The afterlife is a concept widespread in many beliefs and faiths around the globe, ranging from a dichotomy of heaven and hell to possibilities of rebirth and reincarnation. As a social mechanism, religion cannot exist without a goal, and studying various ideas about life after death becomes a crucial step in analyzing the core tenets of any belief system. Thus, the perception of what awaits a person at the end of their life, transitioning into a new stage of being or nonbeing, permits further determining the lynchpin ideas of religious convictions of numerous world religions.
Why this Concept?
One of the most interesting facts about the notion of the afterlife is that it is a belief that is common among almost all religious faiths and denominations, as something that happens after a person’s death. In all of the religions covered, except Taoism and Shinto, the actions of a person during their lifetime influence their fate in the afterlife, which does not necessarily mean paradise. If “understanding how religious traditions and their patterns of authority and legitimation, belief, and belonging change has become important” then posthumous punishment, reward, or nonexistence of either plays one of the most critical determinative roles (Knott, 2016, p. 24).
Therefore, in religions such as Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Judaism the afterlife becomes a life-long regulative factor, creating a promise of reimbursement for a life lived arduously by religious tenets.
The Significance of the Afterlife
Heaven, hell, reincarnation, a continuation of life in its other phase, or unification with other possible spirits – all of these are possibilities of what a person’s afterlife will be like depending on their belief system. The identified regulatory function of the afterlife sustained by clear moral guidelines that must be followed throughout a person’s life permits separating not only religious people from non-believers but also those worthy of undesirables. Religions such as Christianity, Islam, and in some sense even Judaism, which have a particular conception of heaven and hell as places people may enter, judge suitability by the piety of a human’s earthly life (Moreman, 2018).
Buddhism, Sikhism, and Hinduism create a similar system of appraisal, but for a different purpose, as in their conceptions, the soul is reborn and reincorporated into the world of the living (Moreman, 2018). Shinto and Taoism instead pursue the idea of posthumous spiritual consolidation (Moreman, 2018). Therefore, the afterlife becomes an undeniably important keystone idea in almost all religions.
Day-to-day Implications
As a critical notion, the idea of a rewarding afterlife becomes a red thread that binds together a person’s life through an installment of a code of conduct. Thus, moral guidelines affect all aspects of life, with prayer, as an example, being one of the most common and widely followed sacred rules for achieving salvation. Prayer may be conducted only in proper places and desirably in a kinsperson’s presence and thus a growing Muslim community in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, was warranted the building of a mosque in 2010 (Bowen, 2017).
Now, regular prayer is an available component of day-to-day life, becoming an essential part of the Tennessee Muslim community’s life. Without adhering to the instilled guidelines, a person may not be considered a believer and thus may not be guaranteed a favorable afterlife, which creates the necessity of faithfulness to a doctrine that regulates everyday life. Additionally, the existence of mosques makes burial rites accessible for Tennessee Muslims, which may now be adequately conducted, according to Islamic guidelines and with burial prayer.
Conclusion
The fate of a believing individual after death, regardless of their destination, is determined by the set of rules that a particular person follows. A lack of devotion in following the rules becomes detrimental to their fate after death, with conceptions of punishment balancing together with ideas of reward. Effectively, the afterlife gives any religion a logical reason for faithful adherence, other than beliefs alone, and ties together religious people, deities, and their statutes.
References
Bowen, J. R. (2017). Religions in practice: An approach to the anthropology of religion (7th ed). New York, NY: Routledge.
Knott, K. (2016). How to study religion. In L. Woodhead, C. Partridge, & H. Kawanami (Eds.), Religions in the modern world: Traditions and transformations (pp. 15-40). New York, NY: Routledge.
Moreman, C. M. (2018). Beyond the threshold: Afterlife beliefs and experiences in world religions (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
The essay compares and contrasts the worldviews of Christianity, medieval Buddhist and Muslim on the aspect of death and afterlife and is covered as follows.
Introduction
Worldviews are the things that are thought and believed to be true and real. In determining ones worldview a number of things are considered. These include the prime reality, reality of the world around us, what the human beings are, the things that happen when a person dies, knowledge of right or wrong and the origin of human beings. These views affect the way human beings believe and behave, which in turn have consequences in the society (Exploring Christianity – truth.com, 2009). The Christians, Buddhists and Islam have worldviews that differ in various aspects while they are similar in others. This discussion therefore seeks to compare and contrast the aspect of the three religions.
Christianity view on death and afterlife
Christians generally believe in life after death, whether one had a good relationship with God or not, depending on the choices and actions one made in this world. Since the earthly body is made of materials that will eventually die, the soul goes to either hell for unbelievers or heaven for the believers, where they enjoy the presence of God and a life that is free from suffering and sin. In hell unbelievers or sinners will be subjected to severe punishment by eternal fire by the lord of sin and evil, Satan. However, views differ on the existence of hell and whether the punishment is spiritual or physical between denominations. Some like the Catholics believe in purgatory, a place that is temporary where the souls of Christians who died without confessing their sins will go until the prayers of the living deliver those (Medicapress, 1999 & Toropov & Buckles, 2004).
Christians generally believe that God will raise all the people at the end of time when Jesus Christ will come for the second time to judge the world. Those that were sinners and unbelievers in their life will be raised to be shamed and hated while the believers will be go to heaven with God for ever.
They also believe that Jesus Christ, son of God, was sent into the world to make all people believers and save them from sin by dying on the cross. Thus those who believe in him will be raised and taken to heaven where they will live forever (Exploring Christianity – truth.com, 2009).
Muslims view on death and afterlife
Like Christians, Muslims believe in life after death. They believe that people who die before Allah’s Day of Judgment are in barzakh or a state of waiting until that day. During the last day, God will open up all the graves of the Muslims and raise their bodies for the final judgment (Medicapress, 1999).
During this day a person’s good deeds will be weighed against his/her bad ones and if the good are heavier than the bad one goes to heaven and if the bad outweigh the good deeds a person will go to hell. Each person will then be forced to carry their sins on their backs and go over a bridge as a form of judgment. The people whose sins will be too great will fall into hell and those with lesser sin will be able to cross over to heaven. Here there is also a similarity with Christianity in that both believe in existence of hell and heaven.
In Muslim believes, heaven is described as a magnificent place of paradise and gardens of delight where good people will be served by beautiful and young virgins. Hell on the other hand, is described as a place of punishment like in the Christianity, where those condemned there will be subjected to hot winds, black smoke and boiling water (Schade, 2006).
Hindus view on death and afterlife
They believe in reincarnation, this is a constant cycle of rebirth. When one dies he/she is reborn in the next life where one bears the cost of his actions in the previous life- the Eastern Karma doctrine. This differs with the Christian and Muslim beliefs in the nature of the life after death.
Death is believed by Buddhists, just like Muslims and Christian as not an end to life rather as the end of the body people live in. According to Buddhists, after death the spirit seeks a new body to attach and inhabit. The life one lives in this new life and body is as a result of his good and bad things he/she did in the previous life or Karma. As a consequence of this one is reborn in one of the six realms; heaven, human beings, Asura, hungry ghost, animal and hell in order of severity of the karma. However one does not stay in one realm indefinitely or permanently (Toropov & Buckles, 2004).
The time of death for a Buddhist is also important. In order to prepare for a death that leads to a higher realm, they believe that one should prepare for the death by leading a responsible and compassionate life. Calmness and happiness and peaceful thoughts during the time of death will also lead a person to be reborn in a higher realm than in the present life and family members and a monk or nun can assist the dying in this process by chanting and praying at his death bed. After the last breath, the corpse is not touched for three to eight hours as they believe the spirit still lingers around the body. Touching might confuse and make it angry which will lead to rebirth in a lower realm. It is also treated gently and with respect as the spirit is also affected by what happens to the body. This again differs with both Muslim and Christianity believes as Muslims starts to prepare to bury their dead immediately just as in Christianity where once one dies, the spirit is believed to depart immediately (UrbanDharma.org, 2009).
