the economic well-being of the community. Blockchain can improve sustainable supply chain management by creating a digital registry that contains information about the whereabouts of a particular product and its pathways, and all authorized users, that is, logistics partners, will have access to this information (Chandan et al., 2019). In other words, using blockchain to solve supply chain problems increases transparency, trust, security, and accessibility between partners, which benefits supply chain management. The use of blockchain also invests in better process automation, resulting in a significant increase in the speed of communication and access to data – which entails a positive effect on supply chain establishment.
Thus, blockchain’s main impact on the agricultural industry is the significant optimization of operations and processes. However, the reputational impact cannot be ignored: the widespread use of IT in the industry is expected to increase young consumers’ confidence in the sector. More specifically, an understanding of the modernity and technological sophistication of the farming industry, entailing a perception of the real benefits of this, will allow consumers to take a greater interest in the industry. Eventually, this may lead to an increase in the number of specialists in this field and an increase in the attractiveness of the farming profession. While this section has looked at the example of supply chain management and increasing the attractiveness of the sector, in reality, the potential opportunities for blockchain technology in this industry are much broader; most require the combination of this technology with the Internet of Things (IoT) tools.
Blockchain and IoT Synthesis
While IoT is a broad concept used in many different senses depending on the industry, the general understanding of the term needs to be reduced to the physical objects between which data is transferred. Thus, IoT aims to eliminate the need for human involvement in routine processes, which means that sensors that automatically replace humans are actively used to implement this concept. The combination of such sensors with blockchain technologies makes it possible to meet the growing demands in the direction of the agricultural industry as well.
On an agri-farm, IoT sensors function as automated devices that monitor the behavior of a specific factor and signal when it has changed. For example, if the soil moisture or its mineral composition has been changed, such sensors inform the owners about the changes as they sense a deviation from the norm set in their program. If one adds a blockchain unit to this “IoT human sensor” system, the transfer of information and control will be automated and will not require the direct participation of a human. The information collected by the IoT is structured and modified with the addition of additional metadata before being transferred to the blockchain – in the context of an agri-farm, this could be the time of signal fixation and a specific section of the field. In turn, the information in the blockchain is stored and cannot be modified, ensuring that all historical data has been stored. Connecting additional IoT devices to the IPFS that affect changes in this data and are capable of making machine learning-based decisions allows the agri-farm to automate the response; for example, a device could trigger unscheduled watering of a field if the soil dries out (Kumar et al., 2021). Capturing historical data in large volumes will, in turn, allow the agri-farm to more deeply understand the dynamics of its assets and make timely adjustments without driving the situation into a crisis. Decentralized management of the system, which is realized through saving data in the IPFS protocol, also minimizes the risk of complete failure, which is especially relevant in the case of the need for a long-term lack of human supervision over the assets of the agri-farm or extremely large agricultural areas, unautomated management of which is impossible. The described scenario has a vast number of applications because the basic idea, namely the automatized response of electronic devices to factor changes, proves to be valuable for solving any agrotechnical problem. For example, a slight increase in the number of locusts captured through motion or sound sensors can help prevent field destruction. Alternatively, IoT flood sensors can register any abnormal changes in soil moisture levels and proactively turn on pumping or dewatering systems to keep crops from dying.
In addition to climatic and biogenic crises, agri-farm management is associated with severe economic risks and a constant desire to maximize profits by reducing costs. In this context, blockchain finds another application as a transparent, secure, and unbreakable database. Any information about transactions, purchases, and budget reallocations is automatically recorded and made available via a system of access to interested parties. Such parties could include an audit that verifies the purity of cash flow and suggests any changes or recommendations to the agri-farm based on the financial data collected by the IoT (Shaver, 2020). In this sense, auditing has the potential to become a linear rather than a point-by-point audit of the company, which entails restructuring capital management in a more efficient way.
