The notion of aging became especially threatening and stimulating among women in recent years. One of the outcomes of this trend is the creation of blogs. Women post their best photos to show their personality. Rocamora states that “blogs reproduce women’s position as specular objects, but also as a space of empowerment through the control it grants bloggers on their own image” (410). Personally, after visiting the offered website, I felt ambivalent emotions. On the one hand, it is quite new and unusual to see elderly people dressed so brightly. On the other hand, I like this style of their self-expression. Wearing red coats and cocktail dresses, they strive to show that they want to be involved in life to the same extent as others.
People acquire more experience and knowledge with age, and often we consider them as old-fashioned and conservative. However, the readings for this essay prove that elderly people tend to remain active and fashionable. In particular, Gibson emphasizes a stylish aging and an “unacknowledged growth in recent years of new fears around aging related specifically to appearance” (382). This phenomenon is explained by Rocamora as a “therapeutic tool” that helps women to project their emotions and feelings, both positive and negative ones (408). Thus, the fashion bloggers act as the mirrors showing them to other people.
Moreover, I would like to express my view on the text presented on the blog. Bob Miller, a best-dressed older gentleman, discusses his experience and things related to aging (par. 1). In my opinion, the text is quite interesting and thought-provoking. I agree with the author that there should be no discrimination towards aged people in our society. We should treat them properly avoiding a disrespectful tone. Unfortunately, I observed that adults compare their elderly parents with children. Yes, they can forget some things, but it is not a reason to talk to them inappropriately. In this connection, I support the author’s opinion.
The other topic is political involvement of elderly people in different programs. The current situation can destroy one’s self and lead to the insult. I believe that a range of governmental projects can significantly improve this discrimination called ageism. For example, it can be useful to employ a program that would prohibit doctors to talk with assistants about the aged patient’s disease and, instead, would promote direct communication with the patient. Also, I think that these programs should be discussed and resolved at all levels including local, national, and global ones. At the same time, aged people are to be proactive themselves showing their strong desire to live a full life. The appearance plays an important role in this process. I would like to stress that it should be age-appropriate and modern at the same time. Otherwise, it can lead to the deeper misunderstanding from the society.
I think that the blog affected my understanding of aging. I have never considered this problem so clearly. Often, I saw aged people wearing bright dresses and looking like a movie star. However, I could not even image the meaning of this appearance. I understand now that fashion blogs, bright colors, and overall appearance of elderly people shows their struggle with social and political misunderstanding and mistreatment. Moreover, I learned that there is a need for the development and implementation of relevant programs aimed to improve the present situation.
Works Cited
Gibson, Pamela. “Fashions, Fears and Ageing.” Fashion Cultures Revisited. Ed. Pamela Gibson and Stella Bruzzi. London: Routledge. 2013. 322-337. Print.
Miller, Bob. “Ageism.” Advanced Style. Advanced Style. 2016. Web.
Rocamora, Agnès. “Personal Fashion Blogs: Screens and Mirrors in Digital Self-portraits.” Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture 15.4 (2011): 407-24. Print.
Life at different age stages is characterized by specific physical and mental markers. With regard to old age, personal qualities and experiences acquired during life largely determine the worldview. At the same time, mental health can be transformed under the influence of pathological changes in the psyche, as well as the environment and lifestyle of the individual. This work is aimed at revealing my personal views on the aspects of personality, cognition, and physical state of old age and assessing the theoretical background that describes the relevant states and their prerequisites.
Personal Views
While taking into account the available information offered by national agencies and other authoritative sources, I have formed my personal views on the characteristics of life in old age. For instance, given the statistics presented by Lally and Valentine-French (2017), I clearly understand that the average life expectancy of males is lower than that of females. This, in turn, has formed my opinion that men are more susceptible to dangerous diseases and tend to turn to medical specialists for qualified help less often. At the same time, I hold the view that closer to old age, regardless of gender, those people retain a clear mind who have been actively working mentally throughout their lives.
Regarding the physical condition, I have formed my personal views on life expectancy. By focusing on official statistics, which confirm that after 65, the number of hospital admissions and death cases is growing steadily, I have set a critical age threshold for myself – 85 years (Lally & Valentine-French, 2017, p. 378). This is pleasant to know that the majority of centenarians live in the US, but based on global statistics, I know that in Japan, this indicator per capita is significantly higher (Lally & Valentine-French, 2017). Such statistics confirm my idea that lifestyle directly affects health and longevity, and to stay lucid and within one’s own physical abilities, following certain life habits is a crucial prerequisite.
Theories of Old Age
After studying the relevant theoretical background, I have expanded my knowledge of the principles and impacts that affect older age. One of the relevant concepts is Erikson’s stage model, which considers old age as a period in which “biopsychosocial integrity” is lost (Sekowski, 2022). At this stage, a person perceives inevitable death for granted, and for me, this is a significant discovery. Fear of death is characteristic of an earlier age, and it is possible that at the last stage, a person acquires enough wisdom and strength to recognize and come to terms with the final outcome.
Another concept that resembles that of Erikson but is an extended version of it is Peck’s theory. As Turner (2018) notes, when describing old age, Peck provides specific developmental tasks – “ego differentiation versus work-role preoccupation,” “body transcendence versus body preoccupation,” and “ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation” (p. 258). These nuances emphasize older people’s special attitude to their age. For me, this classification has helped highlight specific personality types and, therefore, expanded my understanding of life during this age period.
Levinson’s theory of adult development is similar to the two above since it also considers age stages as parts of the human lifespan. Zacher and Froidevaux (2021) analyze this concept and give its key provisions: life develops in specific periods in which a person acquires the appropriate skills, forms psychological and behavioral patterns, and adapts to the environment. I have found out that the last period begins at 60, and this is surprising because, for me, the psychological threshold of old age is higher. However, my views concern the subjective perception of adulthood, while the author of the theory pays attention to cognitive and behavioral characteristics.
Finally, Neugarten’s theory is another concept that reviews aging and its peculiarities. Momtaz et al. (2021) cite this model and describe it as the one that emphasizes the principles required for optimal aging. Particularly, according to the concept, a high level of activity positively correlates with life satisfaction, and low activity, in turn, is associated with dissatisfaction (Momtaz et al., 2021). Such an idea corresponds to my thoughts about old age and describes my understanding of the psychological and physical state. If a person is not ready to put up with the problems of old age, there is less likelihood of developing disorders and life challenges.
Conclusion
My personal assessment of the aspects of personality, cognition, and physical state of old age and comparison of my views with those proposed in the relevant theories help highlight the characteristic nuances of aging. The four concepts discussed are similar in their descriptions of the principles that older people adhere to in their life and the classification of life stages. When I am old, I will do my best to keep my mind clear. I intend to engage in intellectual work and not fall out of society. I will interact with relatives and peers to have a wide social circle. I will also try to lead an active lifestyle to prevent dissatisfaction with life.
References
Lally, M., & Valentine-French, S. (2017). Lifespan development: A psychological perspective (2nd ed.). University of Illinois.
Sekowski, M. (2022). Attitude toward death from the perspective of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial ego development: An unused potential. OMEGA – Journal of Death and Dying, 84(3), 935-957. Web.
