Category: Agriculture

Introduction

Traits that protect the crop yielding potentiality will always be vital. Advanced technologies are being used to design products for insect control such as dsRNA which generate new modes of action. Research efforts mainly focused on enhancing complex traits like biotic stress mitigation and intrinsic yield potential which are all aimed at increasing crop yield (Koskell and Stotzky, 1997).

Problems that Technology Addresses

Agricultural technology has been introduced to solve the imminent problems faced in the agriculture sector: time, expenses, food safety and labelling, environmental impact, land transformation, nutrient concentration.

Time

Technology is meant to address shortcomings in the agricultural sector. Time wastage in animal and crop production is partly contributed by the use of traditional methods to carry out the activities. The introduction of technology is handy in such instances so as to save valuable time (Tapp and Stotzky, 1998). Thus, the population increase has brought the necessity to increase agricultural production and throughout the past fifty years numerous successful agricultural development policies were implemented which saved time and led to growth in corps yield, but has also led to remarkable growth in global consumption of pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, animal feedstuffs, and tractors and other machinery (Filho, 2004, p.62). Of course, nowadays sustainable agriculture is aimed at achieving the same time shortage in crops production with less negative impacts and fewer expenses.

Expenses

Expense is also a key factor when it comes to agricultural productions. Technology has been employed to ensure minimalistic expenses within the sector (Reddy and Thomas, 1996). Thus, modern agricultural technology strives to a shortage in the use of machinery (and fuel use), and other expensive techniques. In fact, it is extremely important especially when it deals with developing countries with a large population where there is no opportunity to implement costly technologies in agriculture.

Food Safety and Labeling

Food produced from animals and crops should be safe for human consumption. Technology has been harnessed to curb such problems as food poisoning or simply unhealthy foodstuffs (Gebhard and Smalla, 1998). This issue is quite disputable now since agricultural technologies may lead to some long-term impacts on human health or the environment which are insufficiently researched. Thus, people should be aware of the techniques used during the production of goods they buy.

Environmental Impact

The main objective of agricultural technology is the introduction of some measures for the necessary environmental protection (Green and Allison, 1994). Its anticipated to mitigate external expenses. These expenses consist of the cost of first and foremost pesticides. The second expense is too much water usage whereas the last expense is the nutrient runoff and varied other tribulations. Norman Borlaug has become one of the main figures who developed innovative agricultural techniques. These new methods have improved the agricultural sector (Stachel and Zambryski, 1989).

Numerous studies regarding livestock matters have been conducted. They have revealed that livestock is one of the main contributors to the present main environmental degradation. It is one of the producers of greenhouse gases leading to acidic rains which are disastrous to the environment. Agricultural technology has been initiated to solve these problems and make improvements on biodiversity (Doerfler and Schubbert, 1998).

Land Transformation and Degradation

A description for both land transformation and land degradation exist. These two terms imply the action of making use of land with the sole purpose of producing goods and even services. The processes of land transformation and land degradation are viewed as how people adjust the Globes ecology. These processes have contributed to the significant loss of biodiversity. Agricultural technology has been developed to mitigate these problems (Green and Allison, 1994).

Nutrient Concentration

A substantial number of nutrients in aquatic ecosystems leads to loss of biodiversity and makes the water unsafe for drinking and inappropriate for industrial use. This is one of the main issues which agricultural technology needs to solve. Admittedly, such a negative impact is now leading to various problems in the ocean, and in terms of the lack of water appropriate for drinking in many countries, it requires much attention. Fortunately, sustainable agriculture technology is aimed at diminishing these negative effects and many pieces of research are now being implemented in this respect.

The Basic Biological Principles used in the Development of the Technology

Admittedly, agricultural technology is closely connected and based on basic biological principles. Such major principles as inheritance, variety, evolution, competition and survival are always taken into account and used in agricultural technology (Blinks, 2009, p.27). It is necessary to add that these principles are used for all levels, biological systems, including people, higher plants and animals, one-celled protozoa, bacteria, and algae (Blinks, 2009, p.26).

Inheritance

Thus, inheritance is taken into account while creating new breeds. People have noticed that plants can inherit some particular traces many thousands of years ago. However, the development of genetics opens up new horizons for this principle implementation in agriculture.

Variety

One of the major principles used in agricultural technology is the principle of variety. Thus, people understand that various species exist. This principle is closely connected with such phenomena as mutation and productivity. Long ago people have noticed that such biodiversity exists due to the organisms ability to change some features. Modern people already know how to cause and use such mutations which are widely used in new species creation. One of the essential phenomena characterizing all organisms in the world is productivity. Of course, this phenomenon is excessively used in agricultural technology.

Evolution

Evolution has become one of the major discoveries of the 19^th century. Of course, it is interrelated with the principle of inheritance. Thus, scientists take into account this principle since it is essential for understanding such principle as survival. This revolutionary invention made people use the possibility of organisms to accommodate new conditions in agriculture. This knowledge enables people to cultivate new lands and breed new species.

Competition

One of the very important biological principles used in agricultural technology is the principle of competition. It becomes one of the essential knowledge areas in corps production since scientists understand that it is necessary to create competitive species which will be able to survive and reveal high productivity.

Thus, the development of agricultural technology should be interrelated with the development of biological study which can bring discoveries to use in agriculture.

Scope of Use of the Technology

Biotechnology to some extent is similar to biomedical research. However, most other industries take advantage of using biotech methods to study. In addition, they may use it to clone and alter genes. In the modern world, many individuals have acclimatized to the notion of enzymes. Furthermore, several individuals are used to the debates regarding the usage of the so called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) found within the foodstuffs in that area. The agricultural industry has been at the forefront of the raging discussion regarding Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). The agricultural sector has yielded an assortment of novel goods. These goods are believed to enhance the lifestyles of people all over the world (Reddy and Thomas, 1996).

Vaccines

Vaccines are heavily implemented to overcome various illnesses spread in many underdeveloped countries. Genetically modified crops are created to take away antigenic proteins from highly infectious pathogens (Borja, et al. 1999). An example of this is the anti-lymphoma vaccine made of tobacco plants. Such vaccine is effectively used for cancer patients to support these patients immune systems (Hawkinson et al., 1998).

Antibiotics

The conventional technique of manufacturing antibiotics is quite costly. The agricultural biotechnology regarding flower production is responsible for first and foremost combating diseases that attack flowers. Second, it is responsible for augmenting or making better the superiority of food. It is also important to note that a number of aesthetic applications are made use of during the production of flowers making use of gene identification and transmission techniques with the main aim of making better first the smell, second, the color, third, the size of flowers and last, other aspects concerning flowers. The improvements also enhance cold resistance in tropical plants so that they can perform in northern regions (Hill, 1994).

Biofuels

The biofuels industry greatly depends on the agricultural industry. The biofuels industry produces feedstocks. The feedstocks are used in the refining of first, bio-oil, second, bioethanol and last, biodiesel. Genetic engineering together with enzyme optimization techniques has been used. These have been used in producing better quality feedstocks to obtain more efficient conversion.

Plant and Animal Breeding

Several techniques which are responsible for making better plant and animal characteristics are available. However, some of these techniques do take a lot of time for them to bring about the desired effect. Examples of these techniques include grafting, cross-pollination, crossbreeding. However, biotech techniques have been invented and have substituted the aforementioned techniques for making better plant and animal characteristics. The biotech techniques permit precise variations to be obtained at a much rapid rate. The biotech techniques first and foremost involve the over-expression of genes within a meticulous species. Second, they involve the deletion of genes in a particular species. Last, biotech techniques entail introducing fully foreign genes.

Pest Resistant Crops

This has been aimed at eliminating the need to dust crops as has been the case in the past. This has helped farmers avoid costly infestations. Pesticide-resistant crops do exist. These crops may be defined as those crops which in particular are invented to resist pesticides attack. As a result, they permit growers/farmers to eliminate those weeds that encircle the flowers by killing them. While doing this, the farmer doesnt injure the plants. For instance, the Roundup-Ready technique saves time and costs associated with pest reduction in plants (Wintermantel and Schoelz, 1996).