A Look at Supply Chain Optimization
The traditional agribusiness supply chain involves the production of food directly on agri-farms, followed by distribution to warehouses and distribution on an auction basis to retail stores and markets. The blockchain supply chain, as already discussed, guarantees greater security and availability of logistical data at all stages of distribution. In a farm-to-market project, blockchain, combined with IoT, can be used to reduce asset fraud, enabling supply chain optimization. For example, IoT devices automatically record data on the quality, provenance, and growth conditions of produce and record them via IPFS (Kumar et al., 2021). IoTs can also be used during the transportation stages of production to monitor transportation conditions, including temperature, average machine variations during movement, and humidity, and take preventive measures to save the crop from rotting if any of the indicators deviate abnormally. The auction can also be modified using smart contracts, in which sellers aware of all critical crop information bid their price (Hewa et al., 2021). As a result of the most favorable offers, the system selects a seller and sends them the produce. Notably, at all stages, customers can access the data view with the producer’s permission (e.g., QR on packaging or RFID), so they can learn about growing, storage, and transportation conditions before deciding to purchase the product and not buy questionable products (Xu et al., 2021). The described example shows how useful combining IoT with distributed registry systems can be to improve each party’s experience in a farm-to-market project.
Benefits of Blockchain in the Agriculture Industry
The previous sections have described the potential applications of blockchain and IoT technology in agribusiness, and many scenarios have been discussed in which it can be beneficial. In fact, the benefits of blockchain are not limited to the applications described but are much broader. For example, when implementing a blockchain supply chain, a significant benefit is solving the problem of counterfeit products in the marketplace. The ability of a consumer to read product information using QR or RFID allows them to verify that they are buying quality products that have passed the certification stages, which is the most important preference for the end consumer (Figure 1.1). In fact, authentication in blockchain shipments can be performed at every stage, as shown in Figure 4.1 – relevant barcodes and other identification systems allow stakeholders to track previous manufacturing and processing steps and weed out counterfeit products before they reach the market. This increases confidence in the safety of the goods supplied and minimizes reputational risks for supply chain participants.
Figure 4.1 — Stages of a blockchain-based supply chain with authentication capabilities (Lenniy, 2022).
For manufacturing companies, an established blockchain-based supply chain also allows them to control all stages of the supply and track value-added mechanisms. If a manufacturer realizes that its value proposition is not competitive due to high value-added, thanks to blockchain, the manufacturer identifies the location of maximizing the final value and decides to restructure the collaboration. Additionally, the blockchain captures the number of connections to it through tags on the packaging. Storing statistical patterns of this connection using machine learning allows understanding at what time of the day the consumer is most likely to buy a particular product, which allows to adjust the processes of bringing more effectively in new goods and managing demand so that the minimum amount of sold products is spoiled.
Tracking farm-growth patterns using IoT and blockchain also allows supply to be predicted by refining the quality and safety of produce. If a substantial portion of a crop were found to be unsuitable due to climatic conditions, this could be captured in advance on a particular grower’s blockchain, enabling retailers to take preventive measures to preserve supply in the marketplace. Among other things, this will simplify the insurance claims process, as the insurance company will have direct evidence of the objectivity of damage caused by climate fluctuations. In addition, blockchain can record the specific amount of work that was done by farmers in production, which in turn allows for a more equitable distribution of wages on a piecework basis. Another important consequence of using blockchain in the agricultural industry is the minimization of waste. Since blockchain allows any irregularities to be tracked and recorded, it is also expected to allow waste to be identified at all stages of distribution and decisions to be made on how to reduce this waste in the future.
Cybersecurity Issues
Although blockchain is fully protected from editing the information contained within blocks, has cryptographic algorithms to protect data, and is decentralized, this does not make this system utterly immune to unauthorized access and cybersecurity threats. Because information is now stored on virtual servers, having physical access to it through, for example, social engineering techniques increases the risk of unauthorized access to blockchain data. This is especially dangerous when a company’s commercially sensitive data is stored on the blockchain, as access by fraudsters or competitors could entail financial and reputational risks. Another cybersecurity threat to a blockchain is the 51% Attack, in which a majority of stakeholders conspire against a minority, which can cause damage to the producer in the event that distribution companies enter into fights to discredit the farm.