Turner, A. (2018). Fulfillment versus fulfilling a life’s mission: Aging in psychosocial theory and Judaism. EC Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 255-60.
In Chapter 18 “Emotional and Social Development in Late Adulthood” in the book “Development Through the Lifespan”, Laura E. Berk comprehensively analyzes old age, applying the currently available scientific theories, and analyzing this phenomenon into components classified by causality, periodization, and other aspects. As a striking example, the development of children during the Second World War is given, who survived the separation from their parents, some irrevocably. In this regard, the author proceeds to consider the mechanisms that contribute to a peaceful old age and contrasts them with inevitable individual aspects that negatively affect well-being.
The social component of this issue becomes no less important, and the author, moving from social integration and issues of suicide among the elderly, begins to reveal in more detail the section on the dynamism of society and the corresponding theories. These scientific works allow us to describe the relationship between the elderly in the family. The author describes retirement and leisure as other essential aspects of aging. As a result, having analyzed each component in detail, the author concludes the features of a happy old age: a sense of self-efficacy, selective optimization, adequate strengthening of self-esteem, acceptance of change, emotional understanding, a mature sense of spirituality, personal control of the boundaries of addiction, and high-quality communication that ensures the absence of loneliness and social support.
I cannot yet refute or confirm the author’s points of view with my example; however, the behavior of older adults described by him corresponds to my observations from the outside. It seems to me that to describe the psychological prerequisites for the behavior of any person, an integrated approach is required that considers a large number of external and internal factors.
The classification of positive traits for a happy old age is one of the most complete I have seen, and psychological characteristics, traumas, and deviations in one way or another affect one of the listed aspects. At the same time, the arguments are convincing since the author first relies on valid theories recognized in the scientific community and then moves on to practical aspects that are more understandable to the reader. In addition, long-playing examples of real people go through the book, getting an accurate picture of the phenomena and theories described.
The issue of aging has always been important for people during the development of mankind. In different epochs and cultures, this very issue was examined from different perspectives but the essence of it always stayed the same – people can not automatically become adults as soon as they are 21 or more. The main factor determining the status of an adult or a teenager, or a child, is the feeling of a particular person. This means that one who does not feel like a grown-up does not want to make a family, marry, or become a parent. In Asian cultures, the age at marriage is 13 – 14 years, while in the cultures of the Western Civilization this data is much more liberal. In the past young people used to marry and have children at the age of 20 – 21 and this seemed to be an adequate age for making such decisions and for beginning to feel adult (Devadason, 2007).
But nowadays, the issue of adulthood is gradually becoming one of the most important because the borders between adolescence and adulthood are not fixed which leads to the mixture of generations, and to the process when large groups of people can not refer themselves to any of the existing age-groups. Scientists try to explain the phenomenon by giving various definitions and theories, but all these theories touch on one or several aspects of the topic. We consider that only the idea of Dr. Arnett covers properly all the sides of the adulthood issue and explains in detail the causes and effects of the aging phenomenon which transforming in today’s human society. This theory is called “The Theory of the Emerging Adulthood”, and the plot of this theory will be analyzed further in this essay.
In order to avoid any possible ambiguity concerning the terms used in the work, we should at first define the specific phenomena. Firstly, adulthood is a period in a human’s lifespan when maturity in physical and mental regards is attained. It is commonly thought that adulthood is reached at the age of 20 or 21 but nowadays this common idea is being neglected by the events taking place in the modern world. That is why Dr. Arnett has developed his theory of Emerging Adulthood. Emerging adulthood, according to Dr. Arnett’s definition, is a period in a human’s life, between late teens and early or middle twenties (age of 18 – 21/25 years), when a person is no more a teenager, but not yet an adult. Adolescence is in the past but adulthood is not at present. There is no strict parents’ control, but there are also no adult responsibilities, so the person is free in his or her choices and actions but is somehow afraid of this sudden freedom (Arnett, 2001).
The basis of the theory of Emerging Adulthood was taken by the author from the modern processes in the world. Dr. Arnett says that there is “a new and historically unprecedented period of the life course” (Arnett, 4) of young people, which can not be explained by any outside factors and demands only its internal consideration. According to the interviews and polls conducted by the author, there is a tendency in the modern world towards the increase of age at marriage and the age when people start feeling adults and planning families. From the given data we can clearly see that since the time of 1950s up to these days the average age at marriage increased from 22 for men and 20 – 21 for women to 27 for men and 24 for women (Arnett, 2001).
The author of the Emerging Adulthood Theory explains this phenomenon by the change n human psychology caused by the improved living standards of the modern society compared to one of 1950 – 1960ss. Dr. Arnett believes that this changed allowed young people to think less about their future and about the development of their careers and personal lives. Nowadays people can afford prolonged studying which includes four years of courses for the Bachelor’s degree and several years of undergraduate study because they are not pressed for time and can live at their parents’ expense. Youth is also not stable in a job, meaning that work-places are frequently changed because young people are looking for well-paid jobs that would, moreover, let them express their personalities and develop talents. All these factors lead to the phenomenon called by Dr. Arnett “emerging adulthood”, which is the period consisting of a lot of choices, stresses, considerable instability, and great hopes and possibilities. Young people try to take as much from their temporary freedom as possible because they feel relieved from their parents’ control and sure to face the adult duties and responsibilities (Arnett, 2001).
Among other scientists, there are several other theories of the development of adulthood. Such theories can be singled out as Erikson’s one (Theory of Identity Development), the ideas by Loevinger (Ego Development) and Vaillant (Adaptation to Life), as well as Levinson’s theory of Seasons of Adulthood. These theories have many differences but they are united at the point that they do not consider the transitional stage from adolescence to adulthood to be a problem because they view the process of aging as a quite individual process. According to the theory by Erikson, a person’s aging is determined by several factors that include biological, environmental, social, and psychological ones.
Every human being has his/her psychological peculiarities according to which aging takes place for a certain person. Although all people have more or less similar biological features, processes of aging begin at different stages of this or that person’s life and are accompanied by different characteristics. One person can experience early aging because of the influence of a set of the above-mentioned factors combined with his or her biological and psychological peculiarities, while another can feel a child at the age of 30, or be full of energy at old age (Brannen, 2002). Levinson develops the idea that the process of aging is the interaction of certain elements of human life, into which he includes parents, children, spouse, relatives, friends, and all other people with whom a person communicates and who influence, directly or indirectly, the life of this person (Woodward, 2006).
The views by Professor Bjorklund are similar to the above-mentioned theories by Erikson and Levinson, but of course, they have several peculiarities. The author believes that the aging process is a complex phenomenon that is predetermined by such basic things as family, upbringing, cultural and educational background. All events are meaningful for the person’s aging as they have cumulative force, i. e. their experiences from various fortunes and disequilibria during life stay with them and form further attitudes towards other events and things in life. The transition from adolescence to adulthood is one of the disequilibrium periods in a human’s life which are always accompanied by various stresses and states of uncertainty, but this is only a temporary state that will be substituted by another period – the time of stable structured life. For example, when a single person decides to marry a period of disequilibrium begins, because the usual structure of life is being broken, and until the person forms the appropriate structure of his or her new life, this period will last. The issue of the change of the marital age in recent years is explained thus by the fact that more people start feeling uncertain about their future and try to prolong the period when they can make free choices as much as possible (Bjorklund, 2008).