Like the Muslims and Christians, they believe in a heaven that is full of happiness and peace without any suffering, but for the Buddhists there are 37 different levels of heaven.
Conclusion
Worldviews are the things that are thought and believed to be true and real. In Christians, Muslims and Buddhists worldviews on death are similar on some aspects while they differ on others. Similarities are on beliefs on life after death, existence of heaven and judgment on good and evil in Christianity and Muslims. Differences are on the particulars of these aspects such as nature of judgment, heaven and treatment of the body after death.
The concerns about death and the possibility of an afterlife have always intrigued humans across all cultures and religions. The majority of cultures believe that mortal death is not the end of life for people. A few, especially those that rely on scientific evidence as a basis for their knowledge, have contrary beliefs. Finding answers to such questions is relevant in helping people make an important decisions and when grieving. In addition, comparing the beliefs of two or more ancient cultures can shade light o incongruences and facts. Although both the Mexican Aztec belief and the Egyptian Cosmos believed in an afterlife, their faith differs in other aspects like transcendence and judgment of deeds, the obligation of the Mortal, home for the soul, reincarnation.
Transcendence and Judgement
Transcendence means the ability to go beyond the natural or expected limit. In the context of life, it is the ability to continue existing beyond natural death. The Egyptians believed in transcendent, whereby the positive individual experience that the deceased had was the primary determinant of the nature of life the person experiences (Nyord5). In other words, people whose life on earth was full of good deeds will have a better afterlife compared to those who were evil. Therefore, the cosmic belief system encouraged people to live by doing good so that when they die, they will have an improved quality of life.
Similarly, the Aztecs, who mainly occupied modern day Mexico, believed that their humans existed beyond the death of the body. Death was only a transition from the present existence, which continued beyond the earth. However, unlike the Cosmic culture, the Aztecs did not believe that the acts of a person, whether good or bad, did not matter when it came to the kind of life a person would live beyond death. Interestingly, the Aztec culture held that the way a person died was the sole determinant of the kind of existence they would have in the afterlife (Dockray, par. 6). For instance, warriors who died in battle and the women who lost their lives during childbirth went to paradise while those who had a prolonged illness would go to the underworld. Thus, there was transcendence with different kinds of life depending on the nature of death.
Obligation of the Mortal
The existence of life after death gives hope for a possible reunion which can help people not to despair during the mourning period. Yet, there is a concern that not all the deceased have a privilege of enjoying the life in paradise. Whether based on good deeds or the type of death, both cultures believed that there was a chance of having a damned afterlife. Relatives and friends of the deceased who were alive had some obligation to their dead to help ease their afterlife.
Within the Cosmic belief system, it is evident that the living believed that they should equip their dead with the necessary tools. For example, the people wrote mortuary texts which were intended to be read by the deceased for their encouragement or direction (Nyord, 7). Moreover, some people would be buried with their work tools, such as the axe or arrows that they could use for socio-economic sustenance afterlife. Thus, it was relevant to bury the deceased with some possessions that the people or the priest judged would be useful while writing letters for their direction.
Comparatively, the Aztec cultural beliefs remained connected with the people who died as ancestors and would occasionally pray for them or give honor depending on how the person died. For example, in one of in one of the prayers, the people have to recite that the deceased have loaned them their life for a short time, but they will eventually die just like the sounds of waterfall do in a dry season (Dockray, par. 9). The implication is that the living remained connected the ancestors and had an obligation to thank them or pray for them. For example, the people who died in war to save the land and those who were sacrificed were honored and even worshiped.
Nature of Afterlife and Reincarnation
The possibility of the existence of an afterlife intrigues people to imagine how a typical day for a dead person looks. Since the body decomposes and the soul or spirit remains immortal, there are concerns about such existence. The ancient Egyptians and the Mexicans had some answers to such questions, though with variations in their faith. The Egyptians believed that the houses they lived in were only temporary structures while the grave was the real house (Shah, 40). No wonder many skills were taken in curving the tombs and graves to appear beautiful.
In addition, as part of their daily requirements, every deceased person had a path of life to follow. The dead had a clearly defined roadmap that they had to undertake after the end of the physical death (Zago, p.1). Noteworthy, at the point of death, each of the person was buried with a text book which provided the necessary information to transverse the difficult terrains (Calvert, par. 13) the kings and the pharaohs were buried in the pyramid tombs near river Nile that had well holes. Therefore, it appears that the Egyptians believe that the dead continued with life as usual in their tombs.
Conversely, the Aztecs believed that the life after death occurred in two steps, one involving staying in one of the paradises and then reincarnation to be another animal form. For example, the warriors who died in battle stayed for four years in paradise and then came back as hummingbirds or butterflies (Schoppert, par.4). However, the people who went into the underworld had to work their way back to one of the paradises and have some rest before reincarnating to another animal and coming back to life.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the concept of the afterlife between the Egyptians and the Aztecs of Mexico has several similarities with remarkable distinguishing factors. Both believed that the physical death was a transition and that people lived beyond death. However, they differ with regard to the determinant of the beauty of life-based on good deeds or circumstances of death. The other distinctive factor is that the Aztecs believed that the obligation of the mortals was to pray for and honor the dead. At the same time, Egyptians held that the obligation was to equip them with the necessary tools for survival. Lastly, the Aztecs held on to the belief of reincarnation after some time, while for the Egyptians, the deceased did not come back to earth.
Dockray, Hillary. “Ancient Aztec Perspective on Death and Afterlife.” The Christi Center – Always Here After Your Loss. Web.
Nyord, Rune. “On interpreting ancient Egyptian funerary texts.” Magazine of the Center for Studies on Cultural Diversity 1, no. 19 (2022), 1-23. doi:10.35305/cl.vi19.48.
Shah, Bipin. “The Sacred Pyramids, Ziggurats and Mountains-their Purposes and Why They Were Built?” Research Gate, (2020), 1-40.
Zago, Silvia. “Conceptualizing Life after Death. The Evolution of the Concept of Duat and Related Notions in Egyptian Funerary Literature.” PhD diss., University of Toronto (Canada), 2019.
The study of the concepts of death in various religions prompts additional exploration in me. Naturally, I cannot fit all of the aspects that I find intriguing, but I will mention several of them and try to connect them in a coherent journal entry.
I find it most interesting how human societies tend to come up with the idea of the temporal nature of death due to the cycles of seasons and the day and night that they witnessed continually. In Egypt, for example, the Nile and its flooding that brought fertility to the land of its people was the symbol of resurrection. The life of Egyptians depended on this cycle, and I do not find it surprising that they tended to link the former and the latter and consider them to be similar (Sumegi 1946).
Naturally, Egyptians never saw people become revived, but the issue can be easily resolved by assuming that the alive were not admitted into the land of the afterlife. The Egyptian concept of death can be described as the journey, which was performed by the soul (Ka, Akh, and Ba) of the human being as it was transported to the better world that was ruled by Osiris together with venerable ancestors (Agai 2-7). As a result, Egyptians simply needed to come up with the set of laws that could grant them the admission to this land. These rules, while they were concerned with proper behavior, also placed great emphasis on the magical rituals. As a result, improper burial meant that the soul would not be able to rest in Egyptian peace (Agai 3).
Similarly, the idea of the immortal soul that cannot perish and needs admission to a better world occurred in Christianity and Islam. In Christianity, for example, the central figure that symbolizes resurrection is Jesus. He died, and he was resurrected; moreover, the sincere belief in him is the path towards the resurrection of other humans (Agai 2). The early Christian Church did believe in the idea that the Second Coming would bring all the dead back to live together with their bodies. In fact, this idea was the reason to noticeably less elaborate burial processes of Christians (Agai 1-2).