In the intelligent farming system, it is fair to recognize that it is not the blockchain itself that is more vulnerable but rather IoT devices. Hacking such electronic devices poses a severe danger to the producer, as fraudsters can change the software code of the sensors, leading to unexpected detrimental effects for the farm: lack of preventive fixation of floods, droughts, or locusts (Tsiknas et al., 2021). In other words, the grower will not be able to take preventive control measures because tampered sensors will not detect the problem in the early stages, resulting in the entire crop being ruined. The farm’s competitors can take advantage of such a strategy to eliminate the producer from the market and increase their profits by reducing market supply. Cybersecurity threats do not necessarily involve intentionally damaging the farm’s assets – attackers can use covert tracking systems loaded into IoT devices to monitor the producer’s processes and operations. Ultimately, this could be used against a particular agri-farm, resulting in reputational and economic damage.
Conclusion
To summarize, blockchain technology is a revolutionary solution for the agricultural industry, as it enables significant optimization of internal processes and operations and the initiative-taking management of problems. This paper has shown several of the most promising scenarios for the use of IoT technology and blockchain in agribusiness, which always results in improved production efficiency. Nevertheless, when deciding to invest in such technologies, the producing company must be aware of possible cyber risks, which have also been discussed in this paper.
Social capital refers to connections between and within social networks. This term is a key concept in economics, business, political science, organizational behavior, sociology, public health, and natural resource management. The first usage of this term is traced back to 1899 when John Dewey made the first direct mainstream use of the term social capital in the book, ”The school and the society”.
Though he mentioned this term he did not offer a definition. L.J Hanifan made use of this concept in 1916 when he wanted to put across the importance of involving communities to have successful schools. Hanifan offered the first definition when he wrote that it referred to tangible substances that mostly count in the daily lives of people. He gave examples of such tangible substances as, fellowship, goodwill, social intercourse, sympathy among families and individuals who make up a social unit.
He argued that if an individual interacts with his neighbors then the accumulation of social capital that satisfies his/her needs piles up and it may bring about improvement in the living conditions to the individual and the community as a whole.
The modern usage of the term social capital is traced back to the 1960s when Jane Jacobs used it in an article where she referred to the values that accrue from networks. In this article, Jane Jacobs did not explicitly define the term but in 1969 a political scientist Robert Salisbury made a great advancement to the term as an important component of his interest groups information article,” An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups” in the political science of Midwest journal. In 1972, Pierre Bourdieu used this term in the outline of a theory of practice and he clarified the term several years later in contrast to economic, cultural, and symbolic capital.
In 1977, James Coleman adopted Glern Lourn’s definition in popularizing and developing the concept. The world bank focussed on this term in the 1990s where it used it in research programs. The concept was also used in 2000 by Robert Putman in his book ‘Bowling alone’ and in 2003-2004 Patrick Hunout further developed the usage of this term in his work ‘erosion of social links experienced in economically developed countries. The social capital foundation that aims at
promoting social capital and therefore social cohesion was formed in 2002 in Brussels. The foundation has held a number of conferences such as the 2004 conference in Brussels where the topic ‘The future of family’ was discussed, the 2005 Malta 1 conference in Buggiba where the topic ‘social capital was defined, application of it and measurement were also discussed. The Malta 11 conference is set to take place on 19th -22nd September 2008 in Buggiba where the topic of social inclusion will be discussed.
The foundation argues that when social capital lacks in any society, people who do not have money and also fail to get help from other members of the society plan and decide to do things that they do not aspire to do or even go to the extent of forcing others to do things they would not think of doing. Social evils such as slavery, forced labor, and organized crimes are the fruits reaped by any society which does not embrace social capital. To measure social capital most of the ways used has to do with trust. People who favor and help others will also in turn get the same help when they need it and even get more.
Individual networks, trustworthiness, and norms of reciprocity characterize any society which welcomes social capital ideology. Social capital embraces the sense of civic virtue and calls to the attention that civic virtue becomes more powerful when embedded in a network sense of reciprocal relations in the society. If many virtues exist in society but the society is divided into isolated individuals then that does not necessarily make the society a social capital. Social capital is always at work in our day to day life but it has been hard to recognize it because of what it is and its potential has also been neglected by many, for example, when a neighbor or groups of neighbors keep an eye on each other’s homes or property that is said to be social capital put in action.