Nutrient Supplement

The nutritional supplement may be defined as scientific attempts to improve individuals health (especially in the third world countries in Africa and Asia). The main objective of scientists is to assist in disease outbreak lessening and undernourishment. One of the successful inventions in this field is the creation of golden rice. The golden rice has beta-carotene which generates vitamin A inside the human body (Saxena, et al., 1999).

Abiotic Stress Resistance

Abiotic Stress Resistance Crops have been modified recently. The significance of this modification lies in the improved crops resistance. Such crops also endure various negative conditions. These negative conditions include salinity, drought and cold (Kling, 1996, p.180). As far as drought tolerance is concerned some plant species have been obtained by regulating the transcription process (David, et al, 2010, p.84).

Disadvantages of the Technology

Society has become dependent on technology since the industrial revolution (Lorenz and Wackernagel, 1994). However, technology has some negative impacts.

Imprecise Technology

Genetic engineers successfully transfer genes from one organism to the other (Harding, 1996). However, this process is associated with a number of threats. Thus, such a process may interrupt the normal performance of other genes which can be vital for the organism wellbeing or even existence (Bergelson, 1998, p.25).

Furthermore, the process is associated with side effects. This side effect is that genetic engineers dont comprehend the so-called living systems fully. As a result, genetic engineers cant conduct DNA surgeries avoiding mutations. These mutations are cable of creating severe damages to the environment. Moreover, such mutations may negatively affect the health of human beings (Mikkelson et al., 1996). As genetic engineers transfer genes from one organism to the other, they may be unaware of the consequences which may be associated with this process. This is partially caused by the fact that most genetic engineers do not use the necessary know-how while experimenting. This often results in a rise of harmful toxins.

Widespread Crop Failure

Genetics engineers do anticipate raking in profits. This is especially when massive crop failure is evident. This comes as a result of patenting genetically engineered seeds. The seeds are anticipated to have identical genetic structures. This however only happens once they mature into full crops (Kidwell, 1993). If the planted seeds are raided by first and foremost fungus, second, virus or any other pest, the outcome is that the seeds will not mature into plants. Therefore, widespread crop failure will result (Robinson, 1996).

No Long-term Safety Testing

Admittedly, genetic engineering utilizes materials from organisms that arent parts of a human being food provision. The aim of such utilizing is to change the nature of the food which is consumed by humans. These actions are likely to lead to serious negative impacts on humans (Wostemayer et al., 1997).

Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria

Genetic engineers usually utilize the so-called antibiotic resistance genes. These genetic engineers fall into the category of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. They use these genes in staining genetically engineered seeds (, 1999). The outcome is that genetically engineered plants have genes. These genes are responsible for offering opposition to antibiotics. Moreover, the genes have a higher probability of being singled out by bacteria. The main undesirable consequence of this is that the health of human beings may be impacted negatively (Coghlan, 1999). The situation is worsened by difficulty in such dangerous elements consumed by humans who are deprived of seeing the corresponding data on the products labels. (Eady, et al., 1995).

More pesticides

Genetically modified plants will lead to excessive use of great amounts of pesticides which is extremely harmful to the environment and human health (Charles, 1998).

The ecosystem might be damaged

The harms associated with genetically modified goods cannot be gainsaid. These goods/products are likely to sway the food chain. The outcome is that the ecosystem may be impacted negatively (Metz, 1997).

Gene contamination may not be erased

If first and foremost, genetically engineered organisms, second, genetically engineered bacteria and last, genetically engineered viruses are introduced into the atmosphere, an undesirable consequence may occur. The consequence is that it is impossible to recall them. These undesirable consequences cannot be reversed in the long run (Field and Solie, 2007).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is possible to say that modern agricultural technology development which is based on the major biological principles enable scientists to cope with the crucial issues addressed to agricultural technology: time, expenses, and environmental problems. Thus, many successful techniques are now implemented in various fields such as biofuel production, plants breeding, pest resistance, nutrient supplement, and abiotic stress resistance. Nevertheless, further research is necessary for the development of agricultural technology since there are any negative impacts to be diminished: lack of safety testing, crops failures and negative environmental impacts. Thus, it is possible to point out that agricultural technology development is now one of the major objectives for many countries which try to cope with such problems that humanity already faces as the lack of nutrition supplements and environmental problems.

References

Bergelson, J., Purrington, C.B., 1998. Promiscuity in Transgenic Plants. Nature 3 September 1998, p. 25.

Blinks, L.R. (2009) Opportunities and Requirements in the Life Sciences. Basic Research and National Goals; A Report to the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives. General Books LLC, pp.25-67.

Borja, M. et al. (1999) Restoration of wild-type virus by double recombination of tomusvirus mutants with a host transgenic. Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. 12(1), 153-62.

Charles, M. (1998) Greenpeace USA, genetically engineered corn contaminates Neighboring crop. Press Release: Amsterdam/Hamburg. 3(2), 18-34.

Chevre, A.M. et al. (1997) Gene flow from transgenic crops. Nature. 2(4), 389-924.

Coghlan, A. (1999) Gone with the wind. New Scientist. 3(6), 25-30.

David, B.C. et al. (2010) Engineering Pathogen Resistance in Crop Plants: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Doerfler, W. and Schubbert, R. (1998) Uptake of foreign DNA from the environment: the gastrointestinal tract and the placenta as portals of entry. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 110(1), 40-4.

Dreiseikelmann, B. (1994) Translocation of DNA across bacterial membranes. Microbiology. 58(7), 293-316.

Eady, C. et al. (1995) Pollen viability and transgenic expression following storage in honey. Transgenic Research. 4(3), 226-231.

Field, H & Solie, J. (2007) Introduction to Agricultural Engineering Technology: A Problem Solving Approach. Oklahoma: Oklahoma State University Press.

Filho, W.L. (2004) Ecological Agriculture and Rural Development in Central and Eastern European Countries. Fairfax, VA: IOS Press.

Gal, S. et al. (1992) Agro infection of transgenic plants leads to viable cauliflower mosaic virus by intermolecular recombination. Virology. 187(6), 525-33.

Gebhard, F. & Smalla, K. (1998) Transformation of Acinetobacter. Appl Environ Microbiol. 64(3), 1550-1554.

Green, A.E. & Allison, R.F. (1994) Viruses and transgenic crops. Science.260(23), 1423-1424.

Harding, K. (1996) The potential for horizontal gene transfer within the environment. Agro Food Ind. Hi-Tech. 7(9), 31-35.

Hawkinson, S.E. et al. (1998) Circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 and risk of breast cancer. Lancet, Vol. 352(4), 1393-6.

Heinemann, J.A. (1991) Genetics of gene transfer between species. Trends Genet. Vol. 7(5), 181-185.

Hill, H.R. (1994) OSU Study Finds Genetic Altering of Bacterium Upsets Natural Order. Oregon: The Oregonian.

Kidwell, M.G. (1993) Lateral transfer in natural populations of eukaryotes. Annu. Rev. Genetics. 27(13), 235-256.

Kling, J. (1996) Could transgenic supercrops one day breed. Superweeds Science.274(3), 180-181.

Koskella, J. and Stotzky, G. (1997) Microbial utilization of free and clay-bound insecticidal toxins from BT and their retention of insecticidal activity after incubation with microbes. Applied and Env. Microbiology. 9(7), 3561-3568.

Lorenz, M.& Wackernagel, W. (1994) Bacterial gene transfer by natural genetic transformation in the environment. Microbiology. 156(15), 19-326.

Metz, P. et al. (1997) The impact on biosafety of the phosphinothricin. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 95(1), 442-450.

Mikkelson, T. et al. (1996) The Risk of Crop Transgenic Spread. Nature. 380(31), 34-35.

Nielsen, K.M. et al. (1998) Horizontal gene transfer from transgenic plants to terrestrial Bacteria  a rare event. FEMS Microbiological Reviews. 22(54), 103-105.

Reddy, S.A. and Thomas, T.L. (1996) Expression of a cyanobacteria delta 6-desaturase gene results in gamma-linolenic acid production in transgenic plants. Nature Biotechno. 14(6), 629-42.