When compared to the pyramids, Christian funerals are much more modest, but their initial idea of faith being sufficient for the right to live after death caused criticism even among Christians themselves (Agai 2). It is not surprising, therefore, that eventually the faith was complemented by just and fair life. Similarly, such a combination provided good Islamic people with the right to live in the paradise (Moreman 83). Opposed to the paradises of the two religions are their hells meant for those who have only little faith and committed many sins. Thus, the evolution of the concept of death, resurrection, and afterlife provides humans with a “choice” of what they are going to do when they die.
Death in the Eyes of a Child
Death is probably one of the most difficult concepts that a person, nevertheless, has to realize. What is more, this realization typically occurs in childhood, and by the age of ten or twelve, this process is completed, which means that a child perceives the concept of death the way adults do (Colman et al. 1).
What was amazing to find out is that children may begin to express interest in death at the preschool age, but the specific age for every child may vary. According to Himebauch, Arnold, and May, two-year-old children may begin to form the concept, but until the school age, death is typically perceived as something you can reverse (242). What is more, at the preschool age children actually offer their own explanations of the process, which shows that they attempt to do the same thing that the civilizations have been trying to do for centuries: explain death with the help of magical thinking. Later, a child learns to comprehend that death is going to happen to him or her, which distinguishes the “adult” concept of death (Himebauch, Arnold, and May 242).
This process has been primarily studied to assist children in the grieving that can be connected to personal terminal illness or that of a close person. Still, it is apparent that the process of understanding what death is can be somewhat disturbing on its own, without terminal illnesses. I recall being absolutely terrified at the prospect of coming to an end. It is not surprising, therefore, that adults attempt to “hide” the concept of death from children for as long as possible. However, I am not sure that it is the right strategy.
Nowadays, there are growing concerns with the imagery of death in children’s movies, which are in part attributable to the fact that the modern media plays a more and more significant part in our lives (Fleur par. 1-9). A recent study by Colman et al. is devoted to exploring the incidence of the on-screen death of important characters in children’s and adults’ movies. The authors found out that two-thirds of children’s films contained deaths of significant characters, and only the half of the studied adult dramas shared the same specifics (Colman et al. 2).
However, it is noteworthy that the researchers were interested in the most popular films, and their sample included 90 dramas for adults and 45 animated children’s films. Therefore, it cannot be claimed that their study is generalizable to all the products of the movie industry, but the authors do not attempt to make such a generalization. Instead, they make another one, concluding that children’s animated films are “hotbeds of murder and mayhem” (Colman et al. 4). Their advice to the parents is to watch such movies together with children to be able to provide the emotional support needed to survive through their “inevitable horrors” (Colman et al. 4).
While I do not agree with the generalization and do not trust the overall emotional appeal that the authors decided to introduce into a scholarly article, I think that this strategy is a very good one. I believe that it is wonderful if a child goes through the understanding of the inevitability of death without too much trouble, but the advice, support, guidance of parents can turn out to be vital in this respect. Civilizations have been creating complex concepts that would help them understand death (and attempt to defeat or cheat it) for centuries.
For a single child, this process, simplified as it may be, takes up much less time. As a result, it is a shock, but it is truly inevitable (unlike TV violence that can easily be banished to another world by pushing a single button). Children are explorers; their whole existence is aimed at perceiving and understanding. They learn about life, so they will eventually learn about death. At this moment, someone older and more experienced can become a real teacher and a great assistance in the process of a child’s formation of the concept of death. The main difficulty is not to cause more harm while trying to help, though.
Works Cited
Agai, Jock M. “Resurrection Imageries: A Study Of The Motives For Extravagant Burial Rituals In Ancient Egypt”. Verbum et Ecclesia 36.1 (2015): 1-7. ProQuest. Web.
Colman, Ian, Mila Kingsbury, Murray Weeks, Anushka Ataullahjan, Marc-André Bélair, Jennifer Dykxhoorn, Katie Hynes, Alexandra Loro, Michael S. Martin, Kiyuri Naicker, Nathaniel Pollock, Corneliu Rusu, James B. Kirkbride, Henry Dale. “CARTOONS KILL: Casualties In Animated Recreational Theater In An Objective Observational New Study Of Kids’ Introduction To Loss Of Life”. The BMJ 349.168 (2014): 7184-7184. Web.
Himebauch, Adam, Robert M Arnold, and Carol May. “Grief in Children and Developmental Concepts of Death.” Journal of Palliative Medicine 11.2 (2008): 242-243. MEDLINE Complete. Web.
Moreman, Christopher M. Beyond the Threshold. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2008. Print.
Sumegi, Angela. Understanding Death. New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2013. Print.
Human beings are not eternal, and no matter how long their life is and how healthy they are, everybody knows that death awaits them at the end. Some people die accidentally due to the sad coincidence of events; others leave life according to their own will. Death occurs to all people without exception at the end of their lives. No matter how it happens, it is a subject of intense discussions and even experiments because all people are afraid, fascinated, and intrigued by what awaits them after their physical body stops functioning. The main question that is left without an answer, but represents utmost importance for the whole of humankind is whether there is a spiritual world that awaits people after death, and if it really exists, what it represents.
The spiritual world for people means the immortality of their souls, which is in general highly important from the point of view of religion and philosophy. Christianity and Islam pose much attention to the modest, humble, and correct life of believers who want to be gratified for their goodness in the afterlife. There are a number of sins that are punished by eternal sufferings for the soul that are called to engage people in virtuous lives in the hope for a happy afterlife. However, no matter whether hell or heaven expects their souls, it is clear that the immortal soul exists and proceeds from one world of earthly human beings to the eternal spiritual world. Other religions such as Buddhism deny the fact of the soul’s existence and state that human life exists only due to the flow of super-powers and super-energies in the world.
My personal opinion on the issue is heavily influenced by the religion I have because all followers of Christianity are taught from a young age to believe in the immortality of human souls to make people responsible for the outcomes of their lives. People should live carefully, without sinning and committing atrocities towards other people or nature in order to be rewarded for this later. I believe that there is something beyond the world in which humankind lives because of many stories about mysterious forces that guide people, give them extraordinary possibilities, and bring sacred knowledge to the human world. I am sure that the soul of each person is transformed after his or her death and passed on to another creature, not sure the human being but an animal or a plant. It is impossible to get the whole cultural, spiritual and intellectual knowledge passed on from century to century by our ancestors; it would take much longer for people to grasp all basics of life in case they did not have the subconscious memory of their souls.
Besides, I believe in the existence of an immortal human soul because I am sure that only education and upbringing cannot produce great people or criminals; there is something beyond their social and genetic background that makes them commit the greatest good and the greatest evil in their life. One life would be not enough to raise such people as Hitler or Gandhi. For this reason, I am sure that our soul is much wiser than we are, showing us the way through life by symbols, hidden signs, and hints that we rarely understand but the presence of which we certainly feel. The immortal soul is something for the sake of which people live and do good – if there were no belief in immortality, people would grow immoral and would not think about the consequences of their deeds.
Ancient philosophers dedicated much of their writing to issues of life and death. Analyzing the work of Epicurus and his opinion on death voiced in the work “Letter to Menoeceus”, it becomes clear that the philosopher was highly confident in the existence of the immortal soul and its transition from one form of living into another one. However, he attributes more attention not to the death itself, but to the nature of fear of death. Epicurus relies on pure logic and practice approaches the subjectivity of this fear, trying to explain why it is senseless and foolish. He manages this point of view, characterizing the act of death – finish of the human existence. Thus, he wonders why people should be afraid of death since it never concerns them directly. As long as people are alive, death is not the problem for them since it is absent; as soon as they die, that is, death approaches them, they no longer exist, thus being unable to be concerned with it (Epicurus 100).