Norman up Hoff’s Paradigm on Social Capital
Norman Up Hoff’s paradigm is that there is a great need to strengthen rural institutions for equitable and sustainable development. He argues that this is only possible when social capital exists in society. His scientific thought is that communities should be collectively involved in agricultural research activities to enhance social capital.
A wide belief is that Agro – industrialization contributes to social and rural economic development. However economic development is a result of the value added by the activities of post-harvest and the multiplier effects within that rural community. Social contributors sometimes are less well defined but they appear to relate to increased integration and increased incomes of individuals and groups along the supply chains and within the agro-industrial firms.
The spillovers from all those economic activities are usually expected to result in the promotion of social cohesion in rural communities. Norman Up Hoff observes that social capital is a critical input in the process of agro-industrialization. Groups and individuals that cannot work collaboratively or maintain and establish trust-based relationships and networks find it difficult to carry out their activities. This is because firms in Agro-business compete in every supply chain that is information-intensive and therefore require active coordination among different stages and players in these areas must therefore work together.
Where transactions costs are huge and the market fails, the contribution brought about by social capital can not be underrated because it makes an important contribution to the performance of the firm by enabling access to information and also reducing the costs of coordination and contracting. Failing to recognize and also failing to explicitly incorporate the social capital concept as a vital input into agro-industrialization limits the effectiveness of projects and programs that would promote agro industrialization as one way of alleviating poverty. Social capital is a very important tool both in agriculture and rural development.
It is taken to serve the major purposes or functions namely to obtain information via all the broad networks of contacts that are maintained by agricultural firm owners and managers reduce any uncertainty and also monitoring any costs through working with trusted organizations and individuals. Agricultural firms would benefit also from engaging in collective action and social capital would bring a strong influence on the sustainability of collective action.
Importance of Social Capital to Agriculture
Information Networks
Agricultural firms use the information networks that they have created for four major purposes namely, identifying and contacting the farmers, access to market information, to also have access to inputs, and finally obtain financial and technical assistance.
Industry and business associations serve also as good sources of information to the agricultural firms. Agricultural producers who play the role of supplying the firms with raw materials are either friends or former employees who built contacts with producers and also other suppliers. This inter-relationship provides adequate and vital information that opens doors and also guarantees a long term relationship, for example, a dairy processor had a long term relationship with the farmers from his previous job as a technician and therefore farmers put their trust in him and continued supplying him with milk even though he faced some managerial constraints which had resulted into almost the collapse of his dairy company.
This is because of the willingness he had to work with the farmers when he was still a technician. It is, therefore, true that social capital is a very important tool in agriculture especially in accessing agricultural inputs.
Agricultural firms also have connections with the non-government and government agencies that in turn facilitate access to financial, management, and technical support, for example, social capital plays a big role in creating contacts in universities as a source of technical assistance. Politicians and community leaders also use their contacts to find opportunities for social and technical assistance both to the firms and the process of agricultural products in their communities’.Consolidation of such relationships opens more doors and therefore farmers and agricultural firms can reap benefits from these relationships. Farmers can reap benefits that go beyond the initial service offered by the support institution such as being trained by them.
Another importance of social capital in agriculture is trust. Trust is an essential element in developing and maintaining relationships that crop up between the farmers, agricultural firms, and the public as a whole. If farmers and agricultural firms can trust one another then they can spend less time and resources in enforcing and monitoring contracts. Trust also plays a vital role in facilitating the interaction with other players in the chain of production, helping agricultural firms maintain relationships with their clients such as the farmers thus creating an enabling environment where the farmers can obtain credit because the firms offering the credit have both trust and confidence in them thus enabling the farmers to expand their agricultural activities and as a result an overall expansion of the agricultural sector.
Trust also enables the farmers to understand and put into consideration the situation of the firm such as financial constraints faced by the firm and hence delay in payment of their produce in time, for example, a relationship of mutual respect and trust allowed a dairy cooperative to retain its volumes of milk supplied by farmers even though the cooperative had not paid the farmers for a long duration of time due to financial constraints.