Saxena, et al. (1999) Transgenic plants: Insecticidal toxin in root exudates from Bt corn. Nature. 402(7), 480.

Shubbert, R. et al. (1998) Ingested foreign (phage M13) DNA survives transiently in the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream of mice. Mol. Gen. Genet. Vol. 242(9), 495-504.

Stachel, S.E. and Zambryski, P.C. (1989) Generic trans-kingdom sex. Nature. 340(6), 190-191.

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Wintermantel, W.M. and Schoelz, J.E. (1996) Isolation of recombinant viruses between cauliflower mosaic virus and a viral gene in transgenic plants under conditions of moderate selection pressure. Virology. 223(3), 56-64.

Wostemayer, J. et al. (1997) Horizontal gene transfer in the rhizosphere: a curiosity or a driving force in evolution? Adv. Bot. Res. Incorp. Adv. Plant Pathol. 24(13), 105.

I would like to describe agricultural traditions of Canadians. Agriculture plays one of the most important parts in Canadas life. A lot of people are involved in this area of economy. Canadians are great farmers; they work really hard and enjoy their work and results they get. Very often a farm belongs to one family, and children continue working on their parents farm. In Canada there is a very good agricultural education, so young people can get higher education in agriculture and use it on their own farms. This helps to develop agriculture of the whole country. Canadians are very preoccupied with the quality of their products and that is why they eat only healthy food which they grow in their farms.

As for food traditions in Canada I would like to stress, that it is very various. At the same time almost all Canadians eat a lot of meat, and, of course, vegetables. It is possible to say that meat is the most important food in Canadian meals. Moreover, Canadians eat it every day, three times a day, and they eat a lot. Canadians are very good workers and very good eaters as well. I think it makes sense, because they work very hard, so they need a lot of energy, and that is why they need a lot of meat.

Values of Canadian farming are similar to those in the United States. Canadians believe that farming is the most important part of their life, because they can grow their food. They know that they will never be hungry, because their land will feed them, they only need to work hard, and they do work. They always try to develop their faming, and to get as rich harvest as it is possible. Canadian farmers are also proud of their status of nation feeders.

To my mind, all said above is very correct and Canadians are very good farmers. My values are quite similar to Canadian values in farming. I also think that farming is the most important part of economy of every society. Unfortunately, not every country has so many possibilities in farming as Canadians have (a lot of area for agriculture, good soil, a lot of water, good climate), so these countries have to buy food from such lucky countries as Canada or, for example, the United States. I think that in farming it is important to work hard and develop own farming methods. I believe that farmers should grow only high-quality products.

To my mind, farmers must use no chemical fertilizers which can make their harvest or livestock grow better, but at the same time they can harm these products and people who eat them. Farmers should use only natural fertilizers and other safe resources in their farming. I think these principles must be used in the agriculture of every country. I cannot say that I am a great farmer or even farmer at all, but I know this is the only way that farming should develop. It is unnecessary to come from the farmers family to understand that. It is universal truth that people must eat, and they have to grow their food.

I also think that making farming business a family business can develop not only one farm, but agriculture of the whole country. Farmers in such kind of farms know everything about their land or land in general, and know what to do to get more from this land. Such farmers, to my mind, are more determined to get success, they do everything with soul. And land feels that and gives much more than it gets from people.

As for food, I think, Canadians are right when they eat healthy food. Of course, if you dont move a lot or work as hard as farmers do, you shouldnt a lot, but we cannot forget that food is necessary for our life. I believe that people who try to eat less, or dont eat some products to become slimmer, are not right, people should eat everything that nature gives, but, of course, not too much. I think people should eat so as they work, and which is very important they must eat healthy food.

As for American farming, it is very good that the same creeds as written above are present in American agriculture. American farmers work a lot on their farms and develop their skills in farming. This makes American farming very successful. American farmers give their skills and knowledge to their children, and they use this knowledge to make their farms better. American farmers pay a lot of attention to the quality of their products, and that is why American products are very good and safe.

I think that these successful creeds should be used in every society, but, unfortunately, some countries dont use some of them. A lot of countries, for example, dont mind the quality of their products and farmers of those countries use too much chemical fertilizers to grow their products. This is very bad for people who eat such kind of food. I hope that soon all countries will follow creeds used in the United States and Canada, and all people of the world will enjoy plenty of healthy food.

Domestication Models

Two Agricultural Theories That Oppose Each Other

There are two main domestication models used to describe the development of agriculture. Some scientists strongly believe hunter-gatherers first cultivated wild plants by putting random wild seeds in the ground near their homes. The first approach supports the idea that domestication was a slow process that happened unconsciously. It is rooted in the concept of the inferiority of hunter-gatherers minds who were not intelligent enough to take control of their surroundings, which I do not agree with. The notion of a more conscious, knowledge-based domestication is the main principle of the second model. Its supporters argue that domestication has been more of a single event that happened in a specific place (the Near East). The long and unplanned domestication model might have more support in the scientific community, but, to my mind, it remains illogical and biased.

The logical fallacy becomes apparent to me in the evidence that is typically presented to support the first approach. Wild and domesticated plants differ in their traits, as the main goal of wild plants is to survive, which often interferes with human plans. Biological mutants are therefore preferable for domestication, the primary goal of which is changing the evolutionary path of the plant so that people can produce it more easily. The slow model establishes that mutations happen gradually through cultivation over thousands of years. Humans used the seeds they harvested from the cultivated fields, planted them again. People, however, had no way of telling the mutants apart, which proves the possibility of a more knowledge-based approach to domestication.

Nowadays, people are not willing to admit that their ancestors were capable of changing their surroundings in such an extreme way. As a species, Homo sapiens survived natural disasters, climate shifts, and food shortages, which made them highly adaptable. Research suggests that humans living 10,000 years ago showed immense cognitive capacities that allowed them to solve problems and develop cumulative networks to initiate change in their communities (Migliano et al., 2020). The short and conscious model does not fail to recognize that older generations were capable of creating innovations such as the domestication of wild plants.

The Green Revolution

Scientific Developments and Advantages

The 18th century is most known for the Industrial Revolution associated with the invention of the steam engine, a spinning jenny, and the electrical telegraph. Scientists prognoses regarding the future of humanity, however, were negative as more of them grew concerned with potential famine. Most people at the time lived in rural areas on small, closed farms, which meant that their households were self-sustaining, producing just enough to feed a family without any external inputs. The first changes began with a gradual introduction of a dual-action system when parts of the land were used for growing forage for animals that would, in turn, organically fertilize the rest of the land. Scientists encouraged farmers to utilize innovative chemical fertilizers instead of less effective organic fertilizers. Agriculture began to shift from a closed farm system to a system of agriculture for profit that focused on mass production and high monetary returns.

As Borlaug created a hybrid between American and Japanese wheat that was easier to fertilize, the Green Revolution began. It introduced semi-dwarfed (with shortened stalks) wheat, rice, and grain, which contributed to the spread of chemical fertilization worldwide and increased crop yields in many developing countries, saving them from starvation. From 1960 to 2000, the wheat yields of Mexico, Pakistan, and India tripled (Harford, 2019). Other advantages of the Green Revolution include the upgrade of local infrastructures, reduction of food prices globally, and higher income levels (Harford, 2019). The revolution was an inevitable positive shift in global agriculture that used scientific advances (chemical fertilization, agricultural machinery, land conservation) to help the world feed its growing population.

The Importance of Genetic Diversity

Providing Legal Protection to Breeders

Breeders contribute to a favorable global process of diversifying agriculture that is struggling to produce sufficient amounts of food to feed the population. They increase agricultural productivity, which supports national and local economies, so government agencies must create specific regulations that would protect breeders on a legal level. Some of the advantages that such legal protection can lead to include more diverse types of breeders, more investments in plant breeding, as well as the development of a completely new industry. After establishing the Union for the Protection of New Varieties and Plants (UPOV), Korea demonstrated higher numbers of applications of foreign and domestic breeders (WIPO, n.d.). The strong accession of UPOV led to Kenya becoming the biggest source of floriculture imports in the European Union (WIPO, n.d.). Granting legal protection results in numerous positive outcomes in terms of gene variety and agricultural development.