Logically, Epicurus arrives at the generalization that only one of the two may exist simultaneously – either a person or death. Judging from this angle, Epicurus assumes that people should not be afraid of death because as soon as it comes they will no longer exist, and while they exist there will be no death. He also comments on human dissatisfaction with life – people are initially born to be happy, so in case they are not happy and do not see a way to live their life happily, they have a set of tools available for leaving the life. Hence, Epicurus makes a conclusion that life cannot be sad or gloomy for people, and those who do not need it can leave it on their own will, thus getting free from the painful anticipation (Epicurus 101).
Plato approaches the subject of the afterlife in a different way, trying to prove whether the soul is an immortal substance or not. Utilizing the main assumptions of logic in the dialogue of Socrates with Cebes, Plato starts with the argument that all people should be afraid of death unless the immortality of the human soul is proven. He asserts that the human soul surely lives longer than the human body, being able to exist in several people; however, he doubts that it is immortal. No matter how long it exists, in case there is the end of its existence all people should fear death if they suppose they are the final element of its existence. In the process of the discussion and application of several logical inferences Socrates concludes in the dialogue: “Then, it seems, when death attacks a man, his mortal part dies, but his immortal part retreats before death, and goes away safe and indestructible” (Plato 97). Finally, this conclusion arouses one more inference from the whole set of arguments used in the process of discussion – “soul is immortal and imperishable, and our souls will indeed exist in the other world” (Plato 97). As one can see, ancient philosophy provides a strong basis for assuming that the human soul exists and proceeds to another world after death to be reborn in another creature afterward.
Notwithstanding the fact that the immortality of the human soul is widely recognized by philosophy and religion, it is still evident that the question does not find a unanimous decision on the subject – Buddhism is a good example of the counterargument to the existence of an immortal soul. Buddhism, in general, denies fear of death as the most wicked human weakness and egocentrism, the sense of possessing a soul that is actually unable to belong to anybody being a universal Soul, the unity of energies and forces that govern the whole world and not only one personality (Rahula 113). For this reason, Buddhism calls not to be afraid of death because every creature and every object in the world suffers death and rebirth every single moment of life, making fear of death senseless (Rahula 112).
Buddhism is governed by the idea of no-soul or no-self (the so-called doctrine of Anatta) (Rahula 113). The human being is considered to have two deeply-rooted psychological ideas – the one of self-protection and the one of self-preservation. To ensure the fulfillment of the former people create God, and the latter is ensured by the idea of an immortal Soul (Rahula 113). Thus, Buddhists state that all considerations about God (with any name in any religion) and immortality of human souls are false, subjective projections deriving from the human fears and weakness, while in fact there is no super-power and no soul but only a set of super-forces, energies that govern the universe (Rahula 113).
Summing everything that has been said up, it is possible to see how the issues of the afterlife and the immortality of the human soul find proponents and opponents in religion and philosophy. The greatest thinkers of ancient times, as well as modern philosophers, have been obsessed with determining the immortality of the soul, while Buddhism rejects its existence in general. Christianity is governed by ethics and morality much, trying to direct people at good deeds and making them ashamed of sins (immoral and unethical actions that impede on other’s rights or do harm to others) in the fear to get to hell after death. Those who live a good life, on the contrary, are promised to get to heaven where their happy life will continue and where their soul will not be submitted to tortures but will get the reward for all virtues the person committed during lifetime.
All theories and beliefs that have been discussed in the present work certainly possess some drawbacks and advantages for those who are interested in the issues of death and the afterlife, giving much food for thought regarding the immortality of the human soul. Nonetheless, there is no doubt that the belief in the human soul immortality creates additional reasons for being ethically correct and responsible for one’s actions on a long-term, in-depth basis. Nobody will ever know whether there is something that awaits people after death, so the main source of information is human faith that dictates appropriate behavior. For this reason, it is necessary to rely on the existing opinions and to choose the ones that suit one’s religion, personal philosophy, or values – consideration of all these theories should be conducted only under the acceptance of an initial fact about overall ignorance of what really expects human beings after death.
Since the emergence of religion and the study of philosophy, the fate of the human soul after death has been an issue that has attracted much attention. Most philosophers have differed over the issue and put forward theories and explanations to validate their stands. On the other hand, religion has maintained that the soul is immortal and survives the death of the body. Two of the greatest philosophers of early time, Plato and Aristotle, held contradicting views and explanations as to the fate of the soul.
Plato on Death
Plato argued that the soul is immortal and therefore survives the death of the body. In contrast, Plato argued that the soul cannot exist without the body and it therefore perishes together with the body at death. Both philosophers put forward arguments to support their stand on the matter. However, there is no definite agreement as to the issue and remains a matter of faith for religions and speculation for free thinkers.
Plato based his stand on several arguments. First, he taught that good people receive rewards both in this earthly life and in the afterlife. He argued that goodness was not a means to an end but an end in itself. This was one of the basics of his teaching of the immortality of the soul. He believed that the association between the soul and the body served to deform its pure state. Despite the deformation, the soul retained a certain portion of its real nature with its expression in the longing for wisdom.
This argument supports his teaching that the destruction of an object results only from its own evil. As such, the soul can only meet destruction through its own inner evils. Plato maintained that immortality is the only affliction of the soul that can only harm it even though no evidence exists to explain the effect of death on the soul
Secondly, Plato used reincarnation to advance his stand further. At the time, the Greeks held a belief that everything that was in existence was in a recurring cycle that was eternal. As such, Plato believed that death and life were complementary and one came after the other. He gave the example of sleep. After sleep a person wakes up and after waking up, sleep follows. The same was with death and life: they were cyclic and therefore one came after the other. As such, the soul cannot die because there is life after death.
Thirdly, he argued that the soul existed before the body. He supported this statement by observing that humans possess a special kind of knowledge in the ability to draw comparisons. This is evidence of a pre-existent soul. He however claims that this knowledge is lost at birth and retraced with the special help of an instructor.
Aristotle Afterlife
Aristotle used scientific approach by combining biology and metaphysics concepts to explain the idea of the immortality of the soul. Aristotle taught that the unity of the soul and the body was crucial and therefore, the soul cannot exist alone without the body. He argued that the soul’s main purpose is development and that this is only possible in association with the body.
As such, the sole purpose of the soul is dependent on the body and if the body dies, then the soul succumbs to the death too because it cannot exist alone.
Aristotle further held the belief that the soul was responsible for the existence of the body as the source of locomotion and other changes. Based on this claim, he stated that the soul could not survive death since it was the source of locomotion for the body. The view that substances possess specific body forms enhanced Aristotle’s claim. He claimed that an inward soul that these substances possessed maintained them in existence. He viewed the soul as a collection of reason moved by a need for significance.
As such, different life forces that served different purposes made up the soul. Upon death of the body, these forces returned to their source leading to the disintegration of the soul. In addition, he believed that the body came into existence before the soul. This implies that the ability to reason developed before the ability to feel. As such, the body must have initiated the development of the soul hence its immortality.
Aristotle vs Plato Afterlife
Aristotle’s arguments are more plausible compared Plato’s. Plato’s arguments are highly metaphysical and complex to comprehend. Plato’s arguments are simple, logical and easily conceivable by the mind. The inclusion of scientific and metaphysical knowledge makes his arguments all-inclusive and easy to conceive and understand.
The fate of the human soul after death has been an issue of much attention. Most philosophers have differed over the issue and put forward theories and explanations to validate their stands. On the other hand, religion has maintained that the soul is immortal and survives the death of the body. Plato and Aristotle had their contribution on the issue and it is still today a matter of either faith or speculation. Precisely, Aristotle’s arguments are more plausible than those of Plato are.