If we look at a specific example of the situation in such a country as New Zealand, we can observe that the issues of aging and the points of marriage and having children are also interconnected in this country. In recent years there has been a tendency for the increase of age at marriage, i. e. the popular European tradition to marry in mature years has reached New Zealand (Dwyer, 2003). In the 1970s men at the first marriage were averagely 21 – 22 years old, and women were at the age of 19 – 20. Nowadays the majority of marriages take place when bride-grooms are 28 – 29, and brides are 27.
The average age of women who give birth to their first children also changed according to the tendency discussed in this work. In the 1970s women usually had children in their early twenties, but 2007 research showed that nowadays women decide to have their first children at the age of 27 – 28 and the average age of women giving birth to children in New Zealand is 30 years (Wyn, 2006). Also, the trend is observed in New Zealand towards the reduction of the number of legal marriages, because more and more young people choose to live together with their spouses as an alternative to marriage. In the year 2007, the number of such couples amounted to one-third of all couples who were about to get married (Poland, 2007). All this shows that the tendency of the “emerging adulthood” is spreading over New Zealand as well as over other countries of the world, and the work by Dr. Arnett can be of considerable help to the people who are dealing with the improvement of the situation.
To make a logical conclusion of this essay, we need to summarize what we have done in it and what results in we have got. Firstly, the theory of Emerging Adulthood by Dr. Arnett has a right for existence because it is proven by numerous specific examples and researches conducted by the author and other scientists. From this work, we found out that today’s youth experiences the process of aging with more difficulties than previous generations did. The stage of transition from adolescence to adulthood is accompanied by a lot of obstacles and stresses caused by uncertainty about the future, but at the same time “emerging adults” have many hopes and more chances to penalize them as they always look for something better.
Works Cited
Arnett, J. J. (2001). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood: Perspectives from adolescence through midlife. Journal of Adult Development, 8(2), 133-143.
Bjorklund, B. R., & Bee, H. L. (2008). The journey of adulthood (6 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Brannen, J., Lewis, S., Nilsen, A., & Smithson, J. (2002). Young Europeans, work and family. London: Routledge.
Devadason, R. (2007). Constructing coherence? Young adults’ pursuit of meaning through multiple transitions between work, education and unemployment. Journal of Youth Studies, 10(2), 203-221.
Dwyer, P., Smith, G., Tyler, D., & Wyn, J. (2003). Life-patterns, career outcomes and adult choices. Melbourne: Australian Youth Research Centre.
Poland, M., Cameron, A., Wong, K., & Fletcher, M. (2007). Moving on: Changes in a year in family living arrangements (Research Report No 2/07). Wellington: Families Commission.
Woodward, L. J., Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2006). Gender differences in the transition to early parenthood. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 275-294.
Wyn, J., & Woodman, D. (2006). Generation, youth and social change in Australia. Journal of Youth Studies, 9(5), 49.
Ideation can be defined as the process that involves generating new ideas in relation to the matter at hand. In this essay, we are going to use the ideas for skin care and anti-aging products in a bid to explore further the topic of ideation and to put it into practice. In this scenario, the ideation process will focus on brainstorming as the model and this will take us over the five steps which include:
Defining the objectives,
Formulating the tasks,
Generating ideas,
Developing concepts,
Evaluating the results (Ideation, 2009).
The beauty of the ideation brainstorming process is that it can be applied in any situation that is inventive like the issue at hand.
The main objective of employing the use of skin care and anti-aging products is to help the skin keep looking younger and fresh. In recent times, people are exposed to stresses brought about by the lifestyle they lead as well as genetic factors. These stresses thus call for a fast and efficient product that will keep the changes at bay. Using eye creams comes in handy in taking care of the skin since the eyes are always the first to register the most obvious signs that age is catching up. This is often characterized by eye bags, wrinkles as well as fine lines. There are many creams available in the market to take care of these aging signs.
Anti-aging makeup is the next beauty idea that helps in keeping aging signs at bay. In this case, there are many foundations available in the market that couple up as both concealer and anti-aging cream. They work in such a way that they conceal the lines and wrinkles and at the same time hydrate the face thus making it look younger. Night creams are an all time favorite for people looking at keeping their skins younger and fresher.
Most of these creams have a high moisture content that helps in keeping the skin moist. To make sure that the cream gives great results, it is important to clean the face thoroughly to rid it of debris. There are many anti-aging products in the market that come in the form of cleansers. When used to clean the face, they ensure that radicals known for creating wrinkles and fine lines are kept at bay as they have strong antioxidants. Use of tepid water is strongly advised to ensure that the skin is not over-stressed.
All in all, exercise must be included in this process to ensure that the body is fit enough as this also goes a long way in keeping the skin fresh and young. Nutrition is also key since it has been said many a time that we are what we eat. A healthy balanced diet mostly composed of fresh fruits and vegetables is a plus towards fighting signs of aging. Not to be taken for granted is drinking a lot of water as water is a natural cleanser that helps in keeping the skin fresh and young (Wu, 2011).
When all these ideas for skin care and anti aging products are followed to the word, people will be able to experience younger and fresher looking skins. This satisfies the final ideation brainstorming which entails the evaluation of results. It is important to note that with these procedures a solution has been reached.
Age is one of the factors used by societies to dictate various roles, practices, moral values, and social interactions. People of a particular age bracket are expected to focus on specific roles. For example, individuals “between 13 and 19 years are known as teenagers” (Schniter and Shields 2014:21). The society expects its teenagers to focus on their studies. They should also have good morals. Individuals at the age of 60 and above are referred to as the elderly. Aging is, therefore, “a mandatory biological process that is experienced by all creatures” (Raina and Balodi 2014:734). This discussion clearly shows how societies use “age” and “aging.”
Chronological Age
The chronological age makes a huge difference in the life of every individual. The term chronological age refers “to the age of a human being from the day of his or her birth” (Schniter and Shields 2014:21). This kind of age “is measured in years, months, and days” (Schniter and Shields, 2014:23). Chronological age dictates the experiences, changes, and health problems experienced by different individuals. Age is a risk factor associated with various health complications and diseases. Many people also focus on their chronological ages in order to achieve their potentials in life. This fact explains why chronological age can make a huge difference in a person’s life. Many elderly people are expected to focus on specific duties and activities. Such “individuals might also disengage themselves from various social responsibilities” (Schniter and Shields 2014:23).
Effects of Age on My Employment
The society has unique definitions of age. This definition has affected my life directly. Recently I was looking for a new job in order to have a small income. The majority of the potential employers believed strongly that I lacked the required skills to complete specific tasks. They strongly believed that I was young and incompetent. I have also been denied various services because of my age. This fact explains why many societies “fix age with certain values and meanings” (Raina and Balodi 2014:735). My grandfather has faced different forms of discrimination because of his old age. The elderly usually face discrimination in their respective communities. Young people in society treat the aged as incompetent and weak individuals.