Negative Outcomes of the Lack of Biodiversity

Plant domestication marked the beginning of a loss of genetic variation in seeds. When there is not enough diversity, plants start to reproduce by self-pollination, creating a complete genetic copy of the parent, which leads to genes with negative traits such as a low level of environmental adaptability. An example of this would be the famine in Ireland in the 1840s when potato crops were plagued by Phytophthora bacteria, and Irish people started dying of starvation at an alarming rate being too dependent on a single type of potato, the Lumper Potato (Yang et al., 2017). Some of the other disadvantages of the Green Revolution include the low susceptibility of a food supply to pathogens (Kumar, 2017, p. 55). This leads to the growing use of agrochemicals, including dangerous pesticides that poison more than 1 million people annually (Kumar, 2017). According to Kumar, limited crop cultivation, including agricultural machinery and pesticide production, is highly dependent on non-renewable energy sources (2017). Loss of genetic diversity ultimately leads to numerous health and environmental issues, so it is crucial to create initiatives to make positive changes in seed variation.

References

Harford, T. (2019). The man who helped feed the world. BBC News. Web.

Kumar, P. (2017). Green Revolution and its impact on environment. International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 5(3), 54-57. Web.

Migliano, A., Battison, F., Viguir, A., Page, A. E., Dyble, M., Schlaepfer, R., Smith, D., Astete, L., Ngales, M., Gomez-Gardenes, J., Latora, V., & Vinicius, L. (2020). Hunter-gatherer multilevel sociality accelerates cumulative cultural evolution. Science Advances, 6(9). doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aax5913.

WIPO (n.d.). Benefits of plant variety protection. Web.

Yang, X., Tyler, B. M., & Hong, C. (2017). An expanded phylogeny for the genus Phytophthora. IMA Fungus 8, 355384. doi: 10.5598/imafungus.2017.08.02.09.

Agricultural developments were an essential step in technological progress for humanity that allowed people to sustain high population counts. However, due to the differences in availability of usable soil masses and their scale, West Africans and Medieval Europeans approached agricultural issues with entirely different solutions. This paper will examine how these two regions were affected by their corresponding climates and why their methods were unique to their respective locations.

The issues with the agricultural needs were significantly shaped by the nature of the regions. West Africans had to resolve the crucial task of irrigation of a vast landmass that was potentially suitable for rice fields (Carney, 1996). Major fertile locations allowed for a rain-fed system to be implemented, while others required the development of a flood-plain system (Carney, 1996). Throughout the ages, they have developed a way to utilize several water regimes depending on the availability of water sources, such as rains, tides, or swamps (Carney, 1996). Plantations, akin to those that were used by West Africans, were not widely implemented by Europeans (Carney, 1996). The previous approach that focused on size instead of efficiency became redundant with the rise of smallholdings, as greatly limited plots of land had to be utilized with greater output per land unit (Broedel, 2017). Many technologies were focused on transforming hard European soil into fields via fertilization, implementation of heavy plows, and soil drainage (Andersen et al., 2016). These differences are the primary cause of specific technological advancements.

In conclusion, these techniques differ significantly from those that were developed by West Africans, as the soil in Europe was harder to manage, while climate in West Africa forced local farmers to develop complex irrigation systems. Medieval Europeans and West Africans had to solve an entirely different set of issues. These conditions were unique to each location, which made the described methods unlikely to be developed outside these regions.

References

Andersen, T. B., Jensen, P. S., & Skovsgaard, C. V. (2016). The heavy plow and the agricultural revolution in medieval Europe. Journal of Development Economics, 118, 133-149.

Broedel, H. P. (2017). The tools of agriculture. In D. Skjelver, D. Arnold, H. P. Broedel, B. Kim, & S. D. Broedel (Eds.), History of applied science & technology. The Digital Press.

Carney, J. (1996). Landscapes of technology transfer: Rice cultivation and African continuities. Technology and Culture, 37(1), 5.

Introduction

Many historians take different viewpoints on whether the development of civil society led to the introduction of agriculture or the agricultural advancement made society and humanity advance. Most, however, agree that agriculture started a long time ago, and in its preliminary stages, it was combined with other methods of gaining food like hunting and gathering. It is also clear that agriculture had a significant influence on societys development as the regions that favoured agriculture, like Europe, ended up being more civilized than other religions. For instance, civilization and industrial development were catalyzed by agricultural expansion and started in Asia and later spread to Europe and North America. Most of the earliest industrialized practices were Agri-based and included tools and fairly sophisticated equipment to control soil erosion and facilitate irrigation. Barter exchange grew to enhance people from different regions that produced other agricultural products to share the outcomes. This change facilized the growth of towns and the economy as it is known today. Clearly, agriculture had a massive influence on developing societies, from creating trade to bringing industrialization, education and social classes.

Agricultural Influences on Developing Civil Society

Little is known about how people lived and survived in pre-historic periods. However, almost all historians agree that all people were hunters and gatherers before the emergence of agriculture. For example, Hansen and Curtis point out that all ancient people were hunters and gatherers, constantly in motion, whether following herds of animals or gathering berries and plants (19). This pursuit for food made humans realize that planting these seeds and domesticating some of the more friendly animals and then slaughtering them could be more beneficial than traditional hunting and gathering. This practice could not be considered agriculture per se as it was combined with the conventional ways of getting food. It did not fit Hansen and Curtiss definition of agriculture: The planting of seeds and harvesting of crops using domesticated animals (19). This definition of agriculture was only achieved during the new stone age when Natufians began to use tools to enhance their agricultural produce.

The change to the way agriculture influenced society has been studied widely and then documented, gaining the name Neolithic revolution in the process. As stated above, this name is influenced by its association with tools and equipment. The Natufians first started by planting figs and leaving them while they hunted. They later advanced to grains which initially grew naturally but assisted their growth through weeding. Gradually, people grew to assimilate more advanced forms of farming, which greatly influenced how people lived in the community. For instance, growing crops and rearing animals ensured that people would live in one place, and the habit of always being on the move was altered. Hansen and Curtis state that groups as large as 150 or 250 larger than typical 30 or 40 in hunter and gatherer bands could be found in a small square rage of 10 800 after the shift (22). This new type of settlement structure was the catalyst of all changes and the development of the civilized society that is known today.

Influence of Excess Food Production

Due to climatical factors, some particular crops and animals did well in some parts while other agricultural products did well in other regions. Rains were also known to come at different times, which gave some areas food while others did not. As a result of these challenges, means of trade, initially barter trade, had to be improvised. Agriculture also influenced the growth of earlier cities like Jericho, a walled city to protect the people gathering from animals and peoples enemies. The agricultural impact also led to social classes in the society. Hansen and Curtis observe that different types of houses in Catalhoyuk had different styles to indicate more wealth in some than others (23). People who had excessive food could afford to spend their time on luxury, and this has been proved by the existence of beautiful knives and jewellery dated during the new stone age period.

How Agriculture Brought Industrialization

The agricultural revolution made it necessary to advance tools and equipment and thus spearheading the industrial revolution. In all ancient societies, from Natufians to early American settlers, good agricultural produce always made it possible for people to concentrate on other issues, including the manufacturing processes. Many scholars argue that the industrial revolution brought the agricultural revolution to an end. Still, a deeper look into the matter reveals that the development of agriculture enhanced the development of industries. For instance, agriculture made people settle in large numbers in particular areas. These large settlements made the people able to share ideas and manufacturing tools, thus enhancing the growth of industries. The large habitations could also have necessitated new living methods, movement, and communication, thus making this revolution necessary.

How Agricultural Influence Brought Trade

Agriculture and trade are historically correlated as the advancement of one ensured the progress of the other. For example, the trade routes that connected Africa, Europe, Asia and America made it possible for agricultural knowledge to be shared between different people. The fact that agriculture made people stop being in motion also facilitated the growth of populated regions that acted as markets for barter trade. From 8300 B.C.E to 6000 B.C.E major urban centres such as Jerico, Ain Ghazal, and Catalhouyuk had large populations thanks to agriculture and farmers from neighbouring regions frequenting the areas for trade (Hansen and Curtis 23). Remains of one of these cities, Caralhouyuk, are still present in modern-day turkey, revealing how the settlement patterns were.