Studying ancient literature can often provide a great deal of insight into how people lived, what they believed and how they interpreted their world. This is particularly enlightening because the ancient peoples often had to deal with the same human concerns we continue to deal with today. These include such issues as love, honor and death. How we approach these issues today is often assumed to be much different from how people approached them several centuries ago when operating under a significantly different religious ideology. By comparing different writers’ representations of death and the afterlife, or clues as to what these might be as they are expressed through the culture in the story, it is possible to understand the basic shifts that have taken place in society and realize that things haven’t changed all that much in all this time. Although the specific elements of the religion of the mostly pagan society of the composer of Beowulf around 1000 AD is fundamentally different from the Christian religion of Alfred Lord Tennyson who wrote Morte D’Arthur in 1842, the basic rules of behavior and means of gaining entrance into the afterlife can be seen to remain relatively the same. Discovering these attitudes toward death and the afterlife in both Beowulf and Morte D’Arthur is possible when one compares the behaviors of heroes as compared to those of villains as heroes will exemplify behaviors considered essential to attaining the highest status within the afterworld.
The comparison of two work
Of the characters in Beowulf, both Beowulf and King Hrothgar are seen as examples of what are today considered honorable Christians. Beowulf himself can be thought of as someone transitioning from the barbaric behaviors of the previous age into the honorable and moral man of the future as he learns the subtle actions and niceties that create an enlightened man of his age. Hrothgar has already made this transition from a ruler by force to a leader by example and civility thanks to his experience and care. Although Hrothgar is a very static character within the epic and he is not as physically strong as Beowulf in a society that greatly prizes strength and physical power above all else, Hrothgar is nevertheless seen as a model figure for the medieval man and the heroes they revered. At its most basic level, Hrothgar, through his example, illustrates that the model figure is one who does not rely on brute strength alone to convince his people to follow him but employs diplomacy, decency and compassion to those within his reach.
These ideas are brought forward to greater detail within Tennyson’s work, but remain the same at the fundamental level. The importance of the honorable leader who leads not only by deeds accomplished but by wisdom in thought is illustrated through the dying figure of Arthur. Although he knows he won’t live until morning, he manages to keep himself alive until his pledge to the Lady of the Lake is fulfilled and Excalibur is returned to her. Like Hrothgar, Arthur is no longer strong enough to accomplish what needs to be done on his own, but calls on the honor and oath of family and the warriors code to ensure someone undertakes the task. “I perish by this people which I made, – / … but let what will be, be, / I am so deeply smitten through the helm / That without help I cannot last till morn. / Thou therefore take my brand Excalibur, / … / And fling him far into the middle mere: / Watch what thou seest, and lightly bring me word” (22; 24-26; 35-36). When Sir Bedivere fails to do as he was instructed not just once but twice, Arthur, now very close to death, finds the strength in him to convince the young knight that dire consequences will fall upon him if he fails a third time.
Hrothgar and Beowulf demonstrate the same level of devotion to their warriors code which valued things like strength and loyalty in warriors, hospitality and political skill in leaders, the presentable nature of women and the good reputation of the people everyone associates with, all of which are also often associated with the concepts of the honorable, noble or Christian man today. In describing how he worked to save Beowulf’s father’s good name, Hrothgar tells Beowulf “Great was the feud that your father set off when his hand struck down Heatholaf in death among the Wylfings. … I then settled the feud with fitting payment, sent to the Wylfings over the water’s back old things of beauty; against which I’d the oath of your father” (459-61; 470-72). In this, Hrothgar is recounting how the two families are connected in honor, allowing him to accept the help of Beowulf without losing any of his current power even though he is no longer physically strong enough himself to rid his kingdom of the ogre Grendel. Thus, it was important to remain free of debt to others as a means of ensuring one is able to remain true to oneself while also being generous and forgiving of others; again, Christian concepts at their fundamental level.
The idea of the warrior code – that the moral and just man will stand by his brothers to the end – is also reinforced in the poetry of Tennyson, speaking from a more truly Christian perspective about a time when the religion of the land was changing. This is evident from the very beginning of the poem as Tennyson brings the entire cast of the round table into a final epic battle alongside their king: “So all day long the noise of battle rolled / Among the mountains by the winter sea; / Until King Arthur’s table, man by man, / Had fallen in Lyonnesse about their Lord” (1-4). Sir Bedivere, although he doesn’t understand the various orders Arthur gives him, nevertheless manages to carry them out with some coercion. Arthur’s primary concern is that he will die before he himself can be returned to Avalon, the mystic land of the afterlife among the pagans, also working to fulfill his promises to others.
In Beowulf, Hrothgar is aware of the dangers of power that Beowulf is likely to encounter during his lifetime and seeks to warn him of them, indicating a distinct difference between the moral conscience of the civilized culture and that of the barbarian culture that doesn’t recognize such issues. This reflective attitude is mostly seen in his speech to Beowulf just before the Geats depart from Heorot. Here, he warns Beowulf against the sins of pride and greed as they will creep into his heart whether he will or no as he gains power and position among the tribes. “Beloved Beowulf, best of warriors, resist this deadly taint, take what is better, your lasting profit. Put away arrogance, noble fighter! The noon of your strength shall last for a while now, but in a little time, sickness or a sword shall swipe it from you” (1758-63). This mostly Christian view in a Pagan culture gives medieval man a clue as to the true path they should follow even while it leaves room for Pagan beliefs in a land before Christianity had become widespread. Beowulf has proven himself capable of defeating concrete monsters and demons, but Hrothgar warns of a greater evil and temptation that lies within the heart of man, ideas later traced to the concept of the seven deadly sins. Hrothgar cautions humility and humbleness before power, again, concepts strongly associated with good and right behavior in later periods more concretely lived under Christian ideals.
Arthur, too, offers final advice to his younger knight as he prepares to take leave of him. Sir Bedivere laments that he is the last of the knights and will be left to try to live among new men in a new world order. Arthur’s advice brings Christian concepts out to the forefront, but illustrates the same basic concepts of humility in the face of power and obedience rather than self-indulgence. “More things are wrought by prayer / Than this world dreams of. Wherefore, let thy voice / Rise like a fountain for me night and day.
For what are men better than sheep or goats / That nourish a blind life within the brain, / If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer / Both for themselves and those who call them friend?” (245-251). In this speech, Arthur reveals that, despite the fact that he was once king and was divinely selected for the role through the supernatural powers of the land, he is still nothing more than a mortal man with a soul that requires someone to pray for him. In this, he demonstrates that he has not forgotten the lessons brought forward by Hrothgar in Beowulf, but takes on the position of Hrothgar as he dispenses his advice down to the younger generation.
Within both stories, the idea that the hero has earned a special place in the after-world reinforces these ideas of correct, moral and right behavior. As Beowulf prepares to face the dragon at the end of his life, he resigns himself to the inescapable will of God, and he ultimately gives in to God’s great plan. A major difference in his approach to the dragon that is not found in his earlier exploits is overconfidence in his own abilities. “He had no fear for himself / and discounted the worm’s courage and strength, / its prowess in battle. Battles in plenty / he had survived; valiant in all dangers.” His speech before entering the dragon’s hill is not full of the same note of humility or concern for his people that his earlier speeches held.
“This affair is not for you,/ nor is it measured to any man but myself along / to match strength with this monstrous being, / attempt this deed. By daring will I / win this gold; war otherwise / shall take your king, terrible life’s-bane!” Perhaps his lack of luck in this final battle of the story is the result of this lack of humility. As he strikes at the dragon, the sword that has never failed him finally does and the dragon is struck a painful but not fatal wound. As he struggles, dying, with the dragon, Beowulf sees all his shield-mates scatter, running into the woods to save their own skins, no longer willing to come to his aid as the traditional battle codes held. Only one young man even considers it and, as reward, wins the dead hero’s armor. However, as he lays dying, Beowulf is again able to thank God for allowing him such an adventurous and honorable life, finally providing his people with the wealth of the dragon before taking his leave of them.
