Category: Agile Project Management

Change management in organizations is an important part of their operations. External and internal environments affecting the realization of organizational value continue to change, and organizations must adapt themselves to these changes or perish. At Blue Cloud, a small software company, the change was necessary to improve productivity and satisfy customer expectations. Effective change management at the enterprise, geared towards the development of a customer-centric work ethic that also recognized employee productivity and innovativeness, was required. The CEO of the company opted to implement a new program called Agile to change the way staff members at Blue Cloud dealt with productivity challenges.

Thesis

Although the program had useful bits of desired productivity improvements, it was ill-conceived and its implementation process failed to capture and address salient requirements of change management.

Purpose of paper

The purpose of this document is to investigate the effectiveness of change management process at Blue Cloud regarding the implementation of Agile as a productivity framework and culture in the organization.

Demonstration of the three phases of planned change theory applied at Blue Cloud

The three phases of planned change theory are unfreezing, moving, and refreezing (Spector, 2012, p. 30). The first step involves the creation of an environment for staff members to feel dissatisfied with the status quo. It also involves benchmarking of operations with other companies and diagnosing internal barriers to improve performance. In the Blue Clouds case, the phase was represented by the move by Skinner, the CEO at Blue Cloud, to recognize the elements that were not working on Blue Clouds software development process. The CEO was dissatisfied with the existing processes of project management. The second phase is about moving organizational roles and responsibilities, as well as relationships (Karma, 2015). In Blue Cloud, after understanding the agile program, the CEO influenced production teams to copy it in the Blue Cloud context.

Rather than work in the traditional way, all the employees dealing with software development would form small teams that reviewed work processes and progress. They also tackled, identified, and assigned micro projects on a daily basis. The last phase is refreezing, and it is about aligning pay/reward systems and re-engineering measurement and control systems. At Blue Cloud, the measure of progress in software development was through yearly work and beta testing results. After change implementation, progress would be measured by monthly releases and the effectiveness of Scrum approaches to daily challenges (Spector, 2012, p. 48). At the same time, the case study showed that the CEO collected feedback from engineers after a year of implementing the changes (Spector, 2012, p. 49). Besides, new organizational structures were formed in the third phase. There were self-organized teams that worked on projects on a daily basis, parallel to overall project plans and schedules. Thus, the organization developed a semi-autonomous project management structure that facilitated rapid decision-making and implementation (Spector, 2012, p. 48).

Multiple stakeholder impacted through the change implementation

The change implementation affected the management at the company and the employees. The changes would affect product testing; therefore, it would affect consumers of the product (Spector, 2012, p. 48). The new philosophy brought by the changes would be to release early and release often. This implied that customers, as end users, would be getting newer releases and bug fixes more often. Besides, the progress of the company affects its shareholders. Success in its financial performance affects positively on shareholders interest (Spector, 2012, p. 48). If the Agile system being implemented as part of the change process worked well, it would affect company earnings and the companys shareholders. After a year of change implementation, the case study showed that engineers were asked to evaluate the effect of change. The request for specific feedback from engineers and the nature of the projects done by the company, software development, indicated that employees in engineering positions were the primary stakeholders of the change implementation. The other mentioned groups were secondary stakeholders impacted by the change implementation (Spector, 2012, p. 49).

Evaluation of Scrum agile method for project management and how it worked at Blue Cloud

The agile method of project management follows the principles of collaboration, teamwork, and monthly releases. Scrum, which is an element of Agile, relieves teams from process-laden methodologies by identifying the existing backlog and creating simplified exercises that are meant for finishing the backlog in chunks. For it to work, teams that are self-organizing had to meet daily for a short period. They would use the meetings to identify the progress being made on a larger project, the type of work involved, and the obstacles facing it. A scrum master, who is the leader, moves a self-organized team to tackle an aspect of the challenge quickly.

Applying this method at Blue Cloud ensured that there was efficient work happening to move a project towards its completion with the monthly release cycle. It also acted as an alternative method for problem-solving for major projects by creating alternate units that had less bureaucracy and other hindrances to the effective finding of a solution. Unfortunately, Scrum relies on the same employees and managers who are working on the larger project. Thus, it has the potential of turning out to be a default way of project management, which focuses on short-term visible results of effort and outcome, while ignoring the bigger picture. It could miss systematic project challenges that a self-organized team accomplishing scrum may not be able to handle (Holbeche, 2006). In fact, when senior management focuses on the activity of scrum sessions, it can seem like the organization is working towards solving the problem. Nevertheless, effective organization change to handle systematic delays, resource challenges, and other organization-wide problems will still require appropriate coordination of scrum activities and overall project management activities (Sonenshein & Dholakia, 2012).

Conclusion

The CEO targeted the engineering norms of the company. The company relied on a cycle of spending a year of project development and testing before releasing it to the market. After one year, the company had moved to a monthly release cycle and was aiming to release its products often. It was also implementing scrum as part of the agile program. The case showed that Blue Cloud did not adequately introduce the desired changes. Although there was no reported employee resistance, the outcome after a year was not encouraging. Only a handful of engineers appeared convinced, while others were apprehensive about the changes that the CEO demanded. Besides, a number of them expressed dissatisfaction. Blue Cloud became agile in its software development process, but it did not solve its internal productivity challenges. It continued to devote productive time at meetings to seek solutions to its problems.

Summary of main points

The essay sought to investigate the effectiveness of change management process at Blue Cloud. It revealed problems with the change implementation in agreement with the planned change theory. The failures included not getting employee interest and opinions before asking them to implement the agile program and not piloting the program to identify early adopters and then focus on them first when seeking to change individual behaviors. The employees at Blue Cloud ended up working in the same environment with a different technique. There was a likelihood that indifference and negativity towards the program as expressed by the engineers after a year of implementing Agile were due to poor change transition managed by the CEO.

Lessons learned

Collective and individual employee behavior has a significant effect on the productive outcome of organizations. As much as employees adapt to the behavior of the organization as led by its leadership, they also exercise their individual qualities and create additional behavior influences for the organization. It is possible to turn hardship into internal organizations relations and make them opportunities for creating new habits that become productive organizational traditions. Employee participation is paramount at all stages of change implementation. Moreover, it is improper to skip any stage of change implementation, as it will lead to reduced uptake of the introduced changes.

Recommendations

In the future, the CEO and management team should introduce new programs after seeking employees opinion. This will help in avoiding the negative employee attitude expressed towards change implementation efforts. Blue Cloud can focus on mutual engagement across the organization to prevent change from above sentiments (Karma, 2015, p. 110), which lead to half-hearted participation by the employees and can result in poor results during new project evaluation. The company should not assume that a system that works with other firms would automatically work at Blue Cloud. There is a need for testing and adequately creating full organization discomfort in the existing system, rather than relying on the discomfort of the CEO.

References

Holbeche, L. (2006). Understanding change. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Karma, E. (2015). Implementing strategy means changes for employees. In F. E. Dievernich, K. O. Tokarski, & J. Gong (Eds.), Change management and the human factor (pp. 109-128). New York, NY: Springer.

Sonenshein, S., & Dholakia, U. (2012). Explaining employee engagement with strategic change implementation: a meaning-making approach. Organization Science, 23(1), 1-23. Web.

Spector, B. (2012). Implementing organization change: Theory into practice. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Introduction

The current project aims to introduce Intelligent Traffic Systems, or Smart Traffic Lights Systems, as an innovation that would help to improve road traffic situation in cities and suburban areas. The implementation of this system is expected to lead to a number of positive outcomes. First, it will decrease the amount of greenhouse gas emissions by reducing vehicle idling time. Second, it will minimize idle intersection time, which will increase throughput. Finally, it will be compatible with existing traffic light automation control systems, which makes it possible to incorporate this system into current infrastructure with minimal invasion (Lee & Chiu, 2020). To establish this change, Agile model can be applied as one of the most effective change methods in APM.

Change Management in the Agile Approach

Agile approach is widely applied in change management due to the fact that it allows the projects to evolve in a flexible and time-efficient manner. Some of the main areas of focus in this model are time and cost constraints that need to be set by the business. Depending on these factors, project managers and change managers produce a solution that meets those needs. As a result, Agile model helps to deliver changes on time and to cost. The philosophy behind these strengths of the approach is based on the fact that in Agile, features are the main variable. The power and dynamics of Agile are achieved by prioritizing each element or aspect of the feature and delivering them as the businesss critical functions, or Must Haves. Features and their aspects that are considered to have lower priorities fall in the Should Have and Could Have categories; developers make less commitment to them, focusing on the elements of the highest priority.

Intelligent Traffic Systems and Agile

It can be argued that intelligent traffic systems could be introduced according to this approach. Thus, the Must Haves of the project would include strategical placement of sensors at the intersections. In addition, the highest priorities would be applications such as emergency vehicle signal preemption (EVSP), public transport signal priority (TSP), adaptive traffic signal control (ATSC), eco-driving supporting (Lee & Chiu, 2020, p. 508). Meanwhile, message broadcasting would be in the Should Have category, and Could Haves would include other features connected to the development and improvement of the prioritized elements.