Other Agricultural Influences

The number of changes that agriculture brought to society is numerous and intricate and impossible to list conclusively in one paper. One of these changes is the enhancement of water catchment practices. People came to realize the need to hold water for their plants and animals, leading to an abundance of water for humans as well. Agriculturists also discovered that tilling land left it vulnerable to soil erosion and other forms of land pollution. Construction of gabions, mulching, and planting crop cover, among other soil conservation practices, came alongside agriculture. Establishing robust economic systems where food was abundant was also another way agriculture helped human development. Some people always had more food than others and as a result, social classes developed in almost all civilizations.

Conclusion

Admittedly, agriculture had a significant influence on developing societies, ranging from creating trade to bringing industrialization, education and social classes. Regions with better agriculture like Europe witnessed more rapid development than other religions like Africa and the American continents. One of the most significant benefits of agriculture was providing ample food supply for all and spurring civilization. Agriculture enhanced development by bringing trade, enhancing economic growth, ensuring sufficient food supply, ensuring environmental conservation and creating social classes, each with different roles. Even today, in this digital era, agriculture still plays one of the most critical roles in society.

Work Cited

Hansen, Valerie, and Kenneth, R., Curtis. Voyages in World History, Complete, Brief. Cengage Learning, 2017.

Agriculture is the key sector in America that has conquered global exports in the world. Currently, America has put in great agricultural thought in the world. This paper analyzes Americas contribution in prevention of natural calamities, decline of soil quality, promotion of production outlay and provision of sufficient food.

According to Henretta & Brody, Gang system was a method introduced in plantation. Actually, Gang system was convenient that facilitated continuous task at a constant rate that was more resourceful in agricultural activities (454). Gang system was more useful especially when slavery was abandoned. Indeed, Gang system ensured that slaves performed task together in a particular time frame. Gang system was more demanding because slaves performed their tasks with machinery.

Sharecropping was an agricultural method that landowners permitted tenants to utilize a particular land. Actually, Henretta & Brody viewed that a share of agricultural products yielded from a land would be given to a landowner, 50% of produce (490). Furthermore, Tenants were determined to work harder in order to employs more efficient agricultural systems in order to yield more products.

According to Henretta & Brody, American farmers commonly utilized Crop-lien system (595). Indeed, United States Civil War caused farmers to experience shortage of cash. In this case, Crop-lien scheme was a method that enabled farmers to obtain credit through borrowing cash prior to planting period (Henretta & Brody 610). Indeed, merchants offered agricultural supplies on credit.

In case, farmers reaped farm products, they would take such products to merchants in order to repay their credit. Moreover, Debt Peonage was important to farmers who would pledge against credit (Henretta & Brody 497). Indeed, Debt Peonage was a kind of credit given to farmers who would utilize farm products to refund their debts. Furthermore, Debt Peonage was a scheme whereby farmers provided physical labors a way of refunding their credit.

Homestead Act was American national regulation which permitted interested farmers free possession of land known as Homestead (Henretta & Brody 629). Actually, many farmers contended to use national land for farming. Homestead Act of 1862 was the initial Act that commissioned freed slaves to improve and develop national land for period of five years.

On the other hand, Exodusters were black Americans who went through hardship due to failure to refund their huge debt used during farming (Henretta & Brody 704). Unfortunately, Exodusters were deported from South America and some were murdered, however, endured unfortunate conditions.

Henretta & Brody explained that Dry farming was established in Great Plains to hasten wheat production (542). Actually, Dry farming was an alternative solution to agricultural challenges experienced in Great Plains. Indeed, Henretta & Brody expressed that Dry farming was meant to preserve scarce moisture in dry season through decreasing evaporation hence rising moisture retention (681). Actually, Henretta & Brody viewed that:

Farmers put Dust Mulch after every downpour in order to shield land from severe moisture evaporation. In fact, Dust Bowl was a season of terrible dust storms that led to agricultural destruction because to excess drought. In this case, Soil Conservation Service offered technical support to farmers through building Shelterbelts to prevent wind erosion (604).

Grange movement was an organization established to promote economic development and social necessities in faming activities. Actually, Grange movement was focused to offer social and insurance support to farmers (Henretta & Brody 589). Grange movement intended to empower farmers through education. Indeed, Grange movement became cooperative society that provided farm equipment and machinery to farmers. Besides that, Barbed wire was a kind of economical fence that was used to restrain livestock in animal husbandry.

Besides that, deflation reduced prices of services and products. While inflation decreased actual value of currency, deflection boosted actual value of currency, hence enabled local merchants to purchase more farm products at constant quantity of money in a specific period of time.

Actually, deflection affected farmers when prices of farm products were reduced thus decreased production rate that decreased demand and earnings prices (Henretta & Brody 474). In addition, overproduction of agricultural products led to more supply than demand thus contributed to reduced prices of farm products (Henretta & Brody 699). According to Henretta & Brody:

Colored Farmers Alliance was established when white and black farmers encountered terrible hardship due to increase in farming expenses while reduction in farm earnings. However, the Southern Farmers Alliance that was initially formed never permitted black farmers to be members of such society. Besides that, Populism that was a lobby group that intended to promote farmers situations. Actually, Populism strengthened Farmers Alliance and Grange movement. Some of populist objectives were passed into rules to safeguard farmers interests (705).

Furthermore, Henretta & Brody viewed that Sub-treasury system was established to resolve challenges of farming credit (452). Actually, low prices and rigid currency compelled farmers to experience debt. Sub-treasury system was formed to safeguard credit that supported farmers in agricultural activities.

In addition, Agricultural Adjustment Act was established to sustain prices of farm products in order to retain plenty supply during short production seasons and to formulate marketing quotas to balance between demands and supply market (Henretta & Brody 667).

Furthermore, Food administrations that were international societies ensured enough food in the world. Moreover, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) offered fiscal progress due to experience of negative impacts of Great Depression at Tennessee valley (Henretta & Brody 547). Lastly, Readjuster social gathering was established during American Civil War. Indeed, Readjuster lobby group was formed to enhance education to empower people who were affected during the Civil War (Henretta & Brody 717).

Conclusion

American contribution was so diverse that not only supported the national needs but also offered export to various nations in the world. Such invention was brought due to intense research that led to development of farm technology and machinery.

Works Cited

Henretta, James, & Brody David. America: A Concise History. 4^th ed. New York: Bedford, 2009. Print.

Introduction

Venezuela is a country in South America. It has been characterised by overreliance on petroleum exports. This has affected all the other sectors of the economy, as they receive less support from the government. One such sector is the agricultural sector. The country will be impacted greatly if no action is taken by the government to improve agriculture. Overreliance on petroleum exports has made the country extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in oil prices and global economic trends. Thus, the country enters into a recession whenever oil prices reduce. Agriculture is the smallest contributor to the countrys GDP, as it contributes only 4% of the countrys GDP (Rivas, 2002). Therefore, Venezuela relies heavily on foreigners for over two-thirds of its food supply. The US is one of the major suppliers of Venezuelas agricultural products, accounting for a third of the total supply. This reliance has led to increasing food shortages in the country. Poor social and economic policies are the main contributors to the agricultural underdevelopment in Venezuela. If no solution is found, then the country will lack food supply to feed its population and cause further underdevelopment in the agricultural sector.

Agricultural problems in Venezuela

Agriculture has evolved into an environmental and natural resource crisis. Agriculture has been greatly underdeveloped in Venezuela, yet it is a country that has vital minerals and resources required for the global economy. The problem of food production can be traced to the Gomez regime, which lacked interest in agricultural development. Instead, Gomez wanted to expand petroleum revenues. Agricultural problems in Venezuela have persisted largely because of activities that have had detrimental effects on the environment. Environmental pollution has increased due to mining and oil exploration, which have affected agriculture adversely. The country has been keen on creating oil fields and mining land at the expense of land for agricultural production. Thus, only a quarter of the country is favourable for agricultural production (Rivas, 2002). The government is not involved in building public infrastructure due to the mismanagement of public resources, yet it would be beneficial for agricultural production. For instance, building roads, agricultural research institutes, and making agricultural inputs for farmers would boost agriculture. The government has also failed to make the economy dynamic.