Social Theories on Aging
Many societies embrace various social theories on aging. For example, the disengagement theory (DT) treats the elderly as individuals who cannot complete various tasks. They are also seen “as antisocial persons who are unable to interact with other members of the society” (Wurtele 2009:1027). Studies indicate that many people in different Western countries use different chemicals in order to appear younger. Some societies are undertaking positive measures to support the social positions of the elderly (Schniter and Shields, 2014).
Conclusion
I strongly believe that our society will accord more esteem and value to the elderly in the future. This is the case because many social theories continue to support the aged in society. For instance, the Activity Theory (AT) encourages these senior citizens to engage in various activities. Many elderly citizens are also getting better health services and care from different government agencies. The youths are getting new ideas and guidelines from the elderly (Raina and Balodi 2014). This development shows clearly that society continues to support many senior citizens. However, many young citizens have been stereotyping the elderly. It might take decades before achieving the above goal. The government should, therefore, use powerful measures to support the needs of these senior citizens.
References
Raina, Divya, and Geeta Balodi. 2014. “Ageism and Stereotyping of the Older Adults.” Scholars Journal of Applied Medical Services 2(2):733-739. Web.
Schniter, Eric, and Timothy Shields. 2014. “Ageism, Honesty, and Trust.” Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics 51(1):19-29. Web.
Wurtele, Sandy. 2009. “Activities of Older Adults Survey: Tapping into Student Views of the Elderly.” Educational Gerontology 35(1):1026-1031. Web.
According to World Health Organization, a country with more than ten percent aging populace is referred to as a state of aging society. An aging populace of more than twenty percent of the whole inhabitants is called an absolute aging society. In the US, there were 44.69 million individuals above the age of sixty-five in the year 2013 (Calasanti, 2015). They represent 14% of the American population.
It is estimated that by mid of this century, there would be more than 97 million aging persons. The figures are twice the number obtained in the year 2013 (Calasanti, 2015). Based on the above statistics, it is apparent that the USA will experience an absolute aging society in the future. The elderly will be relying on the American population to meet their health budget and overall spending. The article below focuses on a holistic approach to healthy aging. The approach will focus on five dimensions. They are healthy eating, injury prevention, physical activity, substance abuse cessation, and social connectedness.
Healthy aging and life expectancy
One of the great accomplishments of healthcare in the 21st century is an improvement in life expectancy. For instance, demographic figures indicate that life expectancy in America has increased from 45 years in the early 1900s to 75.6 in the year 2004 (Andel, 2010). The improvement in life expectancy is attributed to Americans adopting healthier lifestyles. Unlike in the past, more people are more aware of approaches to prevent and manage chronic disease.
Unlike in the past, more people are on healthier diets and exercise regularly. Nevertheless, improved life expectancy joint with decreasing birth rates is becoming a major concern in today’s society. Across the globe, the population is aging. The situation is being experienced at a time when the number of people required in the workforce is increasing raising fears over its impacts on the society. As such, diverse age groups have various desires and productive capabilities. Therefore, countries’ social, economic, political, and environmental features will vary as their population ages.
With an enhanced life expectancy, healthy aging is becoming a concern for most Americans (Stevens-Ratchford & Diaz, 2003). Healthy aging approaches focuses on enhancing prospects for good health with the aim of encouraging the elderly to engage in community roles and attain unrestricted and high quality of lifetime. An awareness of healthy aging should be promoted among the elderly. They should be informed that getting older is normal. However, their health conditions as they age rely on family and their lifestyle choices. If the population adopt healthy lifestyles and adopt ways of managing stress, they will be able to age healthily. Through this, the life expectancy of Americans will increase.
Physiology and psychology of aging
Aging is inescapable. As life expectancy improves, it becomes more significant to comprehend physiological changes related to the usual aging procedure. Upholding health among the elderly will help to decrease the burden caused by this population on the current healthcare systems. Among the physiological changes experienced by the aging population are the loss of teeth, loss of sensory memory, changes in the gastrointestinal system, dementia, hormonal imbalance, and changes in the musculoskeletal system. The elderly have a fewer muscle mass implying that thy have a lesser amount of generating apparatus. Besides, they have weakened neurotransmission leading to fewer capabilities or yearnings to initiate activities. An understanding of the physiology of aging procedures will be very helpful in developing a holistic approach to successful aging.
Psychological issues are also very common among the elderly. Researchers have indicated that worry and stress are very rampant in the aging populations (Hsu, 2010). Despair, tension, fear of death, health illnesses increases anxiety conditions in this group. The society should be sociable the group can help in mitigating anxiety disorders. Loneliness is another psychological problem common among the elderly. During their retirement from work, most parents have fully grown up children. The siblings are normally away from them due to marriage or job obligations. In this respect, the circle of friends around the elderly is reduced making them lonely.
Depression, loneliness, and abandonment cause hopelessness and other health disorders in the aging population. An understanding of phycology of aging will be very helpful in developing a holistic approach to successful aging. Psychology knowledge can aid during decision-making processes aimed at supporting quality of life for the elderly population.
Factors that influence healthy aging and life expectancy
Several factors affect healthy aging and longevity. They include genes, individual behaviors, and social and economic factors. A recent study indicated that monozygotic twins exhibit a more analogous lifetime compared with heterozygotic twins (Oeppen, 2008). The research confirmed that there is a definite inheritability of predisposition to continued existence from parents to offspring. It has also been observed that single-gene alterations affect the lifetime of C elegans. The above experiments indicate that genes are paramount in understanding the aging process. It is estimated that genes are responsible for twenty-five percent of what influences life expectancy.
Another factor that influences healthy aging is individual behaviors. People who adopt healthy behaviors will exhibit healthy aging. Some common health practices are taking physical exercise frequently, adopting a balanced diet, and obtaining essential immunizations. Socio-economic factors can also affect healthy aging and life expectancy. They comprise of income, education levels, surroundings, and social features.
They are the conditions in which persons are born, exists, labor, have fun, intermingle, and age. At every stage of aging, the health of an individual is influenced by various interactions among socioeconomic features, the surrounding, and personal behaviors. Prosperity, social status, and funds determine these factors. In turn, the above also affect strategies and choices leading to dissimilarities in health services received by persons and populations. Though these factors affect health outcomes in every phase of aging, the accumulative influence of socio-economic situations on health results is more distinct as persons get old. Normally, populations from low socio-economic rank have less healthy aging and reduced life expectancy. On the other hand, individuals from populations with higher socioeconomic levels have an enhanced healthy aging and improved life expectancy.
The theories of aging
Aging concepts are categorized into three. They are genetic, biochemical, and physiological theories. Genetic theories focus on suppositions concerning the identity of aging genetic factors, the buildup of errors in the genetic apparatus, encoded senescence, and telomeres. Biochemical theories deal with energy breakdown, production of free radicals, the rate of existing, and condition of mitochondria. Physiological theories focus on endocrine structures and the functions of hormones in controlling the percentage of cellular senescence.
Some of the most common concepts are disengagement theory, activity theory, and neuroendocrine theory. Disengagement theory illustrates that individual’s relationship with the society lessens with age. It postulates that the elderly are less engaged with social activities as they were in their adulthood. Activity theory asserts that an individual’s self-concept is linked with his or her responsibilities. For instance, retiring might not have influence on a person who enthusiastically upholds other social roles.