Another way in which Agile would make the introduction of this change possible is through creating a flexible and cohesive workflow management processes in the teams that will be working on the project in APM. Iterative development will allow using protocols, such as modelling and testing, in a way that encourages improvements that are informative and enriching before the final version of the product is produced. In regard with the smart traffic systems, safety is the matter of utmost importance. Therefore, testing is a crucial step to ensure that all the systems and applications are developed according to the safety protocols. This is made possible due to the fact that the delivery team in Agile is generally a small, multi-skilled group that constantly engages with each other and with the receiving organization. In this project, the organization will be represented by the municipal administration. As a result, the Agile strategies used to implement this change will ensure that the organizations environment is favorable, processes are stable, and stakeholders are accountable.

Impediments to the Introduction of Smart Traffic Lights Systems

A major impediment to the introduction of Intelligent Traffic Systems is the fact that many vehicles on the roads are not able to communicate with the systems used by authorities to regulate traffic lights. The solution to this problem would be promoting the smart traffic lights application and encouraging more drivers to use it on their cell phones. Another challenge related to the introduction of Intelligent Traffic Systems are the errors in the accuracy of sensing congestion during multiple and simultaneous vehicular honking, which restricts the technique of using sensors at specific locations (Ravish & Swamy, 2021, p. 173). The solution to this problem is the development of improved, machine-learning sensors that collect data which can be used for detecting traffic congestion, mitigating and preventing it.

The third challenge is presented by the inaccuracies in predictions of travel time. Recent research and the experiments conducted on predicting travel time in smart traffic lights systems have shown that the percentage of these errors is still relatively high (Ravish & Swamy, 2021). To solve this issue, Ravish and Swamy (2021) have identified three types of approaches: parametric, non-parametric, and hybrid solutions. These approaches can help to identify what traffic systems are more appropriate for different locations.

Conclusion

Traffic-related issues are currently among the topical problems in many cities and suburban areas. Vehicle congestion, traffic jams, and pollution are some of the interconnected outcomes caused by the inefficient traffic management. The smart traffic lights system introduced by the project in question will allow minimizing and in certain cases eliminating these major traffic-related challenges. Agile change management approach can be applied to ensure successful implementation of the change, because it is a flexible model that allows continuous improvement and development of the systems.

References

Lee, W., & Chiu, C. (2020). Design and implementation of a smart traffic signal control system for smart city applications.Sensors, 20(2), 508-526.

Ravish, R., & Swamy, S. R. (2021). Intelligent Traffic Management: A Review of Challenges, Solutions, and Future Perspectives.Transport and Telecommunication, 22(2), 163-182.

Traditional customer delivery chains have become less effective during the last decades. The need to invest in more modern organizational systems became apparent after companies noticed diminishing discipline and slower innovation implementations. As a result, some companies started implementing agile organizational methods that were intended to increase productivity and internal processes. One of the companies that effectively used and implemented an agile method was Gazprom, and agile changes in organizational principles allowed it to achieve better results.

The greatest constraints preventing corporations like Gazprom from achieving agility in their internal operations are related to traditional management goals. The definitions of such difficulties were stated by Zhukov et al. (2019), The factors which prevent them from this are the desire for short-term profitability and long-term integrity, economic efficiency and sustainability, as well as the desire to achieve competing interests of the parties concerned (p.416). However, agile organizational concepts place a greater emphasis on the correlation of intrinsic, social, and ecologic components of the firm (Zhukov et al., 2019). The combination of the components often describes the agility of the company. A business model that promptly adapts to external alterations and influences signifies a presence of agility in its structure and operations (Zhukov et al., 2019). In addition, social processes affect the workflow of a company and further define the final results. Thus, the focus on acknowledged in the past objectives such as short-term gains and economic sustains became less significant. Instead, the modern agility views demanded concentration on environmental and social factors.

Gazprom utilized traditional systems of the supply chain but altered them in the process of development. The main systems consisted of the management of supply and warehousing facilities (Zhukov et al., 2019). They also emphasized scheduling, strategy implementation, distribution control, and logistical analysis (Zhukov et al., 2019). The system utilized by the firm until 2007 was RPMS (Zhukov et al., 2019). However, the lack of comprehensive planning techniques and fluidity of informational integration demanded a modern approach. Later, the company started introducing the agile principles of organization. Principles of the agile manifesto, such as creating self-sustained parts inside a company and acceptance of changes to the core workflow, allowed them to increase the effectiveness of the supply chains (Zhukov et al., 2019). As a result, the company constructed new automated warehouses and integrated technological equipment that increased the agility of supply procedures (Zhukov et al., 2019). By changing the conservative system and implementing agile methods of integration, the company achieved increased productivity in distribution chains.

The researchers have been able to identify the central results of the implementation of agile principles by using various techniques. The studies focused on the flexibility to adjust networks and the substitution of materials for manufacturing to evaluate the productivity of the company (Zhukov et al., 2019). In addition, they emphasized product and shipping management and the consistency of the supply cycles (Zhukov et al., 2019). The researchers evaluated the data of different indicators of agility and assessed it under the guidance of managers and business analytics (Zhukov et al., 2019). The experts received surveys and filled them according to the provided data and information (Zhukov et al., 2019). The main indicators for analysis of the company were the agile expansion of supply chains, increased sponsorship and globalization, and also the speed of shipments and an overall cycle of orders (Zhukov et al., 2019). The research used expert opinions and indicators to evaluate the results of agile methodical integrations.

The outcomes of applying agile concepts demonstrated a transformation in the organizational processes. The overall number of supply operations and their agility increased (Zhukov et al., 2019). The hierarchy and the distribution of managers in the supply chain have improved (Zhukov et al., 2019). Furthermore, the organization has seen an increase in the number of technical implementations as a result of accelerated learning and social processes (Zhukov et al., 2019). However, the company also faced difficulties during the implementation (Zhukov et al., 2019). Barriers such as the lack of human resources and the practice of agility principles difficulty in evaluating staff performance and knowledge contributed to the decrease in agility (Zhukov et al., 2019). The adoption of agile methods of management enhanced social interactions and enlarged the supply chains (Zhukov et al., 2019). Despite the multiple obstacles, the deployment of agile methodology greatly increased the number of logistical operations and technical optimizations.

Gazprom utilized traditional organizational systems that focused on aspects of the economy and short-term profits. However, the decrease in informational and technological implementations requested a new approach. The integrated agile methods, such as formulating independent parts, increased the number of supply chain operations. The evaluation of the improvement was completed by researchers and experts in the business analysis. By establishing indicators of the progress and using surveys, they made an evaluation of the company. Despite all the barriers to agile transformations, the company has observed an advancement in social interactions within the organization and an expansion of various logistical processes.

Reference

Zhukov, P. V., Silvanskiy, A. A., Mukhin, K. Y., & Domnina, O. L. (2019). Agile supply chain management in multinational corporations: Opportunities and barriers. International Journal of Supply Chain Management, 8(3), 416-425.

Users are constantly looking for information online, comparing, buying products and services online. That is why business websites play an essential role in promoting a company. They help build effectively against competitors, optimize internal processes, and find more clients. The main goal of any commercial project is to make a profit by selling goods or services (Biswas et al., 2019). The development and launching of an Internet portal and mobile application can provide serious support for businesses of any scale: from small to large corporations. A website is an opportunity to systematize important information about the business: products, benefits, reviews, prices, and terms of cooperation (Zhang et al., 2018). A website and mobile application development project for a home improvement store chain will be presented in this work.

The central aspect of the work will be the introduction of basic and additional functions in the web interface. The main functions are displaying product prices, store locations and their working hours, product descriptions on the website and mobile application. Additional functions such as a personal client cabinet, online personalized room design services, and store navigation will also be introduced as the project progresses. The entire project will be divided into three significant milestones, signifying implementing one or another set of features into the app or website. There will also be a description of the main goals and how to achieve them for each milestone. The timing of the project will be six months from the start of development to the final implementation for consumers.

Main Goals and Objectives

Before starting a new project, whether it is developing a corporate portal or a smartphone app, it is crucial to define its goals and objectives. Correct priorities help optimize development costs and make the final product more convenient and functional. Otherwise, the project quickly becomes unprofitable and does not pay off. The main goals in developing a website are to promote the company and stimulate sales. The launched website becomes an additional resource that generates traffic for the company. Paid advertising or SEO promotion can attract new customers and increase the brands audience, which has a positive effect on sales (Breuch, 2018). Additionally, an online store or corporate website effectively engages the target audience in the sales funnel. A well-developed website allows the brand to reduce the cost of advertising promotion and become a constant source of customer flow that generates sales (Ostrovska et al., 2019). The goals and objectives of creating a website are interrelated and often overlap. However, the projects objectives derive directly from the goals of its development.

The first goal of the commercial website and mobile app that the team is developing is to generate profit by creating a new sales channel. Objectives for this goal include simplifying the process of buying online, implementing additional services, informing consumers, and demonstrating product features with the help of an online resource. The second goal of developing an app and website is to increase audience loyalty and establish customer feedback. The challenge to this goal can be defined as creating an operational customer service chain. This includes creating order, payment, and order tracking functions on the site in the customers personal account. Creating the personal account itself will also allow the company to increase customer loyalty, as it is a way to collect registration data for the company  the customers hobby, date of birth, and email.