The public is also uninterested in investing in agriculture. Few people are keen on agricultural production, as it is expensive and seen as unprofitable. Instead, many of the citizens are involved in manufacturing and mining activities. The countrys institutions have also been unable to establish an agricultural development model. This has impacted on the agricultural sector negatively, which has further prevented the public from being interested in investing in agriculture.

Agricultural services are also non-functional. People who are interested in agricultural production do not get the support they need to be established. This has led to calls for the government to have sustainable development. All the sectors of the economy should be developed together. Thus, natural resources should be used efficiently and avoid harming other sectors of the economy. The urgency in solving agricultural issues has created the new political will to deal with the problems that have been ignored as a result of political instability and financial difficulties. In the past, Venezuela did a devaluation of the currency to improve agricultural production (Rivas, 2002). Prices for agricultural produce and machinery were high. Therefore, devaluation of the currency was able to balance the economy, thereby encouraging more agricultural importers and lowering food prices, just enough to meet the local demand. This strategy can be employed today to improve agriculture.

The groups that are affected most by the underdeveloped agriculture in Venezuela are the common citizens and the poor within the society. The government has also tried to develop policies to prevent further problems, but no gains have been seen so far. Food prices are continuing to increase in the county. Venezuela also has among the highest levels of inflation in South America, especially due to fluctuating oil prices. For instance, inflation reached a peak of 37% in 1997 (Rivas, 2002). The high inflation has hurt agricultural development.

As earlier mentioned, the problem of insufficient agricultural production in Venezuela has been persistent because the country is overly relying on petroleum. Over 90% of Venezuelas exports are based on oil (Rivas, 2002). The country was able to flourish and develop when the oil prices were high in the past. Unfortunately, few policies were established to develop other sectors of the economy during these times. Currently, it has been harder to achieve agricultural development without the financial resources the country had before. Thus, the persistent agricultural problems are a result of past failures by the countrys elites.

The solution to agricultural underdevelopment

There are several solutions that can be applied in solving the problem of agricultural underdevelopment, amidst the impending disasters and challenges affecting Venezuela due to agricultural underdevelopment. For instance, technology can be used to improve the substantiality of the various economic sectors and ensure that food production is efficient and less wasteful. Thus, mining policies should be established to reduce pollution and contribute directly to agricultural production. Conservation will be important, as it will result in financial savings. These savings can then be redirected into other sectors, like the agricultural sector. For instance, effective environmental conservation will make agricultural production cheaper while increasing productive land for food (Rivas, 2002).

The private sector can contribute to the agricultural sector immensely. Discussions should be encouraged between the government and agricultural stakeholders to find ways of dealing with the problem of agricultural underdevelopment and how to include the private sector. Venezuela enjoys greater political clout as a major oil exporter. This makes it easier to establish trade policies with other countries, especially with regard to agricultural imports. The elimination of fertilizer subsidiaries in the 1990-1991 biennium agreement had a negative effect on agriculture (Rivas, 2002). More subsidiaries should be implemented, thereby reducing the costs of supplying agricultural inputs.

Structural adjustments should also occur in the economy. First, the government should take more interest in other sectors of the economy to reduce the contribution of oil exports by a significant margin, while increasing the contribution of the other sectors of the economy. Rural development should also be encouraged. Only 34% of people in rural areas contribute to the labour force (Rivas, 2002). Therefore, the rest should be utilized in increasing agricultural production. People in rural areas should be taught about new technological advancements that facilitate increased agricultural production. Therefore, it is possible to increase agricultural output in Venezuela through education and agricultural extension services. The government can direct more finances towards agricultural improvement from the proceeds of oil export (Rivas, 2002).

Some of the reforms in agriculture should also incorporate land reforms. The production of a variety of foods should be encouraged. Initially, many of the policies in the agricultural sector relied on increasing the production of staple foods, such as rice, beans, and maize. These foods have low value and cannot improve the sector enough. Small scale farmers, who are mostly opposed to producing commercial foods, should be encouraged to increase the variety of foods produced. Experimentation and research should occur on new food strains that can do well in the environmental conditions of Venezuela (Rivas, 2002).

The process of land allocation for beneficiaries should also be less bureaucratic. In the 1970s, over 50% of the budget allocated for land reforms was used for administrative purposes (Rivas, 2002). This made the process of land allocation costly and time-consuming. The funds used to purchase land were insufficient, thereby discouraging many people from selling land for agricultural development. Therefore, the reforms should ensure that most costs in land allocation are in the actual growth of crops. More funds should be allocated to the agriculture sector to assist the farmers. This will increase production for the home market in the short term. With time, the excess production can be directed to exports, thereby increasing the contribution of agriculture to the countrys GDP.

Conclusion

Agriculture has remained underdeveloped in Venezuela for many years as a result of over-relying on other sectors of the economy, especially the oil sector. Petroleum production, the main export of the country, has been the main economic activity, accounting for over 90% of the exports. Reduction of global oil prices has affected the country negatively, especially in the efforts to revive the agricultural sector. The country relies heavily on food imports to feed its population. However, Venezuela can turn the situation around by implementing policies that will encourage agricultural production. It means that the government needs to increase support for the agricultural sector. Moreover, local food production should be increased to reduce the countrys dependence on food imports. Consequently, Venezuela will be able to deal with the problem of agricultural underdevelopment and become self-sufficient.

Reference

Rivas, D. (2002). Missionary capitalist: Nelson Rockefeller in Venezuela. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

U.S. Farm Bill

Agriculture in the United States has grown progressively centralized during the previous three decades. Since 2015, the bulk of the foodstuffs has come from farms with yearly revenues exceeding one million dollars (Lehrer, 2020). Generally, federal policy has aided with consolidation and the homogeneity and unfairness that comes with it. The farm bill in the United States allocates unequal funding to the most prominent and affluent agricultural businesses (Lehrer, 2020). Unfortunately, instead of championing Americas socially marginalized farmers and ranchers, the House Agriculture Committees current farm bill chose to enhance the availability of endless benefits to mega-farms. Furthermore, the U.S. agricultural bill hinders conservation efforts by defunding critical initiatives. Despite its popularity, the Environmental Quality Incentives Program and Conservation Stewardship Program are sometimes forced to turn away half of the qualifying applications owing to a shortage of funding (Lehrer, 2020). Rather than expanding financing for these critical programs, the measure reduces conservation title, which impacts conservation practices.

The shortcomings in the 2018 U.S. farm legislation resulted in multiple challenges in the food system. Revisions should ensure that the bill supports equal distribution of resources among the large, medium, and small-scale farmers and ranchers. Small and medium-scale farming systems now provide half of the United States food calories on just thirty percent of the countrys farmland (Lehrer, 2020). Smaller ranches and farms are more efficient per acre than larger ones when resources and circumstances are equal. Programs and initiatives that focus on conserving the farmland in the country should be adequately funded. Such programs concentrate on activities that enrich the farmlands with nutrients for quality products. Such actions play an important role in strengthening the countrys food system.

Community Garden

Creating a communal garden might be among the most incredible and fulfilling experiences a person can have in their lifetime. Simply thinking about it conjures pictures of beautiful sunny days spent working in the garden with family, colleagues, and neighbors. Fresh and high-quality products are more readily available in community gardens. These products availability helps to reduce food expenditures and promote agricultural production for individuals who require it most (Palmer, 2018). In contrast, heavy dependence on food banks might result in long-term health issues. Many food banks sell processed foods rather than fresh produce; thus, families and communities that rely on them too much may experience nutritional deficits. People who participate in the garden gain exercise and exposure to the sun and the psychological advantages of gardening. Weeding a vegetable patch is exceptionally helpful in relieving stress and offers gardeners with mental health advantages. People are becoming more active, which benefits their overall health. They also provide residents a gentle recess from the rush and commotion of urban life, minimizing stress.