This was because of the strong trust and confidence that the farmers had towards the cooperative. The strong relationship between agricultural firms and farmers means that agricultural firms are assured that producers will supply the given qualities and quantities on agreed dates and comply with their promises. Dairy and vegetable firms have reported that when they have trusted producers they can easily eliminate or reduce residue and quality checks that are carried out for other producers who are not trusted.
Farmers also trust the agricultural firms especially in transportation services that their products will not be transported in containers that have recently been used to transport other substances thus lowering the quality of their farm output. Of great importance is the need to note that a close personal relationship may automatically bring confidence and therefore social capital is useful in building and maintaining this relationship. The close relationship brought about by social capital enables the agricultural firms and farmers to manage crises such as transportation failures and power outages especially when the agricultural products are perishable.
Social Capital and Rural Development
Rural development is therefore inevitable when farmers are better of and empowered economically due to the strong social cohesion that exists between them and other agricultural firms. Farmers make the majority of the people who live in the rural areas and the need for the agricultural firms to obtain large supplies of raw materials from the farmers results in the accelerated growth of rural areas in terms of infrastructure, communication, and transportation facilities.
Agricultural firms contribute to a greater extent in the construction of roads, research centers, and training centers for the farmers hence opening up the rural areas to development. To enhance continued communication between the farmers and the agro enterprise’s communication networks are constructed to make these tasks simple further opening up the rural areas.
To realize continued production of agricultural output farmers collectively take measures of conserving forests to maintain their water catchments areas and therefore come together to plant more trees and curb any activities that might be done by any group or individual to destroy forests. Agricultural firms also come in to provide the necessary inputs needed by farmers in their desire to conserve forests such as providing tree seedlings, training, and skills for planting them and maintaining them. They also through their influence carry farmers’ grievances to higher authorities regarding any group or individuals who may bring deterioration of forests.
References
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An ethical dilemma is described as a decision between two issues where both sides can argue about that which is wrong or right. However, there happens to be no real answer to an ethical dilemma. It just happens to be one of those things that one tends to believe in; something like opportunity cost or moral fiber.
Ethical Dilemma
A while back I was looking for a summer job and I was able to get one in the farms that rear chicken for their eggs and meat. I took the opportunity because this was one factor that I considered important. After all, I wanted to learn how to manage and run a farm. This was a great chance for me to gain the hands-on experience that I needed in my quest to becoming a successful farmer. After starting my job, I was excited and carried on my duties with vigor and valor.
I did all that was expected of me and even beyond to work overtime for free in a bid to acquire as much experience as possible. I started making tours around the farm and discovered how they carried out their daily duties. I came across a large shed that housed over two thousand poultry birds and they were locked in small cages where they could barely spread and flap their wings.
This was saddening as I was against this and it made me lose the psych I had for the job. I did not understand why they had to keep these birds in those kinds of conditions yet they had a huge amount of lands where these birds could wander around and also flap their wings.
I love farming and I love eating poultry products. What I was against are the unjust conditions that these animals were kept in. I hated seeing them undergo this kind of torture because they are living things. I did not want to raise this point for I would have ended up losing my job on the farm thus my so sought after experience would not come in handy after all. If I continued to work there, I would seem as if I was supporting this unjustified act.
I was at a crossroads but continued to go to work as I struggled within me about this issue. The farm owners were good friends of my school professor and he had put in a good word for me and they were thrilled to have me there. I did not want to seem as if I was letting my professor down by quitting.
Conclusion
I purposed to continue working there regardless of the situation. I also realized that having my values tested meant that I was well-positioned to overcome or handle the situation in the future in a much better way than I did that time. This was a form of moral fiber for me in that I was caught in two different situations and I had to take one concerning what I did not probably support but for the respect of my professor.
The only way I can make such kinds of situations better is by speaking up once I set up my farm and lead by example. Also, I will not deny these wonderful creatures the freedom that they desire and need. The ethical dilemma came into play in the decisions that I was making.