The neuroendocrine theory suggests that wear and tear in human bodies are controlled by the neuroendocrine system. The structure is a complex network of biochemical, which regulates how and when hormones should be released. They work in conjunction with the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus oversees numerous chain responses to initiate other glands to discharge their hormones. However, as individuals grow old, the hypothalamus drops it supervisory accuracy capability and the receptors that rely on hormones become less reactive to them.
The model that aligns with the proposed approach is activity theory. The theory postulates that to uphold an affirmative sense of self, people ought to find new responsibilities as they age to replace lost roles after retirement. Through this, prospects for good health will be enhanced with the aim of encouraging the elderly to engage in community functions and attain unrestricted and high quality of lifetime.
Health promotion and disease prevention strategies for healthy aging
If appropriate health promotion and disease prevention strategies for healthy aging are adopted, a reduction in demand for medical services and expenses will be experienced. Our approach focuses on five strategies recognized as vital for healthy aging. They are healthy eating, injury prevention, physical activity, substance abuse cessation, and social connectedness. Existing strategies focus on caring for the elderly. However, our proposed strategies concentrate on mitigating and managing conditions that compromise on healthy aging.
The first approach will be to enhance healthy eating among the elderly. The aging should put more efforts to regulate their food intake. They should eat a variety of foods with all the needed nutrients to ensure that they have balanced diets. Similarly, they should consume home-prepared meals as much as possible with plenty of fruits and vegetables. Equally, the elderly should be cautious to ensure that they limit the consumption of high-fat foods, high sugar foods, and sugars sweeten soft drinks. As such, healthy dieting is vital for the elderly to continue being independent, sustain their quality of life, and decrease the threat of contracting protracted disorders like hypertensions and cardiovascular diseases.
Another strategy that should be focused on is injury prevention. Among the aging communities, accidental injuries present costly expenses to the health care system. The injuries also pose serious threat to the health of the seniors. The approach suggests that all the risk factors linked with accidental injuries among the elderly should be identified. After that, appropriate mitigation strategies should be put in place to reduce the threats.
An additional approach that should be used to enhance healthy aging is physical activity. Physical exercise offers numerous benefits and considerably upholds healthy aging. To increase physical activity among the elderly, they must be prepared psychologically to enjoy the activities. By doing so, the aging will find it a habit of engaging in physical activity. The above initiatives can be achieved by encouraging the seniors to participate in community programs emphasizing in physical education. Similarly, they should be encouraged to engage in sports. Physical inactivity is associated with premature death, chronic diseases, illness, and disability, as well as reduced quality of life and independence.
The elderly should also cease from substance abuse. Substance abuse among the elderly is considered a major problem in America. The aging people are a predominantly susceptible because of the unprecedented challenges encountered by the group. As such, the aging is more likely to be ignored compared with the younger generation. Abuse of alcohol and tobacco makes them vulnerable to chronic disease such as cancer. Equally, the habit makes them susceptible to accidental injuries. Therefore, awareness should be created in the group to sensitize them about the risk posed by substance abuse.
Lastly, the elderly should be encouraged to be socially connected. Social care leads to improved quality of life, enhanced life gratification, and improved mental and physical health. On the contrary, isolation increases chances of developing depression, which is linked to the development of chronic diseases among the elderly. In this regard, the aging should sacrifice more time for social support.
Analyze medical care and mental health services for older people
In America, the aging spends a third of the allotted healthcare expenses. The cost is estimated at $300 billion annually (Ferrini, 2013). Experts allege that the cost of treating an elderly person is three times higher than treating an adult.
The aging population is subscribed to health care cover through Medicare. Medicare is responsible for meeting the expenses incurred by this group. However, it should be noted that the program has not been vigorously engaged in endorsing a better delivery system for the elderly. Medicare should put more emphasis on promoting defensive, outcome-based medicine, which is very helpful to the aging population. The above initiative will boost our program by enhancing the health of the aging population.
Management of mental illnesses among aging Americans is also considered an essential public health necessity. The number of elderly persons with psychiatric ailments is expected to reach 8 million in the next two decades (Ferrini, 2013). In America, primary care physicians manage many older people with mental challenges. However, the numerous burdens of primary care offer considerable difficulties to such care.
Analyze the future directions of aging and the care of the older population
In the future, aging population is expected to increase (Ferrini, 2013). In this regard, future directions for the aging and their care should be developed. As such, the society should be preparing to come up with improved compensation and cover systems focused on long-term care. The systems should function better than the existing ones. Similarly, the society will be expected to utilize modern developments healthcare and behavioral health to sustain the health of the elderly. The society should also plan to amend the way it manages community services. All the services should be accessible to the aging population as much as possible. The cultural perception of the elderly should be changed to enable them to get integrated into the society.
The goals of the above directions should be focused on enhancing the proposed approach. As such, they should be customized to enhance healthy eating, injury prevention, physical activity, substance abuse cessation, and social connectedness.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it should be noted that the USA would experience an absolute aging society in the future. The elderly will be relying on the American population to meet their health budget and overall spending. Therefore, appropriate strategies should be adopted to manage the condition. The approach proposed above focus on healthy eating, injury prevention, physical activity, substance abuse cessation, and social connectedness.
References
Andel, R. (2010). Successful Cognitive and Emotional Aging. JAMA, 303(19), 19-23. Web.
Calasanti, T. (2015). Combating Ageism: How Successful Is Successful Aging?. The Gerontologist, 27(3-4), 19-37. Web.
Ferrini, A.(2013). Health in the later years (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Web.
Hsu, H. (2010). Trajectory of Life Satisfaction and its Relationship with Subjective Economic Status and Successful Aging. Soc Indic Res, 99(3), 455-468. Web.
Oeppen, J. (2008). Longer Life and Healthy Aging. Eur J Population, 24(2), 237-238. Web.
Stevens-Ratchford, R., & Diaz, T. (2003). Promoting Successful Aging Through Occupation. An Examination of Engagement in Life. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 27(3-4), 19-37. Web.
Currently, the amount of literature that is still being researched concerning the cognitive functioning-aging relationship is increasing at such a fast pace that it is gradually becoming difficult not only to assimilate all the new findings but to also to tell the difference on whether or not progress is being made in the process of shading more light on the fundamental issues concerning cognitive aging.
Given that research on issues of cognitive aging is rapidly increasing in different directions, cognitive research is now made up of numerous topics that contain a wide range of subtopics one of which entails the study of the relationship between the human brain’s functional plasticity and cognitive aging.
The brain of an adult human being has the capability of undergoing plastic changes and this research paper will examine different works of literature that cover the relationship between functional plasticity and cognitive aging.
Introduction
When talking about an aging mind, the common mental dimensions that come to mind are a range declining human cognitive abilities including attention, processing speed, learning, memory, and reaction time, just to mention but a few.
The aforementioned deterioration in the functioning of the brain has led to a perspective that is commonly referred to as the “wear and tear” hypothesis of cognitive decline due to aging (Aldwin and Gilmer, 2004). According to this perspective, the brain’s activities simply wear down as an individual advance age-wise.
The observed anatomical and consequent functional changes occur naturally in any biological organism or mechanical machine that has been in operation for a lengthy time and therefore, the natural conclusion of the tear and wear hypothesis is that it not only normal but also irreversible and inevitable to decline in cognitive activities.