Arthur passes out of life with a great deal more humility and leaving a great deal less behind. His one treasure, the great sword, is ordered to be thrown back into the water for the Lady of the Lake and his body, still living, is delivered into the hands of the women of Avalon. Part of the difference between the fate of Beowulf and the fate of Arthur perhaps lies in the element that Arthur doesn’t actually die while still within sight of man. “To the island-valley of Avilion; / Where falls not hail, or rain, or any snow, / Nor ever wind blows loudly; but it lies / Deep-meadowed, happy, fair with orchard-lawns / And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea, / Where I will heal me of my grievous wound” (257-262). However, within the story of Arthur is also embedded the concept of the Jesus figure in that part of Arthur’s prophecy is that he will someday return to again lead men in a golden age of chivalry, rightness of being and plentitude.
Conclusion
While both stories are based upon a period in time when society was shifting from a pagan to a Christian culture, one is written at that point in time while the other is taking a look back at this era. Despite this difference in time periods, the only true difference in basic concepts regarding death and how to attain the afterlife are contained in the specific elements of the story rather than the fundamental ideas. Both consider the warrior code of loyalty to brothers and dedication to doing good works as essential elements of society while leaders are held to an even higher standard of justice, compassion and generosity. Only by remaining humble and properly caring for the welfare of underlings can one attain the hero’s end both Beowulf and Arthur achieve.
Works Cited
Beowulf. Elements in Literature. Austin, TX: Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston, 1997.
Death and the afterlife are themes that have always been interesting for people and horrific at the same time. The thoughts about death and the beyond can send shivers down the spine of a contemporary person and the attitude of ancient Greeks to death was practically the same. The reason for this affinity of views on death and the afterlife can be explained by the fact that a contemporary person, in fact, knows no more about the secret of afterlife than an ancient Greek did. The only difference is that we know more medical facts that prove to be useless when speaking about death and afterlife from a spiritual point of view. In Ancient Greece, death was even more incorporated into the daily life of all people as death was prevalent among all people because of numerous military conflicts, diseases, giving birth to children, etc. The spiritual importance of death, parting with the world of the living and leaving it for something new and unexplored has been one of the most valuable themes of ancient Greek literature and art.
The mythological image of the world of the dead, Hades, a gloomy, dark, and wet realm, ruled by its namesake, Hades, is perfectly described in The Odyssey by Homer. In the eleventh book, the protagonist descends to Hades to meet many deceased heroes and those who are punished by Gods severely. A very picturesque statement is made by Achilles who says, “do not make light of death”, “I would rather work the soil as a serf on hire to some landless impoverished peasant than to be King of all these lifeless dead” (Homer 152). This statement shows that there was a strong opinion among ancient Greeks that heroic death in the youth was worse than a long quiet life. Even heroic death was still death and eternal staying in Hades could not be imagined as a pleasant one. Even worse it was for those who were in Gods’ disgrace, like Tantalus and Sisyphus sentenced to eternal tortures for their faults. The first, Tantalus, was a son of Zeus who stole the Gods’ food and has been deprived of food forever. Sisyphus, a former king who had deceived and killed his guests, was sentenced to endless toil, “he wrestled with a huge rock with a huge rock with both hands” (Homer 155). Thus, The Odyssey shows the immense fear and worshipping of Gods that were typical in Ancient Greece. They valued earthly life, worshipped the memory of the deceased relatives, observed and respected all traditions connected with aftermath.
Visual arts of Ancient Greece usually reflect the plots taken from daily life of people, thus, mythological plots and plots reflecting traditions are popular. Visual arts perform the function of a chronicle. Funeral motives are common on the vases and jugs that are meant to be used during funeral ceremonies or in daily life. If they are not meant for funeral, the representation of funeral traditions is a reminder for those who are alive to worship memory of the dead.
This abundance of ritual motives on the ancient Greek brown ware symbolizes the importance of living for their deceased relative. Their sacred duty was to perform all rituals that were necessary before the funeral so that the dead could reach Hades and enter it. In case, if the relatives failed to perform the rituals accordingly, the soul was doomed to eternal wandering between the worlds of the living and the dead, endless and restless wandering. This is why before final parting with the soul of the dead; the relatives were showing their grief and sorrow openly. The central role during the ceremonies was assigned to the dead as it can be observed on the krater belonging to the Geometric period (Department of Greek and Roman Art par. 4), where the deceased is pictured in an unusual position, on his side, to attract attention to this element of the picture.
However, after the euphoria (Department of Greek and Roman Art par. 2), the relatives tried to build something that would connect them with their late relative and symbolize their feelings to him/her. They erected “monumental earth mounds, rectangular built tombs, and elaborate marble stelai and statutes were often erected to mark the grave and to ensure that the deceased would not be forgotten” (Department of Greek and Roman Art par.2).
Grave monuments differed depending on the welfare standards of the family of the dead. For instance, the Grave stele of a youth and a little girl (Department of Greek and Roman Art par. 3) is a real masterpiece that has survived up to the present moment. The stele has the inscription stating that it is dedicated to a young deceased man by his father and mother. The stele is very tall and crowned by a sphinx that symbolizes the high place of mythology in the life of ancient Greeks.
Drawing a conclusion, it is possible to state that death, funeral traditions, and the concept of aftermath occupied significant place in the lives of ancient Greeks. They worshipped memory of their late relatives and their traditions and feelings found perfect reflection in visual art and literature. Still, aftermath has always been a hidden and unexplored area and it remains the same nowadays.
Works Cited
Department of Greek and Roman Art. “Death, Burial, and the Afterlife in Ancient Greece”. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Rieu, Emile Victor, and Christopher H. Rieu. UK: Penguin Classics, 2002. Web.
What happens to a human being after death is a topic covered with mystery and confusion. People go out of their way to bicker and fight about their vision of the afterlife, of the void that one awaits after dying. They become so invested in trying to define their fate that they forget to pay attention to what is happening around them. Chuy, or Jesus, the main character in Gary Soto’s The Afterlife, is a fifteen-year-old boy whose sudden and senseless death shows others the value of cherishing the present. The author uses magical realism to embark the reader on a journey of reflecting on life when nothing can be done to change it. Such a technique of combining reality and the afterlife makes the readers lose themselves between the two worlds, empathizing with the main characters as if their fate could be redeemed.
The primary purpose of Gary Soto’s The Afterlife is to show the significance of human life and forgiveness from the perspective of those who lose it. Chuy, being a self-conscious 15-year-old kid, managed to discover the blessings of love and compassion only after he became a lifeless ghost whose days on Earth were counted. During a long journey coming back and forth to Yellow Shoes, a man who killed Chuy for a compliment, the boy discovers the power of forgiveness and love for others. The boy, whose insecurities catalyzed hatred for everything surrounding him, became the one to forgive his killer (Soto).
However, while he wanted to convey the message of forgiveness to his family, he could not do anything. No matter how one’s perception of life may change after death, it will never have a meaningful impact on real life itself. Hence, it makes sense to learn these things while one is alive.
Throughout the story, the author manages to successfully combine the worlds of reality and the afterlife. At some point, there were moments when Chuy stood among real people as there was no line between life and death. The only thing that somehow disrupted this convergence was the feeling of chill Chuy passed on to Richard (Soto 15). Moreover, the interaction between Chuy and Crystal was so natural and down-to-earth that it was easy to get lost between the afterlife and everything happening on Earth. The characters could easily wander down the streets of Frasco and reflect on the places they saw. However, at some point, the reader may become confused about why no one can see Chuy walking around the Yellow Shoes’ house. The ones who died felt more alive than the ones who faced grief and injustice.