The first two types of data will allow discounts and personalized gifts for customers based on their hobbies and needs. Customer email is needed to produce personalized marketing in an email newsletter, which will provide an additional sales channel. Thus, personalizing and enhancing the shopping experience will increase customer loyalty.

The third goal of the described project is to optimize and automate the companys business processes. Implementing as many automated processes as possible on the website and in the companys application can be an objective for such a goal. For example, the payment procedure can be fully automated. This will make it possible to speed up the work process and direct human resources to the areas where they are most needed. One of the innovative functions of the smartphone app will be in-store navigation for customers. It will save them time searching for goods in a large hypermarket and allow the store personnel not to be distracted from their work to point the customer to the shelf with the product. In addition, it is planned to introduce QR-codes for all goods by scanning which the customer will be able to get information about it  cost, characteristics, reviews and even a tutorial on its use. Therefore, the stores work will be automated as much as possible without wasting valuable human resources.

Milestones

Once crucial project goals and objectives have been identified, milestones should be established. They will act as checkpoints to track progress and the timeliness of work; there will be three such milestones. The first is implementing essential features in the internal version of the site and mobile app. This indicates that the features will not yet be available to customers but will be introduced into the draft version of the site and app for testing on the target group. By the time this milestone is passed, the tank features should already be in the options expected to be present to a wide range of consumers.

The second milestone will be implementing additional features, such as online room design services, in the internal version of the site and app. It is also supposed to test how well the primary functions work in combination with the additional ones and the overall usability of the interface. The third milestone marks testing the internal version of the website and app on a sample of the target consumer group. When passing this milestone, both interfaces are assumed to be fully ready to work with a wide range of consumers. Only minor changes are possible based on feedback from the target group being tested.

Timeline

Setting a clear timeline describing the tasks and deadlines for quality work on the project is necessary. The entire timeline will be divided into six parts. They will correlate with a specific milestone and have ten actions required to complete it. The total time for the project is six months. The first part of the timeline will be dedicated to planning and will take one month. It will also be under the first milestone, which implies implementing the essential functions in the draft. This part includes gathering, processing, and analyzing customer requirements for the app and the stores Web site. In addition, it also involves planning a set of basic features for the resource and presenting this set to the target group for approval. The following steps are to plan additional features and propose them to the target group. The final actions of the first part will be to determine the dates and methods of new resources implementation of the company and the development of a pr-strategy to present the new items to customers.

The second part of the timeline will be developing the basic features of the website and application; it will also take one month. The initial activities will be the design of the resource, the writing of the primary code for the website, and the optimization of the interface for the application. Further, independent testing of the site and the application and analysis of incorrectly working functions are implied. This will be followed by correcting the original code, adjusting the interface of the website and the application separately, and creating the final version of the resources with the basic functions. At the end of this part of the timeline, the projects first milestone is expected to be passed. The third part will also take one month to develop and test additional resource features. Actions include writing the initial code of additional functions and testing them separately from the basic and together. This is followed by identifying incorrectly working code and its analysis, and then fixes. The following steps correlate secondary functions with primary functions for final testing, final testing itself, identification of failures, and elimination.

The fourth part of the timeline will take two weeks. It will include preparing the space for introducing additional mobile app features. The activities of this part will include assembling a team of management technicians to lead the process and handypersons. This will be followed by developing printing QR codes for each product and sticking them in the designated places. This part also includes testing the navigation system in the store, changing it in case of failure, and training the staff to work with innovative signs. In addition, it will also be necessary to install interactive signs for people with disabilities. By the end of the fourth part, the second milestone of the project is planned. Finally, the fifth and sixth parts of the timeline, the last of which will last a month and a half, will mark the final implementation of the system.

Part five will include final testing of the site and application by the target group, field testing of the store navigation system, and QR codes on products. In addition, it will also include the final correction of performance issues, as well as re-testing if necessary. This part also involves collecting, processing, and interpreting the test data by the focus group and writing a report on the work done. The sixth and final part is the most significant because it is the direct implementation of the system. It will take a month and a half, as it involves collecting, processing, and interpreting customer feedback regarding the new system. In addition, in this part, developers will have to create a customer support line for working with the site and the application. To do this, one will need to form a support team, define their job descriptions, test their work in the simulation, and notify customers about the possibility of contacting them. This part will also require an advertising campaign to promote the stores new resources.

At the end of this part, the third milestone is considered passed, and the work on the project is over. Nevertheless, for the effective use of the site, it is essential to regularly carry out technical work, expand the project, and adjust the promotion strategy promptly. Creating a website for the company itself will not bring visible changes  the effect is observed only with constant project support. Only constant monitoring of the set strategy allows one to implement plans. Otherwise, the efficiency of the resource decreases, the project ceases to be helpful for the company and begins to bring losses.

Cost

The projects total cost must be calculated based on the totality of the necessary work. Creating a website for the store will cost around $30,000, and creating a mobile app will cost around $20,000 (Ageeva et al., 2019). In addition, it is necessary to consider the teams payment to prepare stores for the implementation of additional functions, such as online navigation. The projects cost also increases with the involvement of a team of analysts evaluating the results of final and intermediate studies of resource versions. Finally, it is essential to attract marketers to advertise innovative introductions to the stores customers. Thus, the total cost of the project will be about $300,000. However, maintaining the site in working order can cost an additional $ 10,000 each month of its subsequent operation. The project also implies an extensive expenditure of staffing resources since, in addition to the companys staff itself, it attracts at least three external teams of specialists. As for non-staffing resources are primarily extensive money spending and materials for printing QR codes and creating a navigation system.

Sources

Ageeva, E., Melewar, T. C., Foroudi, P., & Dennis, C. (2019). Evaluating the factors of corporate website favorability: A case of UK and Russia. Qualitative Market Research, 22(5), 687-715. Web.

Biswas, K. M., Nusari, M., & Ghosh, A. (2019). The influence of website service quality on customer satisfaction towards online shopping: The mediating role of confirmation of expectation. Ideas, 1(3), 27-48. Web.

Breuch, L.-A.K. (2018). Involving the audience: A rhetorical perspective on using mocial Media to improve websites. Routledge. Web.

Ostrovska, L., Runce, K., & Grabusts, P. (2019). Website creation for construction supply company. Proceedings of the Students International Scientific and Practical Conference, 0(23), 51-56. Web.

Zhang, T., Lu, C., Torres, E., & Chen, P.-J. (2018). Engaging customers in value co-creation or co-destruction online. Journal of Services Marketing, 32(1), 57-69. Web.

Abstract

Agile methods have emerged due to the vast emphasis on tools and the non-interactive nature of software engineering. Consequently, the agile principles, such as cooperation between stakeholders and sustainable development, paved the way for a large variety of frameworks, including Scrum and Kanban. At present, most IT companies acknowledge the efficiency of the said approaches and utilize them to maximize productivity.

Introduction

Software engineering is a highly complex process of development associated with a wide array of instruments, documentation, project applications, and engineering principles. Therefore, agile practices  a set of guidelines to prioritize individuals and customers rather than tools and contracts  emerged as a response to the problem [1]. As a result, the agile approach focuses on the human nature of project management, emphasizing social interaction between various stakeholders and a healthy workspace environment [1]. These practices increase the overall productivity of the unit and allow for better communication between customers and employees [1]. Ultimately, the current paper examines the underlying principles of agile development and briefly discusses the advantages and applications of the approach.

Literature Review

Agile development first emerged in the 1990s as a method to mitigate the complexity of the industry and emphasize human efforts [2]. There has been a wide array of development frameworks in the IT sector, including waterfall, project management, and agile methods, which encompass even more detailed approaches [3]. For instance, some of the implementations of agile development include Scrum, Kanban, and DevOps [2]. Furthermore, while these approaches are considered the standard of the industry, a large variety of organizations combine various frameworks to create the most appropriate system for the project [2]. Despite the large variety of approaches, all the said agile methods focus on improving the productivity of the processes while emphasizing the cooperation between the team members and customers [4]. As a result, at present, approximately 97% of IT teams utilize agile methods to some extent, which transparently reflects the efficiency of the approach [2].

Agile & Project Management

In general, agile methods are applied to project management; for instance, the mentioned Scrum and Kanban frameworks are frequently perceived as project management approaches [4]. Nevertheless, there are specific differences between the two archetypes, explicitly concerning their perspectives on change and cooperation [1]. Namely, agile development is beneficial for projects that require flexibility and continuous adjustments [1]. In general, there are twelve agile principles, all of which emphasize the adaptable structure of the processes [1]. Furthermore, agile development emphasizes the communication between the customers and employees, which, in turn, results in continuous changes and adjustments to the project [1]. On the other hand, the project management approach can be referred to as a less flexible system, which focuses on objectives and total control of the processes [5]. Contrary to the agile approach, it generally emphasizes the strict order of processes and operations to minimize the possibility of errors and necessary adjustments [5]. As a result, such frameworks can be useful for critical or contingency projects, which require extensive planning with no room for mistakes.

Agile Structure

Most project management frameworks, including agile methods, have comprehensive planning, designing, and testing structure. These stages of development are essential to the productive flow of work and evaluation of the final results [4]. Furthermore, various agile implementations apply different approaches to the said elements; therefore, it is essential to examine the underlying principles of the agile development structure.