While it is rather obvious that the brain’s physical aging plays a vital role in age-related cognitive decline, it is increasingly becoming lucid that the inevitable physical deterioration associated with an aging brain cannot completely account for the numerous changes in brain functioning that is observed in adults especially the aged ones (Friedan, 1993).
The common association of the aging mind with widespread and cognitive decline is slowly sidelined owing to the recognition that some aging individuals maintain their mental acuity well into very advanced ages.
Recent findings by scientific researchers are providing a growing number of reasons that tend to suggest that there are ways through which older individuals can be assisted to maintain more of their cognitive functions into later years.
Research has revealed that the adult human brain has, in fact, a much higher capacity for plasticity that had been believed before given that it still grows new dendrites and maybe, even new neurons. Moreover, an adult brain is known to positively respond to a myriad of biochemical interventions and life experiences.
The extensive available literature covering plasticity of the brain and the perceptual psychophysics of aging strongly emphasize that the negative consequences of brain plasticity is a significant contributor to cognitive decline related to advancements in age.
As individuals grow older, their strengths of brain engagement and their schedules change substantially and occur simultaneously by the active degradation of the functions of their brains. Research has given reasons to believe that such changes in the utilization of the brain and engagement are direct and vital contributors to the cognitive decline associated with advancements in age.
Hypothesis
The decline the cognitive functions of the brain are not only as a result of advancement in age but also as functional brain plasticity.
Purpose and importance of research
It is a well known fact that the fraction of the US population classified as aged is on the increase. As this proportion of older individuals grows, it is increasingly becoming very important to understand the changes in cognitive functioning that occur in these individuals due to their advancements in age.
For the numerous aging individuals who are still in good physical condition, decline in cognitive functioning can pose big threats to their ability to continue participating and enjoying their favorite activities while for those whose physical activity is limited, a decline in cognitive functioning can be a significant threat to their quality of life.
It is for these reasons that this paper will explore literature covering scientific findings that reveal ways through which the cognitive functions of aged individuals deteriorate.
Methodology
The findings of this research paper were derived from numerous secondary sources which have documented on the relationship between brain plasticity and cognitive functioning of the brain.
Results
The term brain plasticity is used to refer to the life-long functional and physical capacity of the brain. It is this capacity that explains how the experiences that one goes through in life induces the individuals learning ability.
As noted by Tonga (2000), the concept of plasticity of the human brain has been the subject of extensive studies for more than a century and its study is still continuing. Traditionally, the concept of brain plasticity is mostly discussed in detail in the contexts of recovery from strokes, early childhood development and perceptual learning than in regard to the process of aging.
Before the introduction of this concept on life-long plasticity, numerous researchers held the belief that the human brain was hard-wired in early life (Bruer, 2000). The evidence that supported this view pointed out that the human brain developed the physical structures and long-range interconnections that determine the neurological brain functioning during the early critical period of child development.
Researchers in those days established that, during this critical period, the brain had the capability of substantial remodeling in response to alterations in input, but after the critical period elapsed, it was generally observed that the brain was incapable of any significant further growth, elaboration or remodeling.
This idea that the brain developed in its immutable long-range interconnections in early life contributed to the belief that age-related cognitive decline was inevitable and irreversible and this observation, according to Wright and Sugarmann (2009), has since been proved to be inaccurate.
Today, after several decades of accumulated cross-disciplinary research, a new and very different view has emerged about the maintenance and origin of human abilities.
This view proposes that the brain is plastic and that it is capable of several functions at any period throughout adult life, including the capability of reorganization which includes the ability to develop short-range interconnections. Numerous brain plasticity experiments have illustrated in several essential ways in which progressive learning alters brain machinery.
Brain plasticity has several positive consequences, as shown through the examination of competitive processes, which generally underlie all brain plasticity. In cognitive-perceptual and motor skill learning tasks competitive processes result in the narrowing of time and space constants that define the selectivity of processing in cortical networks.
In this manner, the selective responses of cortical neurons specialize to meet the specific demands of the task. In behaviors or tasks that require a high level of skills, the brain machinery is progressively refined in its specificity, fidelity and selectivity through competitive processes.
Competitive processes increase the representative power of behaviorally significant sensory input and motor outputs as manifested by increased response magnitude and distributed response coherence. This is largely achieved by plasticity responses that increase cortical connectional strengths between neurons in nearly simultaneously exited cortical networks.
A notable effect of this learning-induced change is to strengthen the signal-to-noise ratio of relevant cortical activity. Enhancement of the signal-to-noise ratio is likely to be an essential mechanism by which learning improves brain function.
The outcome of these competitive processes is positive because, through the locally adaptive processes by which the brain specializes to represent salient input, the brains processing machinery becomes more locally and globally adapted to perform important behavioral tasks. As a general principle, brain plasticity with positive consequences is likely to underlie virtually all forms of perceptual and skill learning in the brain.
Brain plasticity also has some negative consequences that can be explained by examining how brain plasticity underlies all forms of learning, as illustrated above. Given that plasticity processes are inherently competitive, there will always be a competitive “winner” or “loser”, which appears in the form of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic changes, respectively.
This, therefore, implies that plastic changes with negative consequences are just as common as those that have positive consequences. Plasticity can be manipulated by adjusting the learning context. This is illustrated by the fact that it is possible to actively degrade and weaken brain processing machinery by just as quickly as it is possible to elaborate, refine and elaborate the processing machinery.
Even though there are several examples that elaborate how negative plastic changes can be actively induced, these changes are most likely to occur naturally in later stages of life. For instance, as people grow older, they commonly begin to stereotype and simplify behaviors that previously were quite complex and elaborated.
The brain is likely to automatically adjust to these less complex behaviors by simplifying its representations that represent them. These changes are referred to as brain plasticity with negative consequences because, through the locally adaptive processes by which the brain specializes to represent salient input, the brain’s processing machinery becomes less locally and globally adapted to carry out critical behavioral tasks.
Brain plasticity has negative consequences which can be related to cognitive decline related to aging. This can be described by examining the functioning of the human forebrain processing machinery which is sustained in a powerful, refined and efficient powerful state of operation by its intensive utilization under challenging situations.
During adulthood, the constant active interaction with areas that are demanding to cognitive, sensory and motor systems is essential in maintaining cognitive fitness and brain health. As individuals grow older, a self-reinforcing decline in interaction with challenging environments and reduction in brain health considerably contributes to the decline in cognitive activities.
There are two conditions that may lead to this downward spiral of brain activities namely a reduction in the engagement and schedule of the brain and the initial loss in some functions of the brain which may be driven by a degradation of sensory inputs.
In most cases, both conditions result in the downward spiraling of the brain’s activities. In either situation, once the downward trend begins, it goes on through a series of interrelated events that strengthen a cascade of negative interactions which in turn result in a condition of worsened cognitive fitness and brain health. Research has identified four interrelated factors are both central and mutually reinforcing namely:
Reduction in schedules of carrying out activities
Noisy processing
A weakened control of neuromodulatory functions
Negative learning
The reduction of schedules of activities is the reduction in the schedules of inputs and actions that engage the brain and are necessary in refining existing skills and driving the process of new learning. It is also often referred to as the disuse of the brain.