The use of the supernatural element of the afterlife provides a contrast to the storyline. On the one hand, there is a real world of frustration, grief, and vigilance. On the other hand, there is a world after death that manifests forgiveness and love. At some point, it almost feels as if one needs to die to find peace with the cruelty of the world. Indeed, it is reasonable to assume that letting go of hatred is easier when there is no way back. However, the perspective of innocent children whose life ended so abruptly shows that if they can accept their death, the same should be done by others. The cultivation of anger that goes on in the real world, along with the power of forgiveness manifested in the afterlife, shows the two sides of perceiving an issue.
Such a technique of transcendent experience teaches the reader the power of cherishing life. Once the readers identify themselves with Chuy, they feel nothing but support and love for him. The process of accepting death and forgiveness could be shown solely from the perspective of the victims’ families. However, the emotive response would be different in such a scenario. The magical component of being in the same spot as the ones alive provides the reader with a more powerful identification with the character. The technique of bringing magic and reality together provides insights into the perception of the storyline. Hence, magical realism is a powerful tool in the hands of the creator.
The paradigms of life and death seem to intersect only at one point in one’s existence. This point is nothing else but death itself. However, when looking deeper into the problem, these two opposites go hand in hand. Gary Soto managed to bring these worlds together through the lens of an innocent and almost meaningful death. As a result, the level of compassion and empathy for the characters grew immensely. The notion of magical realism, in this case, presents how a singly story may be conveyed with the help of something supernatural. The Afterlife is a prominent example of a literary piece that combines ordinary life and magic to present the moral from various perspectives. The story of Chuy is the story of how imaginary narrative helps bring more meaning to the real one.
Work Cited
Soto, Gary. The Afterlife. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003.
The tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamun is one of the most significant archaeological finds in the exploration of Ancient Egypt. It is located in the Valley of the Kings and was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter (Sambuelli et al. 1). This tomb is referred to as KV62 in standard Egyptological designation. Compared to other royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings, Tut’s tomb is less richly decorated and contains fewer artifacts (Sambuelli et al. 1). Additionally, some objects, including the sarcophagus and shrine, were likely created for the burial of another deceased but were hastily used for Tutankhamun. This fact is associated with the pharaoh’s early and probably sudden death, which required the builders and decorators to arrange the tomb quickly. The most valuable aspect of the tomb is the wall paintings that reflect the religious views of the Egyptians, as well as explain burial rituals and beliefs about the Afterlife. The tomb of Tutankhamun also displays many artifacts that have ritual significance. The most notable of these is the golden mask and quartz sarcophagus containing the pharaoh’s coffins and mummies.
The Valley of the Kings
The Valley of the Kings is located on the east coast of the Nile near the city of Luxor. It is the largest collection of royal and elite tombs of the Ancient Egyptians, created during the New Kingdom (1500-1100 BC) (Handwerk para. 2). The particularly dry conditions of this location were perfect for preserving the mummified remains. The Valley of the Kings is the burial place of the most famous pharaohs, including Seti I, Ramses II, and Tutankhamen, as well as the queens, priests, and elites of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties (Handwerk para. 3). Wilkinson notes that in later periods (950–850 BC), many prominent tombs were afterward reused by other elites (12-34). The tombs located in the Valley of the Kings also have developed underground parts.
The Valley of the Kings is full of artifacts, making it an attractive destination for both archaeologists and robbers. Despite the fact that as early as 1912, researchers considered it to be fully exhausted, Howard Carter, in 1922, discovered the most significant and fascinating tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun (Wilkinson 30-36). This discovery was the last of the discovered tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Since then, archeologists have been exclusively describing and documenting the already known artifacts and monuments in this location.
The Coffin Description
Before proceeding to the description of the coffins of Tutankhamun, it is necessary to pay attention to the sarcophagus, which is a unique example of the funeral traditions of the New Kingdom. The sarcophagus is made of brown quartzite and pink granite, but the combination of these materials was rather forced due to the limited time or materials available (Farrant). On the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun, one can see the figures of four goddesses, including Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Selket. These goddesses in Ancient Egyptian mythology were revered as protectors of the dead. The figures are located along the edges of the sarcophagus with spread wings, which can symbolize the divine protection of what is inside (Farrant). Eaton-Krauss notes that these figures initially had only outstretched arms with no wings, and the text on the sarcophagus itself was erased and recarved (Shaw 56-58). These changes probably indicate that the sarcophagus, like some other burial attributes, is another adoption from Smenkhkare/Neferneferuaten’s burial outfit (Farrant; Shaw 56-58). Smenkhkare/Neferneferuaten are the names of the pharaohs who ruled probably in the second half of the 18th Dynasty period and whose burial outfit was used for Tutankhamun. This fact, in turn, may be associated with the need to rush to the burial due to the untimely death of Pharaoh Tutankhamun.
However, the rectangular quartzite sarcophagus is only an outer layer. Inside it is three coffins that depict Tutankhamun in the position of the god Osiris (Marie para. 6). The inner coffin in which the mummy was located was wrapped in linen except for the head. It is made of pure gold weighing over 110 kilograms and repeats the shape of Tutankhamun’s mummy (Marie para. 7). The middle and outer coffins are made of wood and covered with a thin layer of gold and plaster. The middle coffin is also covered with polychrome glass pastes, while the outer one is equipped with silver handles for the movement of the lid (Marie para. 9). The figure of Osiris holds a crook and flail crossed on his chest, inlaid with gold, as well as pieces of red and blue glass (Wilkinson 112-118). The coffins are located one inside the other, and all of them, in turn, is inside the sarcophagus. Inside the inner coffin was the linen-wrapped mummy of Tutankhamun.
The Structure of the Tomb
The structure of Tutankhamun’s tomb is fairly well studied and contains several rooms. It includes “four main rooms; the antechamber, the annex, the burial chamber, and the treasury room” (“King Tut’s Tomb Layout” para. 1; fig. 1). It is noteworthy that this tomb, upon discovery, was not plundered, which is rare for the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Despite the fact that the tomb contains almost 5,000 objects, the tomb of Tutankhamun is smaller in size than the rest of the royal tombs found, as he ruled for a limited time and did not leave an extensive legacy (“King Tut’s Tomb Layout” para. 3). The passage to the tomb is made of limestone, and the steps go down into the Valley of the Kings. At the end of the passage is a plaster wall depicting a jackal and nine slaves, symbolizing the royal power of Tutankhamun (“King Tut’s Tomb: Entrance Passage” para. 1). Behind it is another plaster door with the seals of Tutankhamun and numerous priests.
The antechamber is located immediately after the passage and is a connecting element from which one can get to other rooms. Again, compared to the tombs of other pharaohs, this room was more modestly decorated but contained about 700 objects “such as couches, chests, baskets, large statues, beds, and stools” (“King Tut’s Tomb: Antechamber” para. 3). From the antechamber, you can get to the burial chamber with the adjoining treasury, as well as to the annex (fig. 2). The annex is the smallest of the chambers in the tomb and contains various objects as well (“King Tut’s Tomb: Annex” para. 1). It is noteworthy that the door to this room is cut on the left side of the antechamber and is located between the legs of the couches. Additionally, the floor level in this chamber drops three feet relative to the other rooms (“King Tut’s Tomb: Annex” para. 2). Among them were items “such as oils, foods, wines, pottery, dishes, stools, games, and baskets” (“King Tut’s Tomb: Annex” para. 1). This room contained 280 objects in total that were located in disarray.
Fig. 1. Tutankhamun’s tomb layout (Farrant).