Planning

Planning is the initial step of project management and is vital to the success of agile development. The nature of planning significantly varies depending on the approach; however, the underlying principles of the phase include initial exploration, release planning, iterating, tracking, and the estimated results [1]. Ultimately, planning establishes the objectives of the project and determines the flow of the operations; thus, planning is vital to any method of agile development.

Designing

While designing is frequently considered a part of planning, agile development has a different approach to this stage. According to agile principles, designing is a continuous process, which is adjusted and perfected upon every planning iteration [1]. Therefore, agile development perceives designing as a flexible variable and ensures that the project can be easily customized if needed [1]. From these considerations, a poor design is a rigid system, which is needlessly complex and cannot evolve over time [1]. Thus, the primary point of agile designing is the flexibility of the system that can be easily adjusted and complemented.

Testing

Testing is the ultimate step of project management and operations, which ensures the absence of errors and verifies the validity of the undertaken work. As seen from planning and design principles, testing is also a continuous process, which is required upon every iteration of the project [1]. Thus, an agile team verifies the efficacy of each operation, discusses the results, and adjusts the system if needed. Ultimately, planning, designing, and testing are the necessary stages of most agile frameworks.

Agile Methods

Scrum is an agile framework that splits the operation processes into sprints each of which is planned on daily meetings [4]. This approach was first implemented in 1995 during the initial stages of agile development and is considered one of the most well-known frameworks today [4]. Scrum emphasizes the flexible usage of sprint planning, cross-functional distribution of labor, necessary adjustments, and ultimate testing of the implemented processes [4]. This operation is repeated upon every planning iteration until the project is completed. Some of the Scrum disadvantages include the relative uncertainty of planning and the needed high qualification of the team [4]. Nevertheless, Scrum has successfully become one of the most popular and effective methods of agile development.

Kanban and DevOps

Kanban is another agile framework, which emphasizes team cooperation and continuous improvement [4]. It was first implemented by Toyota management and was used to eliminate any possibility of overstocking [4]. This concept paved the way for Just-in-Time (JIT) and Lean manufacturing since the teams are able to freely communicate and ensure the efficiency of operations [4]. The underlying principle of Kanban is continuous improvement, which is central to the project in any industry [4]. At present, Kanban is a prominent agile system, which is spread all over the world and used for any type of project management [4]. Consequently, DevOps is a system that connects the development and operation teams in cross-functional collaboration to achieve maximum results [6]. While this approach is slightly less popular than Scrum and Kanban, a large variety of organizations have successfully implemented DevOps to enhance communication among operation units [6]. Ultimately, there is a large variety of contemporary agile methods, which can be utilized for diverse purposes.

Conclusion

Agile development is an efficient methodology of software engineering that paved the way for more comprehensive approaches, such as Scrum and Kanban. At present, most IT companies utilize agile methods to some extent and will most likely become more prominent with the increasing usage of emerging technologies. Ultimately, agile development is an effective framework to maximize the productivity of the team and shift the focus from inflexible non-interactive methods to human cooperation and adaptability.

References

R. C. Martin and M. Martin. Agile Principles, Patterns, and Practices in C#. Boston: Prentice Hall, 2006.

R. Hoda, N. Salleh and J. Grundy. The Rise and Evolution of Agile Software Development. IEEE Software, vol. 35, pp. 58-63, 2019.

A. M. Dima and M. A. Maassen. From Waterfall to Agile Software: Development Models in the IT Sector, 2006 to 2018. Impacts on Company Management. Journal of International Studies, vol. 11, pp. 315-326, 2018.

W. Zayat and O. Senvar. Framework Study for Agile Software Development via Scrum and Kanban. International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management, vol. 17, pp. 1-24, 2020.

J. R. Cristobal, L. Carral, E. Diaz, J. A. Fraguela and G. Iglesias. Complexity and Project Management: Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Research. Complexity, vol. 2018, pp. 1-10, 2018.

A. Hemon, B. Lyonnet, F. Rowe and B. Fitzgerald. From Agile to DevOps: Smart Skills and Collaborations. Information Systems Frontiers, vol. 22, pp. 927-945, 2020.

Chapter 1

The chapter assessment focuses on agile foundations, history, and the agile manifesto. Ultimately, the chapter aims to provide a common knowledge of the principles and values of agile practices. The assessment tests the knowledge of the agile manifesto, created by several software developers who wanted to manage projects better and sharply focus on developing software. The agile manifesto is meant to be a collection of guiding and lightweight principles instead of formal processes and rules. The agile manifesto prioritizes individuals and interaction, working software, customer collaboration, responding to change over processes and tools, comprehensive documentation, contract negotiation, and following a plan. The assessment tests the knowledge of empirical process control and Waterfall project management. Empirical process control refers to a core Scrum principle that focuses on transparency, adaptation, and inspection. The Waterfall project prioritizes formal control systems and preplanning, but it is not effective for some projects that need rapid changes.

Chapter 2

The assessment in chapter 2 focused on testing the knowledge of agile frameworks models, including Scrum and eXtreme programming. Scrum refers to a framework created to assist teams in developing solutions for problems that are complex in an adaptive way. The assessment tests the knowledge of the scrum team, which consists of the Scrum master, product owner, and developers. The Scrum Master ensures that the framework is followed correctly. The product owner manages the product backlog and ensures all valuable work is completed. The developers plan each Sprint work as well as complete tasks to deliver the value requested by the product owner.

In addition, Scrum works in several events, including sprint, sprint planning, daily Scrum, sprint review, and sprint retrospective. A sprint review meeting aims to show completed work to customers to gain feedback and encourage collaboration. A sprint retrospective evaluates what went well and the methods of improving a project. In contrast, eXtreme programming is a framework that has a short life cycle and test-first development as its key aspects. The core values guiding development in eXtreme programming are communication, courage, respect, simplicity, and feedback.

Chapter 3

The assessment in chapter 3 focused on the main aspects of different agile frameworks. Such methodologies include Kanban, crystal, dynamic systems development method (DSDM), feature-driven development, and lean software development. Kanban is a method that utilizes visual methods to develop and manage projects. The Kanban board helps show information radiated to stakeholders to increase visibility. Another methodology tested in the assessment is crystal, which comprises crystal clear, crystal orange, crystal diamond, and crystal sapphire.

Among them, crystal clear is a lightweight methodology used in smaller projects because it assumes that every system is inimitable, necessitating the solicitation of various policies, practices, and processes to get great results. The assessment also covers the DSDM framework, which accepts that changes can happen and that quality and timely delivery are paramount to project success. DSDM uses the must, should, could, and wont (MoSCoW) to ensure that important elements are prioritized first. The feature-driven development was created to accommodate large teams. Lean software development focuses on eliminating waste.

Chapter 4

Chapter 4 assessment is focused on testing knowledge of stakeholder engagement and agile initiation. For example, if a new customer is not clear about a projects instructions, they can create a tweet to help developers understand such a project better. Before projects are launched, they are evaluated using return on investment, net present value, and the internal rate of return. After evaluation, projects are granted a project charter to allow their start. Agile project charters provide documentation of when who, were, what, and how a project should proceed and are more flexible than waterfall project charters. The test also focuses on how project managers should communicate with their customers. For instance, using similar communication, such as attitude, speech pattern, and gestures, helps a customers communication through mirroring. Another communication technique is active listening, and which entails utilizing body language, asking questions, and being expressive.

Chapter 5

Chapter 5 assessment tests the knowledge of conflict resolution, interpersonal skills, and adaptive leadership in project management. Conflicts may arise because of unclear expectations regarding tasks, poor leadership, budget constraints, personality conflicts, and lack of communication. They can be resolved by active listening, collaboration, and constructive criticism. Interpersonal skills are also tested in the assessment, and they include motivation, negotiation, coaching, conflict management, and communication, showing the importance of soft skills. For example, project managers with efficient negotiation tactics can easily resolve misunderstandings in the storming stage when conflicts arise. As a result, both parties may be given value, but the negotiator achieves their objective. Adaptive leadership allows leaders to solve problems quickly, enabling team members to respect each other.

Chapter 6

Chapter 6 assessment explored the dynamics of agile planning and estimation. Estimation in project management is done through story points which measure the effort needed to implement product backlogs. However, spikes cannot be estimated unless developers conduct timeboxing. Timeboxing allocates a specified and fixed time for every planned activity. It improves predictability, forces prioritization, and helps to plan. The assessment also focused on iteration, determining how much backlog team members can handle. It is measured in terms of velocity, which is the work developers can complete in a given time.

The assessment provided a test on themes, epics, and user stories. User stories originate from transparent communication, a well-refined backlog, and a team understanding the customers instructions. Furthermore, the assessment provided knowledge of backlog refinement, which is done through backlog grooming. Backlog grooming addresses all requirements of different projects, prioritizes them, and removes unwanted ones.

Introduction

Project management is one of the most challenging stages of any enterprise in any business area. It is safe to say that a significant part of the enterprises success depends on it. Effective project management requires managers and employees to have vast theoretical knowledge and well-developed professional skills. Researchers define it as the use of specific knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to deliver something of value to people (What is project management? 2021, para. 1). Project management is a business study discipline with a long history, and professionals in this field have developed a wide variety of methodologies. It includes the traditional method, also known as the waterfall one, the lean approach, and the Adaptive Project Framework.