The problems of establishing a communal garden are numerous. The most challenging aspect of beginning a community garden is obtaining approval and a permit to continue operations. Depending on the gardens location, individuals may require permission to rip up the grass, install a fence, and carry out the agricultural business (Palmer, 2018). Before actually creating the garden, consult with the relevant municipal council to prevent getting in trouble with the authorities. People frequently think that their colleagues are helpful and supportive; thus, they will contribute to the gardens efforts. However, this is not usually the case, and engaging the community can be difficult. When creating a community garden, it is good to chat with the neighbors and make sure they understand the benefits.

Food Movement

A food citizen is better than a mindful consumer who recognizes the far-reaching consequences of their food choices. Food citizens are conscious of agricultural system challenges and make both socially and ecologically responsible decisions. Furthermore, the food citizen promotes a democratic approach of incorporating individuals in agricultural industry characteristics, allowing them to choose food depending on its source, production method, and individual generating it. They influence various areas of the food industry, including social fairness and environmental sustainability, to bring about beneficial change (Nestle, 2019). On the other hand, a food consumer tag implies that the consumer has little control over how their foodstuff is produced and prepared. Consumers have few options and are obliged to embrace what is offered. The diet that results from an agricultural system damages the wellness of the community destroys ecosystems and exploits the poor and oppressed.

The food movement seeks to restore the link between what people consume and where it originates. It is not only about ingesting genuine foodstuff; it is also about comprehending what it means, manufacturing it, and having it available and attractive to everyone. Youth are an essential population in advancement for a variety of reasons. Todays youth inherit a slew of problems stemming from a flawed food system. Multiple institutions across the globe include youngsters in agriculture to close the generational gap. The youthful demographic is the most driven to reform the food system, despite growing rates of obesity, hunger, worldwide temperature rise, and climate change (Pollan, 2010). The various actions and roles associated with agricultural production, preparation, promotion, transportation, ingestion, and waste control involve the youth. Each sort of interaction is linked to a wide range of multifaceted goals and interests, such as food security and the development of nutritious agricultural products.

The challenge of Food Safety in the U.S.

Products that people like and rely on for excellent health can become compromised with microorganisms that cause illness and ultimately be fatal. Due to these challenges, food safety in the United States remains a big problem. Further progress is required to safeguard individuals and minimize foodborne diseases in the United States. New concerns about food safety remain to develop with shifts in agricultural production and distribution, including increasing imported foodstuffs. Importing food has a higher carbon impact, which reduces nutritional potential. Imported fresh vegetables and fruits ripen on the way, and the majority of the spoil affects the quality. Food safety continues to be impacted by environmental changes that contribute to food poisoning. Foodborne diseases spread and transmission may be affected by climate change (Fung et al., 2018). Extreme hot summers and cold winters, for example, may enhance the number of pests like rodents and bugs that can propagate food poisoning microorganisms.

The U.S. authorities have a significant role to play in the effort to address the food safety crisis. The federal and state governments should adopt policies that encourage shoppers to consume locally-grown products rather than importing them. Farmers businesses and roadside vendors will be able to operate and sell early spring produce due to this legislation. Locally grown food has more taste since it is picked at its height of ripeness rather than being harvested early, transported, and supplied to a retail store. Environmental policy will be critical in dealing with the problem of food safety (Garcia et al., 2020). A commitment to continuously monitor and enhance ecological efficiency is included in the environmental policy. The promise is to look for measures to save energy, minimize fuel usage, cut emissions, and avoid pollution. Ecological sustainability is improved by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and potable groundwater usage.

COVID-19 on U.S. Food System

A convergence of a widespread economic crisis and interruptions in agri-food distribution networks has influenced food systems, inequality, and malnutrition. The coronavirus outbreak, which has advanced promptly and broadly throughout the country since early 2020, has had devastating impacts and exposed flaws in the United States food system. Food supply networks have been severely disrupted due to the lockdown operations, affecting food quality, cost, and accessibility. The closure of eateries and other dining service establishments resulted in a major drop in sales for perishable items like vegetables, fresh fruits, and dairy products (Bender et al., 2021). The outbreak of the virus has had a considerable consequences on food ecosystems. The circumstance, and consequently the manner people participate and connect with the food system to acquire, make, and consume foodstuffs, has adjusted due to lockdown restrictions and supply chain interruptions. Individuals who depended on meals made outside in hotels and restaurants had to learn to cook at home.

The United States government must strengthen food systems to withstand abrupt shocks like the COVID-19 outbreak. The pandemic has been identified as a pivotal contributor to the recent increase in world hunger. Enhancing the competence to evaluate and assess susceptibility, capabilities, and hazards is crucial in improving resilience. Building resistance has evolved as a critical tool for preventing, mitigating, and preparing for risks connected with various development issues. Endurance is also a significant component of the United States prosperity, human dignity, stability, and defense pillars, and it is essential for attaining long-term progress. Advance warning techniques have been identified as valuable for improving readiness and reaction to natural disasters, making them necessary for disaster prevention (Fan et al., 2021). A robust food system can resist and rebound from disturbances while still providing a substantial quantity of desirable and available food for everyone.

References

Bender, K. E., Badiger, A., Roe, B. E., Shu, Y., & Qi, D. (2021). Consumer behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic: An analysis of food purchasing and management behaviors in U.S. households through the lens of food system resilience. Socio-Economic Planning Science, 10(1), 1-12.

Fan, S., Teng, P., Chew, P., Smith, G., & Copeland, L. (2021). Food system resilience and COVID-19. Global Food Security, 28(1), 1-7.

Fung, F., Wang, H., & Menon, S. (2018). Food safety on the 21^st century. Biomedical Journal, 41(2), 88-95.

Garcia, S. N., Osburn, B. I., & Jay-Russell, M. T. (2020). One health for food safety, food security, and sustainable food production. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 13(3), 124-135.

Lehrer, N. (2020). US farm bills and the national interest: An historical research paper. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 35, 358-366.

Nestle, M. (2019). The supplement nutrition assistance program (SNAP): History, politics, and public health implications. American Journal of Public Health, 109(12), 1631-1635.

Palmer, L. (2018). Urban agriculture growth in U.S. cities. Nature Sustainability, 1, 5-7.

Pollan, M. (2010). The food movement rising. The New York Review of Books.

Introduction

The article portrays how freedom has been eliminated in the countryside by the state agriculture department. The issues discussed in this article are further enhanced by the book The Constitution of Liberty, which was written some years ago. This book has discussed the organization of labor, socializing, the spectrum of politics, and state welfare in the USA. Chapter 1 of the book provides an analysis of the issues of economic freedom and the worth of the competitive market in the USA. Chapter 2 supports the issues discussed in the article by analyzing the states role in liberty preservation.

The article entitled Everything I Want to Do Is Illegal has recounted that all the USA farms are reserved for farming only, and anything else practiced in them rather than farming is illegal. It has explained the Acres Eco-Agriculture practices and the involved restrictions by the example of one farmer who wanted to practice various farming activities on his farm but had no legal right to do that.

This paper will discuss whether the farmer has a moral right to do his farming practices or not. It will also analyze how the restriction of his farming practices affects community development and whether there is anybody else who is concerned about these restrictions.

Analysis

Basically, the book Constitution of Liberty has demonstrated the political philosophy in the US. It has given the USA an overview of human liberation, the administration, and the economy. In chapter 1 the author, Hayek, stated his theory as The worth of the freedom where he has strived to search for the ideal nature of liberty and has explained why the ideal is valuable when pursued. According to Hayek (1978), the nature of freedom is in the absence of pressure on individual from another individual or a group of people. He has defined liberty or freedom as thatcondition of men in which coercion of some by others is reduced as much as is possible in society (Hayek, 1978, p. 11). His argument was that, when giving the widest scope of the actions of an individual, community will gain the advantage in unforeseeable way where every person will be given a chance to develop his/her capabilities.

The main aim of freedom is enlarging the capabilities of the individual, where a man exceeds his descendants and every generation must endeavor to make its contribution to future development. This share involves the development of knowledge and gradual advancement of ethical and aesthetics views, where superiors should not be allowed to control individuals views on what is good or right.