According to the findings by Hultsch, Hertzog, Small and Dixon (1999), as individuals advance in age, they typically change their patterns of doing activities in such a way that there is a reduction in their level of engagement in activities that are cognitively demanding.
Even those individuals who normally possess a high level of cognitive activities typically scale down their stimulation levels either by making a conscious choice such as retirement or by unconsciously choosing to continues with only those activities in which they excel.
This result in a reduced overall stimulation of cognitive, sensory and motor systems and most importantly reduces the stimulation for novelty-detecting, reward, and attention neuromodulatory systems.
Noisy processing can be described as brain processing that produces weakly-salient, unreliable, low-fidelity cortical representations of sensory actions and inputs. This takes place when the deteriorated brain produces poor quality of brain signals and has to, therefore, adjust its time and space constants if it is to process these degraded signals, thus creating a noisy processing machine.
The weakened neuromodulatory control is the downward regulation of metabolism and connectivity of neuromodulatory control systems that is caused by age-related physical deterioration and the reduction of schedules of activity.
Aging normally results in the deterioration of activities such as metabolism, connectivity and the neuromodulatory control systems. A weakened neuromodulatory system weakens the brain’s control over its plasticity, therefore, reducing its learning rates and trapping the brain in unhelpful and inappropriate patterns of activation.
Negative learning is illustrated by behavior changes that accelerate cognitive decline, typically chosen when ordinary behaviors more difficult. As the reduction of activity schedules, noisy schedules and weakened neuromodulatory control interacts to make it more challenging for the aging individual to carry on with challenging activities.
These individuals normally adapt their habits in such a manner as to reinforce negative aspects of the sensory output and motor output. For instance, should the aging individual start experiencing difficulties in hearing the sound from certain devices such as a radio of telephone, the individual turn up the volume in these devices and this may increase signal distortion in the process of increasing loudness. This at times may result in frustrations since the individual may still not clearly hear the sounds being made.
Implications for future research
The findings explored in this research paper have revealed that indeed, there are ways of maintaining good brain health into old age. Future research should, therefore, focus on seeking ways of capturing the brain’s huge capacity which will enable scientists find ways of preventing and even reversing the negative effects that occur due to aging
References
Aldwin, C.M. & Gilmer, D.F. (2004). Health, illness and optimal ageing: biological and psychological perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Bruer, J.T. (2000). The myths of the first three years: a new understanding of the early brain development and lifelong learning. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Inc.
Friedan, B. (1993). The fountain of age. Virginia VA: Simon & Schuster.
Hultsch, D.F., Hertzog, C., Small,B.J., & Dixon, R.A. (1999) in Pushkar et. Al. (Sept 1999). Models of intelligence in late life. Psychology and ageing. 14(3)520-527.
Wright, R. & Sugarman, L. (2009). Occupational Therapy and Life Course Development: A Work Book for Professional Practice. West Sussex: John Willey and Sons.
Forensic science revolutionized crime investigation strategies (White & Folkens, 2005). There is no need to elaborate on its importance because it is a well-known fact that innocent people are convicted while guilty criminals are acquitted if forensic anthropologists fail to provide accurate analysis of the evidence collected by law enforcement agencies (Katzenberg & Saunders, 2008).
One essential aspect of forensic science is the ability to determine the age of the skeletal remains at the time of death (Lieberman, 2011). The technique is called the ectocranial suture closure method.
Traditional adult skeletal aging methods focused on four main regions of the human body: 1) the pubic symphysis; 2) auricular surface; 3) sternal rib ends; 4) cranial sutures (Cox & Mays, 2000, p. 70). However, the focus of this presentation is on ectocranial suture closure.
Cranial suture closure is a technique discovered in the 16th century. However, it was considered as an unreliable adult skeletal aging method. However, anthropologists Meindl and Lovejoy re-evaluated the whole process and came up with a revised method called the ectocranial suture closure method.
Methodology
This particular technique calls for the examination of the state of closure of the sutures of the skull at defined points on the cranium (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985). There are two major steps in the application of Meindl and Lovejoy’s revised endocranial suture closure method. In the first step, the anthropologist uses a complete skull and takes data measurements from a specific suture observation site called the Ectocranial Vault sutures.
In the second step, the anthropologist takes data measurement from another suture observation site called the Ectocranial Lateral-Anterior sutures. These two steps comprise the ectocranial suture closure method.
After the establishment of the specific suture observation sites, the anthropologist will gather data using the revised method developed by Meindl and Lovejoy.
The ten specific sites are listed as follows: 1) Mid-lambdoid; 2) Lambda; 3) Obelion; 4) Anterior sagittal;5) Bregma; 6) Mid-coronal; 7) Pterion; 8) Sphenofrontal; 9) Inferior Sphenofrontal; and 10) Superior Sphenofrontal (DiGangi & Moore, 2012, p.78).
These ten sites were divided into the “vault system” and the “lateral-anterior system” (Steele & Bramblett, 1988, p.57). It is imperative that the anthropologist accurately identifies the specific location of the sutures in accordance to the framework developed by Meindl and Lovejoy. The following information can assist the anthropologist in determining the actual suture locations (see Table 1).
Points of the Skull
Definition of Terms
Mid-lambdoid
Midpoint of each half of the lamboid suture
Lambda
At lambda in pars lambdica of sagittal and pars lambdica of lamboid sutures
Obelion
At obelion in parts obelica of the sagittal suture
Anterior sagittal
Point on the sagittal suture at the juncture of the anterior one third and posterior two-thirds of its length (usually near the juncture of the pars bregmatica and pars verticis of the sagittal suture
Bregma
At bregma in pars bregmatica of the coronal and pars bregmatica of the sagittal sutures
Mid-coronal
Midpoint of each half of the coronal suture in parts complicate of the coronal suture
Pterion
At pterion, the region of the upper portion of the greater wing of the sphenoid, usually the point at which the parietosphenoid suture meets the frontal bone
Sphenofrontal
Midpoint of the sphenofrontal suture
Inferior Sphenofrontal
Point of the sphenotemporal suture lying at its intersection with a line connecting both articular tubercles of the temporomandibular joint
Superior Sphenofrontal
Point on the sphenotemporal suture lying 2 cm below its juncture with the parietal bone
Table 1. Definitions of suture observation sites.
After the specific locations were identified, the anthropologist uses a four-point scoring system. The scoring system uses the following criteria: 0 = no observable closure; 1 = minimal closure; 2 = significant closure; and 3 = complete obliteration (DiGangi & Moore, 2012, p.78).
After observing the ten specific sites, the anthropologist will use a table of composite scores and a mean age and standard deviation for each score (DiGangi & Moore, 2012, p.79). The anthropologist compares the values generated and uses the table to determine the estimated age of the skeleton.
Research Findings
The ectocranial suture closure technique should become one of the major age determination techniques made available to anthropologists. The technique is based on a reliable framework. It is advantageous to use this particular technique especially when it comes to determining the age group.
Moreover, this technique provides the capability to determine the age of the skeleton if other techniques are non-available. At the same time this technique can be used to validate age estimated generated by other techniques.