Recently, agile frameworks and approaches have begun to gain popularity in project management, especially when it comes to software. Professionals note that agile methodology is frequently used in software development projects to promote velocity and adaptability since the benefit of iteration is that you can adjust as you go along rather than following a linear path (What is agile project management? 2021, para. 2). As one can see, understanding the agile approach and knowing how to apply it most effectively is crucial for any entrepreneur nowadays. Interested and aspiring entrepreneurs can develop these business skills by exploring and analyzing related case studies. This paper aims to summarize three case studies about agile project management and comment on them.

Valpak Case Study Summary

Valpak is a leading actor in the United States direct marketing industry. Valpak has both a traditional vast network of partners and a well-developed digital one. Cobb notes that the company has over 150 franchises in its network (Cobb, 2015). Firms large and small, as well as millions of customers, trust the company. It is safe to say that the IT department of the organization is in many ways the reason for its great success. Valpaks operational tools and efforts are divided into four broad categories, namely Valpak Franchises, Consumers, Merchants, and Corporate (Cobb, 2015). In 2011, the management of Valpak decided to introduce agile methodology into the project management of its IT segment.

Stephanie Stewart, Chris Cate, and Bob Damato led the transition; they applied the Scaled Agile Framework, a comprehensive three-layer approach, to engage all company ranks. The change was initiated from the bottom up with continued support and advice from management, allowing for a quick and efficient transition (Cobb, 2015). The successful implementation of the agile methodology has improved the strategic vision of the IT department, resource utilization, productivity, workplace relationships, and the quality of the final product.

Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Case Study Summary

Harvard Pilgrim Health Care (HPHC) is one of the best reputable healthcare organizations in the United States. They have retained this status for more than 40 years (Cobb, 2015). HPHC is known for its high-quality services of all kinds and high skilled personnel. By 2008 the company faced several major challenges due to the constantly changing business environment. They lacked flexibility and capacity and had problems with data transparency, allocation, and implementation of resources (Cobb, 2015). So HPHC decided to reform their IT sector to meet the new social and market conditions.

As with Valpak, three people have led the adoption of the agile management methodology. They were Michael Hurst, Vijay Bhatt, and Deborah Norton (Cobb, 2015). They mainly utilized the Scrum methodology, sometimes combining it with the traditional one. Moreover, the project management office, project portfolio management, and project governance were introduced to make the transition faster and smoother (Cobb, 2015). It is also worth noting that HPHC enlisted the help of Dell Services and Oracle to facilitate their software and hardware upgrades (Cobb, 2015). As a result, a significant cultural shift took place, communication between management and employees improved, and the professional competence of workers increased. It can be said that HPHC has achieved the desired outcome.

General Motors UK Case Study Summary

General Dynamics UK is a company that focuses on the production and modernization of aeronautical and marine technologies, both civilian and military. It is worthy of mentioning that another area of their activity is information technologies and data systems (Cobb, 2015). The organization has long been the main partner of the British government in the field of military technology. General Dynamics UK decided to adopt an agile methodology to be able to deliver new technologies, strengthen the ties with the UK Department of Defense, and provide them and other partners with greater flexibility within the service provider and customer relationships.

Nigel Edwards, an experienced company manager, has led the implementation of the hybrid agile approach. The chosen methodology was the Dynamic Systems Development Method (Cobb, 2015). Each significant project element and managerial aspect was segmented into two to four categories, and each was carefully planned out. It allowed avoiding the unnecessary time, resource, and labor costs and provided sufficient flexibility for employees and customers. The implementation of DCDM has overcome many cultural, contractual, and technical challenges (Cobb, 2015). Moreover, the organization has improved project management, information transparency, and teamwork, while the number of conflicts has been reduced significantly.

Similarities and Differences in Summarized Case Studies

In each of the three cases, organizations have taken different methods of the same methodology, and one may notice several similarities. For example, both Valpak and HPHC decided to change their approach to project management due to external factors, namely the rapidly changing market environment. In addition, both of these organizations have resorted to Scrum and Kanban approaches during the adoption (Cobb, 2015). Continuous monitoring, coaching, and consulting of employees at all stages of implementation by the management is another similarity in all three cases. Both HPHC and General Dynamics UK, companies in constant contact with government agencies, have adopted hybrid agile methodologies.

Differences

Significant differences were also found in the stories of improvement in the project management of each of the three companies. General Dynamics UK is the only company that did not use Scrum and Kanban programs (Cobb, 2015). It is also worth noting that only Valpak switched to a fully agile project management model. HPHC and General Dynamics UK balanced tactical and strategic thinking, while Valpak shifted entirely to strategic planning (Cobb, 2015). Moreover, only Valpak workers experienced no problems with cultural change.

Conclusion

This paper summarizes and analyzes three case studies on agile modernization in project management. The similarities and differences found in them can be associated with external factors, such as location and market sector, and internal ones, namely, the relationship between staff and management and the companys size. Each of the companies applied the most convenient methodology that allowed them to strengthen their positions in their industries, to inspire employees, and, as a result, to earn more profits.

References

Cobb, C. G. (2015). The project managers guide to mastering agile: Principles and practices for an adaptive approach. Wiley.

What is agile project management? (2021). Association for Project Management. Web.

What is project management? (2021). Project Management Institute. Web.

Introduction

Software engineering is the activity aimed at developing software programmes and applications appropriate for those programmes with regard to compatibility and usability of programmes by different audience including software developers and ordinary customers/users that purchase and upload these applications for personal use only. Every time a specific programme should be developed, a specific approach should be used for that purpose. In other words, the team of developers can analyse the situation and apply the most effective agile software programme development methodology to the process of development divided into a number of stages such as designing and testing. It is necessary to take into account the cycle and other features of the agile method as well as three perspective of software engineering such as technological, organizational, and human. Every time programmers use Extreme Planning (XP), Dynamic system Development Method (DSDM), or Scrum, they can properly plan the development of software considering the principles of every agile methodology.

Agile Methods: General Overview

Software Engineering

Software engineering is the area of human activity that enables people to facilitate certain operations through implementation of programmes and approaches that are aimed at optimising the management of resources, planning, and other integral stages of organizational management. For instance, it is possible to focus of software engineering as suggested by Hazzan and Dubinsky (2008, pp. 3-4), with regard to three perspectives such as human resources, organisation of the company and hierarchy of it, and technological advancement.

The Agile software development can be referred to as a method of solving problems that may potentially occur and usually do occur in practice. In other words, optimisation of the approach that should be implemented while coping with certain tasks in application of software programs and development of software for practical use is the primary concerns for developers of the Agile software development system. Though the problems may be different, there is a Manifesto which outlines the main areas of concern and emphases put in terms of cooperation, planning, and human resources management. In this respect, software engineering contributes to the development and improvement of software programmes that are applied to different areas of business, services, and manufacturing.

What Are Agile Methods?

Agile methods include approaches and schemes that are aimed at facilitating the management, control, and improvement of software system development by professionals. In other words, programmers managed to optimise the process of detecting gaps and problems and introducing changes into this area. User/customer involvement and cooperation as well as delivery of demo versions of the product are integral parts of the Agile methods operation. This means that every method has its specific features and its use can be beneficial for different stages of the product development with regard to the approach and perspective used. Production and delivery of solutions is as important as development of software programmes. In this case, Agile methods include Scrum, Feature Driven Development (FDD), Extreme Programming (XP), Dynamic system Development Method (DSDM), and other approaches invented and implied in different periods of time. So, popularity and suitability of different methods predetermined their use by programmers and other people that are involved into the process of software development. The goals that are planned to be achieved shape the whole process of development including the methodologies to be used with regard to their benefits and drawbacks and ways of implementation.

Principles of Agile Methods

The principles of Agile methods include suitability and effectiveness because the main concerns of programmers is to produce and analyse the product in a definite period of time with regard to the difficulties that may occur and benchmarks to be taken into account. For instance, the Extreme Programming method operates in accordance with the principles based on customer/user perspective because it is aimed at analysing the needs and expectations of customers/users and adjust the software in general and different minor elements to the changing requirements to the system.

As different programmes are designed for different audience, they might have different principles of operation. In other words, some software programmes are designed for organizations that deal with trading and delivery issues while others are more appropriate for analysis of effectiveness implemented by programmers who are supposed to help monitor and evaluate the performance of organisations. The principles of Agile methods in software development concern the perspective taken as a starting point and changes that occur in the process of development that are taken into account because planning is recessed while meeting occurring changes is more important. User involvement, testing, cycles, and other principles are of major importance for most Agile methods in software development.

Examples of Agile Methodologies

Extreme Programming (XP)

Sometimes, programmers use a more technological approach to make sure that the software program is tested properly and would not have essential drawbacks in the process of implementation. However the Extreme Programming method also referred to as XP has the main focus on customer perspective and is aimed at responding to customers/users requirements, expectations, and changing needs. This is why this method is mostly used by contemporary software developing companies for improvements if software programmes. Besides, as reported in the study by Highsmith and Highsmith (2002, p. xxxiii), XP preaches the values of community, simplicity, feedback, and courage. Moreover, this agile method focuses primarily on the programming side of software development (Schuh 2004, p. 19). Every stage of the development process applied by this method is intended to serve on the basis of customers/users/ feedback in order to achieve the most significant results in this area.