Chapter 1 of the book has focused on the economic freedom issues and the worth of the competing market. Chapter 2 has provided the overview of the state role in liberty preservation (Hayek, 1978). Therein, there is a development of law viewing, which has depicted the worth of promoting the individual liberation exercise. As demonstrated by James Madison, Hayek has presented a serious discussion on common law development and American Constitutionalism with a lot of sympathy (Krahl, 2009).

The farmer complained that everything he wanted to do was illegal in relation to the USA farm restrictions. Any letter from the state agriculture department worried the farmer so much (Salatin, 2003). The government restrictions included, bureaucratic regulations on Agriculture, Zoning laws, taxation conducted by the government agencies and food inspection. In these Acres farm, Hayek statement of the worth of the freedom lacked sense as no farmer was allowed to practice anything else on their land except farming. The farmer wanted to gain profit from selling meet of his pork and beef , he wanted to build a slaughterhouse on his farm, where he had raised the cows and pigs but zoning laws prohibited building of slaughterhouses on the farming land.

He complained that the government considered abattoirs building having a Tyson or a ConAgra and dressing two animals at the backyard as the same thing which were not. As Portrayed in the Hayeks book, common law should be developed to allow individual liberation in the US. The article has demonstrated how corruption was practiced when one wanted to sell his/her meat steaks. One had to wrap it including some dollars for the meat to be sold. Hayek has narrated in his book ways of eliminating corruption in the competitive market.

The farmer argument was that, if he could be allowed as quoted by Hayek freedom for liberation he could have managed to sell his steak meat more efficiently without the corrupt government assistance. This would allow him to control his farm in a humane way, being responsible, efficiently and in a friendly environment as compared to the administration agents who have no liberty since they walk around with many regulations attached to them. Certainly, the farmer has an honest right to conduct all the farm practices that he want to be allowed by the government, since he could build a slaughtering house in his farm rather than travelling all the way to the legal abattoirs for meat dressing and processing.

We discover that the Acre restrictions turned out to be contradicting. this can be seen in the situation when farmer took his animals to a legal abattoir for dressing and later returned home to sell his delicious packages. However, he found that the government agents enforcing the zoning laws said that the packages were to be re imported according to one of the Wal-Mart category of farming restrictions (Salatin, 2003). The zoning law enforcers argued that storing the delicious packages in a farm store was illegal.

Restrictions to the farmer have really affected the development of the community to the extend that there was food shortage in the community. Food industrialization systems have been affected by making all the parts of the community to be disconnected from the rest. The community was also affected by the dirty and smelly farms which were supposed to be away from the people.

The article argues that Farms should not have places for learning and enjoyment as farms are only for agriculture activities. Farm visiting is considered as illegal even flies and sparrows are viewed as threating diseases to animals and plants. Indeed, every person living in these Acres should be concerned about these government restrictions.They are causing various problems to the community such as farms becoming dirty and smelly, as one is not allowed to eliminate the wastes from the farm because this is considered to be illegal. This could lead to spread of many diseases such as cholera. These restrictions hinder the development of a competitive market which made Hayek advocate greatly for ways of making the USA market competitive. They are affecting the Acres peoples social life as one is not supposed to encourage visitors in their farms since they believe that visitors can spread the germs, thus threatening their welfare and health.

Some restrictions really discourage trading, as there are many people producing quality products which can be stocked in farms retail outlets, butare considered to be illegal. These restrictions are unfair since they do not allow people to do their rural purchasing at different farms of their choice. They are normally restricted to do their rural purchasing in ones home. The government should allow freedom for liberation as campaigned by Hayed such that every farmer will do his/her farming practices on his own including selling and marketing his products without involving any other party. The USA administration should allow market flexibility so that every farmer would be able to sell his/her products on his own to every part of the world. They should remove all the market limitations as Hayek advocated. The USA government is very strict regarding children, especially under 18 years, thus they are never considered for internship.

Conclusion

Generally, in his book Hayek has really analyzed the freedom for liberation, socialization, competition of the market and politics. He has advocated for individual liberty which is like a dream to the farmer in the Acres where the government enforces a lot of restrictions in the agricultural farms. The government has maintained that the US lands are meant for farming practices only and anything else practiced on them is illegal. Zoning law has restricted development in the countryside. The US administration should allow farmers to do their own things and sell their products on their own way to allow invention, market flexibility, and growth as advocated by Hayek.

References

Hayek, F. (1978). The Constitution of Liberty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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Introduction

The United States of America is a nation that has great diversity in terms of race and ethnicity. This kind of diversity brings in some effects in terms of resource use. This research paper is going to answer the question; do public policies reduce or enhance racial inequality in agricultural and environmental affairs? It is going to be established that public policies have enhanced racial inequality in this regard.

Racial discrimination in agriculture and the environment

According to Peoria,(6), there is a direct relationship between the persistence of environmental racism in farm work and the political, legal, and economic conditions that maintain farmworkers in a state of labor repression. This implies that the unequal trends in environmental protection, as well as unequal exposure to environmental dangers, emanate from the collective effects of several conditions and these conditions are economic conditions, political conditions, and legal conditions.

The public policies and laws that are put in place that give support to the farm labor contractor system give limitations to the capacity of the farmworkers to organize themselves to protect their rights (West 13). The immigrant status, which has not been documented, of a large number of farm workers, weakens, even more, these farmers capacity to deal with the injustice challenges that face them in the agricultural place of work. The absence of the legal frameworks or the frameworks that are weak for organizing unions, attaining collaborative rights for bargaining, and the right to protest is the greatest grave barriers to the achievement of environmental justice for these workers (Majka and Majka). This implies that as long as the farmworkers are still defenseless and unorganized, they will still have limited ability to deal with the environmental racism in their place of work as well as in the places they live.

According to Schelhas (15), the Civil Rights Action Team of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) described a number of ways in which discrimination has been evident in government assistance programs for agriculture and natural resources. Schelhas (15) further points out that several minority farmers gave out reports that taking part in the Farm Service Agency programs has for a long time been blocked by the county office staff that has been discriminatory that did not facilitate sharing of information, made slow the processing activity, or if not, blocking participation of the minority groups.

There is discrimination in USDA loan, credit and subsidy program (Schelhas 7). Unequal treatment of the farmers of color as well as discriminating them by the United States Department of Agriculture engages a well documented legacy of institutionalized racism. There is acceptance by the internal report made by the Civil Rights Action Team of lack of success of the United States Department of Agriculture to go in line with the laws of federal civil rights. The report makes a conclusion that; minority farmers have lost significant amounts of land and potential farm income as a result of discrimination by Farm Service Agency programs and the programs for its predecessor agencies (Schelhas 7). In the United States of America, Racial discrimination in the United States Department of Agriculture was left greatly unchecked at a time when the Reagan administration was over. This was brought back to live by the Clinton administration in the year 1996 but the destruction that been done and the civil rights enforcement complaints were still eminent all through the 1990s (Swanston, 82)..

Conclusion

Racial discrimination has still bloomed and this has been enhanced by the policies that have been put in place that do not seek to effectively do away with racial discrimination in the use of natural resources. Appropriate policies need to be put in place in order to deal with this problem.

Works Cited

Majka, Charles and Majka, Thomas, Organizing US farm workers: A continuous struggle. In. Hungry for profit: The agribusiness threat to farmers, food and the environment, ed. F Mgdoff, J B Foster, and F H Buttel. New York: Monthly Review Press.

Pefia, Devon, Environmental justice and sustainable agriculture: Linking ecological and social sides of sustainability. Resources paper series, 2002.

Schelhas, John., Race, Ethnicity, and Natural Resources in the United States: A Review. Natural Resources Journal. vol. 42, 2002.

Swanston, Stephen, Environmental Justice: mobilizing for the 21^st Century: Environmental justice and environmental quality benefits: The oldest, most pernicious struggle and hope for burdened communities. Carolina: Academic Press, 2002.

West, Patrick, Urban region parks and black minorities; subculture, marginality, and interracial relations in park use in Detroit metropolitan area. Leisure sciences 11: 11-28.