The ectocranial suture closure can help provide an age estimate of the skeletal remains. But scientists are unable to provide a clear explanation when it comes to the correlation of suture closure and age. Another major disadvantage of this technique is the broad age intervals. The broad range intervals can be a problem when it comes to forensics.
Forensic anthropologists are faced with the challenge to provide accurate estimates of age while taking into consideration human variation in the aging process (Dirkmaat, 2012 p. 203).
According to one commentary, “the narrower, or more precise the age estimate given, the more helpful it can be to law enforcement when eliminating possible identities” (Dirkmaat, 2012 p.203). Critics are quick to point out that this particular technique is an unreliable skeletal aging method (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985 p. 57).
Detractors rejected cranial suture closure and remarked that it cannot be trusted (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985, p. 57). Nevertheless, after an in-depth study on different techniques, it was discovered that “no single skeletal indicator of age at death is ever likely to accurately reflect the many factors which accumulate with chronological age, each of which contribute valuable information to the age estimate” (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985, p. 65).
It o therefore important to useIt is therefore imperative to reconsider the value of the ectocranial suture closure as an alternative tool in the determination of the age of the skeleton at the time of death.
Conclusion
The ectocranial suture closure technique is not reliable when it comes to precise age estimates. Anthropologists said that there are broad age intervals. At the same time they cannot provide a clear explanation with regards to the correlation between suture closure and age of the skeleton.
But this technique is useful when it comes to the determination of age groups, whether the skeleton belongs to a child or an adult. Furthermore, this technique is useful when it comes to the validation of age estimates provided by other skeletal age determination techniques.
References
Cox, M & Mays, S 2000, Human osteology: in archaeology and forensic science, Oxford University Press, UK.
DiGangi, E & Moore, M 2012, Research methods in human skeletal biology, Academic Press, UK.
Dirkmaat, D 2012, A companion to forensic anthropology, Blackwell Publishing, UK.
Katzenberg, M & Saunders, S 2008, Biological anthropology of the human skeleton, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey.
Lieberman, D 2011, The evolution of the human head, Harvard University Press, MA.
Meindl, R & Lovejoy, O1985, ‘Ectocranial suture closure: a revised method for the determination of skeletal age at death based on the lateral-anterior sutures’, The American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 68 no.1, pp. 57-66.
Steele, D & C Bramblett, 1988, The anatomy and biology of the human skeleton, Texas A & M University Press, TX.
White, T & Folkens, P, 2005, The human bone manual, Elsevier Academic Press, UK.
The aging is a combination of changes that accompany an organism in the process of becoming older. The changes are primarily physical in nature for the majority of the living beings, but social creatures such as humans also experience certain social and psychological changes.
According to the current understanding, the process of aging begins approximately at the age of twenty, when the first physiological changes occur (Haber 13). Nevertheless, the process can be identified in several life stages from young adulthood, throughout maturity and up to the aging stage, where both the processes and the effects become the most prominent. The onset of all processes, such as the decline in fertility, cognitive decline, insignificant hearing and sight loss, and photoaging (development of wrinkles, mostly on the exposed areas of the body) occurs in the early twenties, although by the age of forty the physical condition is usually at its peak (Haber 24). The most significant changes happen at the end of middle adulthood stage, closer to the ages of fifty, where the said changes transform into recognizable health conditions, such as presbyopia (the loss of flexibility of the eye lens resulting in the inability to focus on the nearby objects) and glaucoma (optic disc condition that limits vision field) (Heiting). The cognitive decline is also the most apparent at this stage and can be manifested as worsening ability to memorize things and increased risk of dementia.
In addition to physical changes, collectively known as primary aging, certain habits (termed secondary aging) can contribute to the process. Based on the readings, I can identify several habits that could have a positive impact on my aging process. First, I don’t smoke and rarely drink alcohol, which is expected to slow down the aging-related processes. Next, I maintain a fairly healthy diet, which is considered one of the most important factors of healthy aging, although I must admit that this habit suffers from the lack of systematic approach. Finally, I try to maintain a healthy sleep pattern. On the other hand, I have a hard time maintaining a regular exercise pattern which, in my opinion, is close to no exercise at all, and will eventually result in complications of physical condition (Yu 32). Most importantly, despite my best efforts, I still get anxious over irrelevant issues. This results in a fair amount of stress and, by extension, the development of several age-related conditions, such as heightened blood pressure (Shalev and Belsky 41).
The aging-related changes lead to differentiation in the perception of the elderly people. Interestingly, these perceptions vary across cultures. The easiest example is the United States, where the desired traits of aging revolve around physical shape and energy level. This creates difficulty for cultural minorities who are familiar with other criteria (e.g. appreciation for parental qualities) and may feel discriminated by the perceptions of the peers (Cruikshank 26). In addition, different cultures have different criteria of care for the elderly people. For example, in many Eastern cultures care for aging adults is restricted to family members while in many modern societies it is provided by specialized organizations (Cruikshank 55). Finally, the attitude towards the concept of dying varies from culture to culture and can be a taboo for some minorities. Therefore, in the highly diversified societies, the risk of stress associated with deviation from accepted cultural norms is considerably higher.
I can think of two instances where the research from the course corresponds to my personal experience. I know two elderly people who exhibit healthy lifestyle and exceptional emotional resilience despite significant signs of primary aging (one is 86, and another is 72). Both display optimism in dealing with everyday routines and seem to be undisturbed by the proximity of death and the difficulties associated with declining health. I attribute this outcome to two factors: in one case, the person was closely familiar with the Eastern culture and its perception of death as an inevitable process rather than an unavoidable loss and reason for grief. In another instance, the person was involved in mindfulness-developing practice aimed at improving coping capacity following the surgical procedure. In other words, the high quality of their living as aging adults is determined, among other things, by the psychological and cognitive readiness to deal with the changes associated with the aging process. While little can be done to improve the outcomes of these individuals, I would promote this kind of worldview to other adults in order to improve their quality of living. To do this, I would suggest one of the training programs that focus on developing a mindful approach to health processes and analysis of accompanying emotional reactions (Innes et al. 1277). This would eliminate unnecessary stress, improve emotional climate, and, most importantly, provide the elderly with the possibility to deal with cultural and social complexities associated with aging.
I believe that the current trend is towards the elimination of aging-related discrimination and adjustments in healthcare that can make their life easier. However, until these objectives are met, it would be desirable to improve the coping capacity of those adults who do not have a suitable cultural background through training and meditation.
Works Cited
Cruikshank, Margaret. Learning to be Old: Gender, Culture, and Aging. 3rd ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.
Haber, David. Health Promotion and Aging: Practical Applications for Health Professionals. 7th ed., Springer Publishing Company, 2016.
Innes, Kim E., et al. “Effects of Meditation versus Music Listening on Perceived Stress, Mood, Sleep, and Quality of Life in Adults with Early Memory Loss: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial.” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease vol. 52, no. 4, 2016, pp. 1277-1298.
Shalev, Idan, and Jay Belsky. “Early-Life Stress and Reproductive Cost: A Two-Hit Developmental Model of Accelerated Aging?” Medical Hypotheses, vol. 90, 2016, pp. 41-47.
Yu, Byung Pal. Nutrition, Exercise and Epigenetics: Ageing Interventions. Springer International Publishing, 2015.