Scrum

The main purpose of using the Scrum agile methodology is to divide the overall plan into several stages each resulting in the delivery of certain features. In other words, there is a cycle of thirty days divided into specific periods whereas each period is supposed to end with the delivery of definite features of the product. Overall, the core practice in Scrum is the use of daily 15-minute team meeting for coordination and integration (Highsmith and Highsmith 2002, p. xxxii). In this respect, the team that works on the development of software programmes and related products should meet every day to discuss the benchmarks and difficulties that have occurred or may potentially occur with regard to the work of other team members and features planned for the final product that is usually produced in the form of demo version that should be tested and implemented into operation.

Dynamic System Development Method (DSDM)

Every time a programmer faces some difficulties with development and implementation of certain software programmes, he/she can use the experience of those who have already implemented effective agile methodologies into operation. The Dynamic System Development Method (DSDM) is one of the most effective agile methods used by programmers for software development. The main benefit of this methodology includes the principles of its operation and implementation such as user involvement, frequent delivery, team decision making, integrated testing throughout the project life cycle, and reversible changes in development (Highsmith and Highsmith 2002, p. xxxii). Moreover, this methodology can be applied to any stage of the software development process including planning and testing. In this respect, the principles of this method can be considered the ones echoing the Manifesto mentioned in the study by Hazzan and Dubinsky (2008, p. 4).

Analysis of Agile Effectiveness

Benefits of Agile Methods

The benefits of agile methods include a proper planning which facilitates the operation of the demo version and of the final version. As a rule, the final version is note delivered to the customers/users if it was not tested. In this respect, such stages as testing, changes introduction, and final demonstration of the features of the software programme are integral parts of the software programme development process. As all agile methods have their benefits and drawbacks, it is necessary to remember that every process of software development has the main focus which can be irrelevant to other agile methods used in software engineering. However, most agile methods include customer perspective or simply human perspective realised in the form of team work, customer involvement, or users feedback for integration of changes with regard to the customers requirements. In other words, every method should emphasise the role of people in the development and integration of software products.

Drawbacks of Agile Methods

The main drawbacks of agile methodologies includes the problems reported in the study by Eckstein and Baumeister (2004, p. 319) who analysed the agile methodologies and identified that the main problem occurs when it comes to implementation because Agile methodologies [are] not well accepted in the IT industry (Eckstein and Baumeister 2004, p. 319). In other words, the information technology industry should apply the principles used in the process of software development for optimisation of processes of management and evaluation that would contribute positively to the operation of the industry. However, it is possible that the agile methods are inappropriate and inapplicable to the IT industry due to a number of programmes and applications used in this industry to maximise the effect produced by people and operational systems.

Conclusion

To conclude, it is necessary to state that software engineering deals with development and implementation of software programmes used in various areas and industries including resource planning and delivery. Agile methodologies used in software development contribute positively to the optimisation of work and effectiveness of performance. However, agile methods are proven to be ineffective and inappropriate for the IT industry whereas a framework for presentation of these methods could be used to help improve the compatibility and usability of agile methods. Though there are some drawbacks in agile methods, there are many benefits that mostly include human perspective realised though active involvement of customers as main users, team work as in Scrum where daily meetings are aimed at better coordination and integration of all team members, and others. In this respect, the integration of agile methods can be effective for software engineering and can be presented into IT industry through a more appropriate presentation framework.

References

Hazzan, O. and Dubinsky, Y. (2008) Agile Software Engineering, London: Springer.

Eckstein, J. and Baumeister, H., eds. (2004) Extreme Programming and Agile Processes in Software Engineering: 5th International Conference, XP 2004, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 2004: Proceedings, New York: Springer.

Highsmith, J. and Highsmith, J. A., eds. (2002) Agile Software Development Ecosystems, Indianapolis: Addison-Wesley.

Schuh, P. (2004) Integrating Agile Development in the Real World, Mingham: Cengage Learning.

Bibliography

Sillitti, A. (2010) Agile Processes in Software Engineering and Extreme Programming:11th International Conference, XP 2010, Trondheim, Norway, 2010, Proceedings, New York: Springer.

Sommerville, I. (2010). Software Engineering, 9^th ed., Harlow: Addison-Wesley.

Introduction

The properties of a project will always change depending on the level of criticality and the participants involved. In this regard, small teams can handle projects without the need for reporting and paperwork as there will be less communication (Vijayasarathy & Butler, 2015). However, bigger teams require frequent cooperation when working on large-scale projects. In other words, more participants create the need for more complex approaches to task management. The Crystal family of methods focuses on three aspects of project management: reflective improvement, close communication, and frequent delivery (Hamed & Abushama, 2013). Being an agile software development approach, the primary focus is on interactions between the people working on a project as opposed to the processes involved. According to Kumar and Bhatia (2012), the skills and talents possessed by team members have the greatest impact on project outcomes. In developing the Crystal methodologies, Cockburn (2000) proposed the view of product development as an interactive game, in which everyone is allowed to be creative. Rather than focusing on the accuracy of the model, the focus should be on its ability to meet the needs of the customers.

Research Questions

The research questions to be addressed in this study are:

• What is the history of the Crystal family of methods?
• What principles are they based upon?
• How do the different methodologies differ depending on team size and other factors?

Structure of Research

This paper is organized into six sections: introduction, theoretical background, methods, findings, discussion, and conclusion. In the next part, an overview of the core terms and background information on the topic is provided as used in current publications. The method section follows with a description of the research methodology used to derive the findings. The findings chapter presents the results upon execution of the research method. In the discussion section, the findings are analyzed in light of the theoretical background and lessons learned. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the paper, identifies the limitations of the research, and gives ideas for future research.

Theoretical Background

The Crystal Family

The Crystal family comprises several methodologies, from which the most suitable is selected for individual projects. Within the Crystal approach are principles that tailor the methodologies to be used in different projects (Despa, 2014). The individual methodologies in the Crystal family are distinguished by colors based on the weight of the method. In this regard, heavier methods are denoted by darker colors (Cockburn, 2000). According to Alam et al. (2017), an appropriate color of methodology suiting the target project is chosen depending on its size and criticality. Hamed and Abushama (2013) also add that larger projects requiring more coordination will call for heavier methods compared to smaller ones. Similar to the sentiments of these authors, Anwer et al. (2017) state that as a system becomes more critical, it requires more rigor. On the other hand, Cockburn (2000) suggested that risky projects require the use of validation and verification rules as well as an added hardness in the methodology.

Project Categories

The Crystal approach categorizes projects according to the size and the level of criticality of the outcomes of the project. Sunner (2016) outlined comfort (C), discretionary money (D), essential money (E), and life (L) as the four levels of criticality and defined them based on the loss associated with a failure in the system. The maximum number of team members involved in a project is the secondary factor. Hence, Keshta and Morgan (2017) argued that all parameters must be factored in when deciding the right method to follow. A category L40 project, for example, requires the input of up to 40 people. However, the four levels of criticality have to be considered before determining the date of release. Here, comfort refers to the number of hours each resource will work without strain; discretionary money is the funds available to fulfill the project; and essential money is the minimum amount that can see the project to completion (Cockburn, 2000). In cases when the three criticality levels are inadequate, the project life, which refers to the team size and scope, can be adjusted accordingly and the most feasible method is selected.

Features of the Crystal Family

All methodologies in the Crystal family share specific features, rules, and values. First, Davies and Mueller (2020) state that projects employing these methods use incremental development cycles lasting up to four months. Also, Crystal methodologies have no restriction on the nature of development practices or tools used in projects (Vijayasarathy & Butler, 2015). Furthermore, Unhelkar (2016) indicates that the Crystal approach encompasses objectives that seek to reduce intermediate work products, bring together individual projects, and develop them in the course of the execution. However, Anwer et al. (2017) argue that while there are five Crystal methodologies constructed, which are clear, yellow, orange, red, and maroon, only the first three have been tested in practice.

Knowledge Gap

Despite increasing interest in the Crystal family methods, there is yet to be a clear agreement on how the differences in all the methodologies affect their application in project development. However, not one method can be applied in all settings. Despite these findings, there has been a minimal emphasis on the analysis of the situations that best suit the individual methods in the Crystal family (Atawneh, 2019). It means that there is yet to be a systematic review of Crystal family methodologies, hence the lack of procedures for practitioners to decide on the method with the greatest benefit. This paper, therefore, characterizes the different methods based on the principles upon which they are based while identifying the differences that are likely to affect their application in various settings.

Method

Research Approach

This paper used a systematic literature review method, which is a comprehensive synthesis of existing literature. In this regard, vom Brocke et al. (2015) state that the quality of evidence used in the review is determined by the relevance of the articles from which the results are derived. It was, therefore, important to identify information-rich resources about the research topic. Having formulated the research questions, studies were searched using the keywords The Crystal family, or Crystal methods alongside history of, principles of, and characteristics of. The Google and Google Scholar search engines were used for this research to help identify the most appropriate literature.

Search Strategy and Analysis

The two search engines produced hundreds of sources with information about the Crystal family methodologies. Besides, a manual search of printed literature was also conducted. Nonetheless, not every source had information relevant enough to answer the research questions. Consequently, inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to approve the most appropriate literature. Considering the availability of limited literature on the Crystal methodologies, literature developed within ten years was considered for the review. However, only peer-reviewed books and articles were selected. In this regard, all other gray literature and websites were excluded. Upon completion of the search process, 10 sources were identified for review. The researcher summarized and synthesized the results of the review. The systematic analysis involved identifying and comparing the content of the publications. The themes were then developed based on the research questions, including the relevant content from the results used to elaborate on selected themes.

Findings

The History of the Crystal Family of Methods

The history of the Crystal family of methodologies is discussed in all the publications. Whereas Bhuvaneswari and Prabaharan (2013) provide an overview, Abrahamsson et al. (2017) go into the details of its history. In 1991, Alistair Cockburn was asked by International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) to develop a method that would oversee object-oriented projects considering that the methodologies of the time were ineffective. Cockburn realized that every successful team followed a common pattern to success even in cases when they used a different project methodology (Aitken & Ilango, 2013). This was achieved by the team members adding value to aspects such as communication and morale, and others not specific to any methodology. These realizations guided the construction of the Crystal family of methods, which were categorized based on the size and criticality of the project to match the color and hardness of minerals (Abrahamsson et al., 2017). Essentially, the families point to the notion that every project is likely to require a specific set of processes, practices, and policies to fulfill the characteristics of the project.

Common Properties of the Crystal Family

All methods in the Crystal family have seven prevailing properties. Furthermore, the more a project portrays its properties, the higher are the chances of its success. All seven characteristics are discussed by Ibrahim et al. (2020) but to different extents. Frequent delivery is said to allow project developers to deliver the work in stages while testing its applicability to the users. It means that the team will invest time in products that are proven by the public, hence avoiding the risk of losses. Another property is reflective improvement, in which a product is always open to improvement regardless of its nature. Besides, Ashmore and Runyan (2014) also state that teams are always open to implementing new techniques and methods to improve their practices in the future. Osmotic communication also stands out among the characteristics of the methods (Abrahamsson et al., 2017). Here, teams are expected to work in the same location, which facilitates a smooth flow of information amongst the members. Communication encourages gradual absorption of ideas, and the work atmosphere requires minimal leadership structures.

The methods have an aspect of personal safety, which is responsible for the healthy working atmosphere. This can only be achieved through a culture of open and honest communication (Ibrahim et al., 2020). In this case, team members are allowed to express their views without fear. Focus is also an essential component in projects implemented using Crystal methods. Each team member focuses their attention on a specific task, therefore, avoiding cases of switching in-between tasks. Furthermore, this level of focus ensures that the team works towards a common goal (Abrahamsson et al., 2017). Considering that there is open communication, the methods have easy access to expert users (Bhuvaneswari & Prabaharan, 2013). It means that Crystals methods make it easier for the team to get constant feedback from the users of the products. Finally, the methods create an environment with tests being conducted rapidly, easier management of configurations, and frequent integration to identify potential errors within minutes, which is specific to software projects.

Methodological Differences

All methods in the Crystal family come with personalized tools, standards, and roles that have to be followed in projects. However, it was identified that only clear, yellow, and orange variants have been constructed and used. Gorschek et al. (2017) discuss the Crystal family methodologies with a focus on their contextual differences and the impact on processes and activities. While Crystal clear is meant for the smallest projects requiring teams of a maximum of eight people, yellow, orange, and red accommodate a maximum of 20, 50, and 100 members, respectively (Zamudio et al., 2017). In this regard, teams using Crystal clear and orange can share office space as they have limited communication structures.

The crystal clear method is meant for small-sized projects based on the minimal number of team members. However, Crystal orange projects tend to be medium-sized and may be split up into several functional groups (Pressman & Maxim, 2015). Still, the Crystal orange method does not meet the requirements for a distributed development environment, which would only be possible in Crystal red (Stoica et al., 2013). The emphasis on Crystal orange and yellow is the time-to-market concept. However, unlike in the case of Crystal clear and yellow, it would be difficult to achieve a trade-off between rapid change in project design and extensive deliverables in Crystal orange and red (Kulkarni et al., 2017). This is because of the difficulty in maintaining an efficient communication system between the groups.

The main roles required in Crystal clear can be held by individuals such as a sponsor, coordinator, business expert, designer, and user (Bhuvaneswari & Prabaharan, 2013). In this case, one business expert is enough to complete the designed plan. However, each role in Crystal orange and red suggest the need for a wide range of subordinates required to fulfill the project. These subordinates are, therefore, put in several smaller teams to undertake different functions such as system architecture and project mentoring (Ozkan et al., 2020). Accordingly, these teams can be further divided to form cross-functional groups with related roles.

Discussion

In the creation of the Crystal family of methods, the focus was to develop guidelines that would encourage team collaboration and communication. This marked a shift from step-by-step project strategies, used in the past. The results, therefore, agree with Unhelkars (2016) argument that Cockburns Crystal methods are all team-based. There are three features of Crystal methods that are evident in both the literature review and the results of this study: human-powered, adaptive, and ultralight. In the case of being human-powered, people are presented as an important part of the processes and tools involved in Crystal methods. The finding that project development is human activity is supported by Vijayasarathy and Butler (2015) who state that processes should be designed to fit the needs of the team members and not in the opposite manner. It, therefore, means that teams should be self-organizing and self-sufficient to become more competent.

Another feature of Crystal methods that is evident in both the results and previous literature is adaptiveness. From, Abrahamsson et al.s (2017) perspective, Crystal is more of an approach than prescribed tools and techniques for fulfilling projects. It means that the said processes and tools can be adjusted depending on the needs of an individual project. These findings support Alam et al.s (2017) argument that each project is unique, and that the choice of method must meet both business and technical requirements. The last feature of the Crystal method is being ultra-light. According to the results, the Crystal family comprises lightweight methodologies. This observation is a reflection of Cockburns (2000) statement that Crystal advocates for less documentation and reporting. Things have to be kept light with much focus put on producing a business-valued project.

For every project using the Crystal methods, the projects business and technical requirements are used in the determination of the appropriate processes and tools. Sunners (2016) list of the determinants of project size and criticality, guides the project needs. Due to methodological differences in the Crystal family, Zamudio et al.s (2017) argument that the methods have different weights represented by different colors stands valid. To clarify, Crystal clear is used in smaller projects requiring up to six team members. On the other hand, Crystal orange can be applied in projects requiring teams of between 10 and 40 members (Kulkarni et al., 2017). The extent of these requirements increases from Crystal clear to Crystal red and higher variants. Therefore, both the literature review and the findings agree that the weight of the Crystal method relies on the team size and project environment.

For practitioners, the Crystal family of methods tends to be more flexible and agile. One of the advantages that come with using these methods is effective team communication, which is an important component of successful projects. The methodologies also guide teams in the management of communication regardless of the team sizes, therefore providing sufficient risk control. In this sense, it is best suited for organizations seeking to empower crew members to work in whichever way they find effective (Flora & Chandle, 2014). However, the notion of direct staff collaboration and less documentation and reporting should not result in less visibility of some members in the teams progress.

Conclusion

Crystal methodologies are designed for projects with varying team sizes. Given the attention put on the size of the team, smaller teams adopt the clear variant as larger teams use yellow, orange, or red variants depending on the specifications of the project. Crystal methodologies focus on ensuring that project developers use the lightest method with the capability of producing excellent outcomes. The Crystal family methods for project development are widely discussed in the literature as a model with the potential of meeting the needs of todays fast-paced projects. This study adds to the available research, therefore, helping project developers to make informed decisions regarding project life cycles and the roles to be undertaken by team members.

The limitations of this research are that it is a literature review, not able to assess the use of the methodologies in practical settings. The studies were not anyhow analyzed for validity or categorized thematically. Crystal methods have proven to be successful for project management. It is however important for the developer to assess the project requirements before settling on the most suitable approach, which is not constraining or intrusive. There is no best technique; instead, teams tend to shape and put the best approach to use depending on the goal of the project. It can be an area of future research to find either universal applications to the Crystal methods or develop frameworks that are more fitting to modern-day project requirements. Another concept to consider is adoption costs and challenges since the research is limited and the gap between traditional methods and agile development is still far apart in practice.

References

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Introduction

Current issues illustrate that project planning requires better cohesion, communication, and tools to execute an organizations efficient operations. Because the manager cannot create a project strategy by filling templates, the organization requires more from their scheme than in prior circumstances, and the way to achieve a sharp end is to use lighter, faster, and newer methods. As such, this report aims to observe currently available literature and material regarding project planning methods and tools in order to ascertain whether they have desired or practical outcomes. This report emphasizes PRINCE2 and Agile project methodologies, including their principles, themes, processes, and project delivery. Project monitoring methodologies are crucial since they can strengthen a firm by allowing it to share information across departments in an essentially a space that allows for the efficient exchange of information and process details. The relationship between modern tools and devices that influence project planning and the desired organizational changes and outcomes will be analyzed.

Key Characteristics

PRINCE2 is a project management approach widely used in Europe, Australia, and the United Kingdom. PRINCE2 means Projects IN Controlled Environments (Shaw, Hughes, and Greenhalgh, 2019). It focuses on monitoring resources and dangers by dividing the process into manageable stages, creating responsibility and authority, and using seven processes to lead the project lifespan cycle. Before beginning a project, PRINCE2 requires a defined methodology with an ordered and regulated project timeline (Islam and Evans, 2020). Seven PRINCE2 procedures are implemented to maintain control (Marnada et al., 2022). All procedures that compose a venture, from the start to the finishing point, are included in these processes.

Agile emphasizes shorter production cycles, many iterations, quality improvement, and the ability to make changes as the project progresses (Gheorghe, Gheorghe and Iatan, 2020). End-users actively improve the final products efficacy by providing input, which the development team evaluates. Finally, the success of an Agile technique is primarily judged by customer collaboration with the end product, which necessitates listening to clients and continuously developing software to meet their needs.

As a result, it can be deduced that PRINCE2 can be efficiently administered in an organization that requires several sequential steps within its operations. It provides a number of advantages, such as presenting theoretical risks and solutions to a variety of situations. Hypothetically, it could also be applied within a scenario in which tasks or resources must be delegated among a number of departments within a firm. On the other hand, Agile prioritizes the use of shorter production cycles which could theoretically benefit smaller firms that require frequent sales in order to maintain operations and profits. Similarly, smaller firms benefit from customer feedback as they are more reliant on a small but loyal client pool than larger firms.

Critical Evaluation of The PRINCE2 Principles, Themes, and Processes

Principles

The first principle, continued business justification, refers to evidence that suggests that further investment in the project offers business advantages. Second, the project must provide a learning experience. Third, roles and responsibilities should be strictly defined within the planning of the project. Fourth, complex tasks are divided into reasonable stages. Fifth, management involvement is limited to situations in which issues occur. Sixth, the focal point of the approach is the development of the product. Seventh, the approach may be scaled and fitted for the context and environment of the project. A number of evaluations can be drawn from these principles, including the importance of sustainability, allegiance to company values, and the foundation of frameworks for future operations and projects. The most critical elements, especially for larger firms that may be difficult to navigate, are likely the formulation of archetypes of future projects and the prioritization of sustainable endeavors.

Themes

PRINCE2 is a methodology that follows several stages that are planned. The business operations, risks, and project strategies are revised between stages. Acceptances are established for each ventures aim, creating limits and describing how authority is distributed. If the lenience is surpassed, the administration team must deliberate if the acceptance should be reinterpreted. Deliverables must meet certain quality norms. The project environment tailors the scheme from start to end, including size, complication, reputation, time, and danger. PRINCE2 covers several themes, including business case, change, organization, risk, preparation, progress, and quality (Marnewick and Einhorn, 2019). As such, the project planning method provides a number of critical elements to firm operations, including risk mitigation, task and resource allocation, and appropriate goal-setting. These are the essential components as they dictate relationships between departments as well as among employees and allow for seamless exchanges of information, tasks, and resources throughout the company.

Processes

PRINCE2 project supervision methodology comprises seven processes that are involved in managing projects. PRINCE2 defines the project executive, project panel, and client roles (Naik and Jenkins, 2019). Project boards major processes are divided into four essential sections, including stage boundaries, initiation, the direction of Ad hoc, and project closure. However, directing projects does not cover the daily processes of project managers.

Starting a project is the first PRINCE2 process designed to gather the requirements needed to execute the project. The processes established in starting projects should be short (Akhmetshin et al., 2019). They should ensure the availability of data needed by project teams, appoint and design the project control crew, and establish an initiation phase plan. Managing stage limitations offer project boards the key decision facts on if to continue working on the project. Its objectives include assuring project boards that each planned deliverable is accomplished as defined and providing data required for project boards to examine the project viability (Akhmetshin et al., 2019). Recording any lessons or measurements which can aid later project phases is part of its objectives.

The controlling stage oversees the day-to-day running of a project. In every stage of a project, there is a cycle comprising commanding work that should be done, collecting information about the progress of a task, monitoring the changes, reviewing the conditions, reporting, and correcting arising errors. The controlling phase tackles all these tasks together with ongoing change control and risk management work (PRINCE2, 2022). The main goal of the handling product conveyance stage is to guarantee all deliberate products are made and distributed by ensuring efforts on products owed to teams are efficiently authorized and settled to check and accept work correspondences.

Most work in the closing stage entails preparing project committee inputs (PRINCE2, 2022). It further aims at preparing the projects end report, confirming that the operation and maintenance of arrangements are in place and notifying the host organization of the plan to disband the project resources and organization. Within the circumstance of a more prominent firm implementing PRINCE2 methodologies, a number of process fragments stand out. Primarily, this includes the controlling stage, which emphasizes proper and efficient use of resources and the improved process of task completion to ensure desired production and distribution. This stage is essential as it is much more concise and developed than the initiating stage, which may vary from industry to industry and even from company to company.

Critical Evaluation of the Agile Principles, Themes, and Processes

Principles

The Agile methodology represents a working mindset and framework that aids in responding to changing client requirements. It emphasizes conveying value against the priorities of a project within the permitted time and budget, mainly when the urge to convey the project is higher than the involved risks. Agile has various principles, including customer collaboration and constant integration (Malik, Ahmad, and Hussain, 2019). One of the twelve Agile development principles is software delivery. Agile accepts modifications in requirements and regularly delivers by using software cycles and iterations as part of the project process. Agile maintains constant collaboration between stakeholders, supervisors, and team members throughout the project and motivates groups so that they are more likely to distribute their best effort than disgruntled teams.

Agile methodology guarantees improved communication through face-to-face communications, especially when squads are co-located. Occupied software is a crucial indicator of progress for the client as Agile maintains a steady advancement rate. Great design and attention to detail increase agility and ensure that teams improve the product and adapt to change (Hayat et al., 2019). By giving teams decision-making power, self-organization encourages people to take ownership, communicate consistently, and produce high-quality goods. Finally, Agile ensures project managers take time to reflect and make changes to increase the teams performance and efficiency.

Themes

Businesses will not adjust to shifting situations if they rely heavily on machines and products. This value aims at providing developers with the tools they need to complete their tasks without being overburdened. Customers should be included in all process phases, whether internal or external, to ensure that the final product meets their needs. Adjusting to change following a plan is the final theme of the Agile methodology. Agile project management enables changes during the projects life cycle (Filippetto, Lima, and Barbosa, 2021). Each sprint gives project managers the chance to ponder the previous one and make route adjustments.

Processes

Agile project management is a remarkable five-stage phenomenon: The first step is to visualize; the projects vision is formed during the envisioning phase. It covers the What, Who, When, and How of the projects completion. This phase focuses on the result and the scope of the project. Conjecture is the second phase. The next phase is speculation; this stage encourages brainstorming, collaboration, and creative thinking about the projects future direction. Everyone involved in the project discusses what is feasible and what is not while leaving enough room for change if necessary. Process three, investigating, denotes the research phases only goal to supply project features (Hidalgo, 2019). This phase consists of three essential steps: managing workload, sticking to best professional practices, and risk management procedures to finish the task.

Adaptation is the fourth phase; during the adaptation phase of the project management lifecycle, changes, modifications, and adjustments are made. This stage compares the actual results to the projected results. More importantly, considering what needs to be improved and re-planning the approach for the next version is vital (Almadhoun and Hamdan, 2020, p. 1152). Completion is the final stage; everybody involved selects the projects endpoint during this phase.

Critical Evaluation of Both Methodologies

Within specific industries, suppliers can use Agile approaches to produce working software where PRINCE2 is beneficial for a client to justify a project. PRINCE2 is a valuable management technique that focuses on the upper management levels (Islam and Evans, 2020, McGrath and Whitty, 2020). Overall, PRINCE2 is more likely to benefit larger firms and similar contexts that require efficient communication between departments to ensure a steady improvement in general operations. Agile is a better fit for firms that require stability and the completion of smaller work cycles or product creation and distribution due to its focus on short-term efficiency. Industries that consist of large firms, such as agriculture, technology, and vehicle production, may benefit from the methods of PRINCE2.

Meanwhile, markets that consist of smaller firms that provide unique products at high price points, such as health products, luxuries, or non-mass manufactured goods, will likely require Agile methodology. Similarly, projects that target larger scopes and may not be cyclical are likely to be better served by PRINCE2 methodologies. Ongoing and repetitive projects could implement the feedback and practical characteristics of the Agile methods. PRINCE2 methods can be found implemented in public sectors such as health organizations, police forces, or in industries concerned with widely sold and highly demanded products such as gas, oil, and construction (Raharjo and Purwandari, 2020). Agile project planning methods are not restricted by sectors but are usually components of large or middle-sized firms. They focus on innovative projects that require sustainable and emerging outcomes.

Conclusion

PRINCE2 demands a specified methodology and an organized and controlled project timeline before starting a project. Evidence of this can be seen in the sequence of stages that is provided by the methodology, which leans on values that consist of adhering to company morals and long-term operations. The projects structure is maintained throughout its life cycle by breaking it down into logical parts. The Agile methodology handles software processes that emphasize continuous deployments and customer feedback at each iteration. Shorter production cycles, several iterations, quality enhancement, and the willingness to develop as the project goes are all hallmarks of Agile. As such, the findings implicate that smaller firms which require loyal client populations and frequent improvements are more likely to benefit from Agile methodologies that support these priorities. Despite their differences, both techniques ensure that a project is completed.

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