The Paintings Description and Meaning
Besides treasures and many objects, Tutankhamun’s tomb contains unique wall paintings located on each of the walls. Due to the early death of Tutankhamun, the drawings are located only in his burial chamber (Alchin para. 2). Each of the four walls displays different themes and plots, including the Funeral Procession, the Amduat, the arrival in the Underworld, and the arrival of Tutankhamun in the Afterlife (Nyord 1-8). Thus, the drawings reflect the religious ideas of the Ancient Egyptians about the Afterlife and the rituals associated with this concept.
The background of all the walls and paintings in the burial chamber is gold, which is associated with the rule of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. All the figures of people depicted on the walls are young, which shows the tendency of the Ancient Egyptians to idealize people in art (Alchin para. 3). Despite the actual heights of Tutankhamun, his figure was portrayed as the largest and stood out from the rest of the paintings (Cleveland-Peck 85-94). The Egyptians used six primary colors for their tombs, including “white, black, red, yellow, blue and green” (Alchin para. 4). Each color had a symbolic meaning and emphasized the distinctive characteristics of each of the represented figures.
The eastern wall of the burial chamber depicts the funeral procession of Tutankhamun. First of all, there is an image of Tutankhamun’s mummy on a sleigh pulled by 12 people (Alchin para. 5). These figures symbolize the people closest to the Pharaoh. They are depicted wearing white sandals and bands, which identifies them as priests (white is also the color of purity and greatness, a sacred color). 12 people are represented by one group of 5 people, three groups of 2 people, as well as a lonely freestanding figure. Some of them can be identified by the elements of clothing: the hereditary Tutankhamun depicted in the crown, the two viziers, the chief treasurer, the General Horemheb, as well as the High Priests.
The western wall of the tomb describes the path of Tutankhamun to the Afterlife, described in the text of the funerary book, which is called Amduat. This book “is the Book of the Secret Chamber and means’ That Which Is in the Underworld” (Alchin para. 6). In particular, this text describes the journey of the Sun God through 12 parts of the Underworld from west to east. This path must be safe for Tutankhamun to enter the Afterlife successfully. The 12 parts of the Underworld meet the 12 divisions of the book and represent 12 night hours (Alchin para. 6). Additionally, they are also symbolized by the 12 baboons also depicted on the wall. There is also a depiction of the Solar Barque and Tutankhamun as Osiris on the wall. This plot illustrates the Egyptians’ ideas about the Pharaoh’s transition to the Afterlife through the Underworld and the return to divine form.
The south wall illustrates Tut’s arrival in the Underworld, where he is greeted by Hathor, Anubis, and Isis. NetBet is the incarnation of Hathor, who is the patroness of Upper Egypt and also the protector of the pharaoh along with Wadjet (Alchin para. 7). Thus, the southern wall depicts the successful arrival of the pharaoh in the Afterlife under the auspices of the gods and his transition to the Afterlife. The North wall contains three separate scenes depicting the immediate arrival in the Afterlife. Tut’s heir, Ay, performs the opening of the mouth ritual in front of Tut’s mummies. He is dressed in the robe of a priest with leopard skin (Alchin para. 8). Next, the Heavenly Goddess Nut welcomes Tutankhamun to the Afterlife and accepts him among the gods.
Most notable are the three separate depictions of Tutankhamun, representing the Egyptians’ perception of the essence of the pharaoh. On the first, he is represented as Horus, the son of the god Osiris and wears a double crown (earthly incarnation); as the god Osiris (true essence in the Afterlife); and the image of Tutankhamun’s Ka (Alchin para. 8). Thus, the northern wall most thoroughly depicts the Egyptians’ ideas about the Afterlife and the Pharaoh’s transition into it. Moreover, in general, the paintings in Tutankhamun’s tomb illustrate royal funeral rites as well as religious beliefs. The texts on the walls are associated with the Book of the Dead, which describes rituals for burying the dead for their successful entry into the Afterlife. As can be seen from the paintings, in the Afterlife, the Pharaoh takes on his true god form and takes his place among the other gods.
The Religion Text and the Book of the Death
The religious texts of the Egyptians were intended to protect the dead on their journey to the Afterlife. Most importantly, these texts prescribe specific funeral rituals to be followed. The Book of the Dead is a set of rules that are reflected in spells created to protect the mummies and the spirit of the departed. These spells were engraved on various material objects to provide protection. In particular, Tutankhamun’s mask and coffin contain the spell ahead of mystery (Lucarelli 137-140). This text concerns the position of the golden mummy mask and reflects the myth of how Ryo bestowed the mask on Osiris to heal his injuries. Moreover, extracts from the Book of the Dead are also on the golden chapels of Tutankhamun located above his coffin (Cleveland-Peck 85-94; Lucarelli 137-140). Spell texts could be engraved on any tomb artifacts and reflect this object’s purpose in the Afterlife. In general, the Book of the Dead described how funeral rituals should be performed.
The Description of the Artifacts
Tutankhamun’s tomb contains many artifacts that reflect the Egyptians’ views of the Afterlife. The most notable of these is the golden mask that was placed on the head of the pharaoh’s mummy. It was found directly in the inner coffin and is made in the form of the face of Tutankhamun. This artifact was intended to protect the face of the deceased during his journey to the Underworld and is associated with Egyptian mythology (Lucarelli 137-140). The artifacts in the antechamber are mostly furniture and everyday objects that were designed to provide the pharaoh’s comfort in the Afterlife. Most notable are the couches containing a “hippopotamus, a lion, and a cow’s head” (“King Tut’s Tomb: Antechamber” para. 4). They are made of wood and gilded and most likely were used for ritual purposes. Additionally, this room contains the throne of Tutankhamun and three chariots. The entrance to the burial chamber is guarded by two large statues of the pharaoh, facing each other and containing inscriptions.
The annex also contained various artifacts that reflected aspects of the pharaoh’s life. The most notable are the games, which underscore the early age of Tutankhamun’s demise (“King Tut’s Tomb: Annex” para. 2). In addition, food, coins, and oils were contained in the annex. The treasury contained the largest number of ritual objects that illustrate the funeral rites of the Egyptians. In particular, the most important artifact is the canopic jars, containing the pharaoh’s organs extracted before mummification (“King Tut’s Tomb: Treasury Room” para. 2; fig. 2). The banks were located on a gilded wooden shrine with images of goddesses who protected the organs of the pharaoh. The jars are made of alabaster and have the shape of a pharaoh’s head with clearly traced facial features.
The room also contained numerous small figurines of the pharaoh and gods, also made of wood with gilding. The statues depict different aspects of the life of the pharaoh, and 34 of them were discovered (“King Tut’s Tomb: Treasury Room” para. 3). The treasury also contained 14 boats that had ritual significance and were intended for the pharaoh’s movements in the Afterlife (“King Tut’s Tomb: Treasury Room” para. 4). It is noteworthy that all are located pointing to the west. Thus, the artifacts presented in the tomb of the pharaoh reflect both aspects of everyday life and are of a ritual nature. They were all placed there to accompany Tutankhamun in the Afterlife and to provide protection for his mummified body and organs.
The Burial Chamber and Treasury
The burial chamber is the largest room in the tomb, which contains a sarcophagus, and its walls are completely covered with paintings. Again, the paintings in Tutankhamun’s tomb are large enough compared to other tombs in the Valley of the Kings, which identifies a possible rush to create them (“King Tut’s Tomb: Burial Chamber” para. 1). Fraser et al. note that an enormous wooden shrine nearly entirely occupied the burial chamber (127). Inside there were three more wooden shrines covered in gold that protected the sarcophagus. The exterior parts of the shrine are decorated with amulets of Osiris, and the fourth shrine depicts the eyes of Wadjet (Cleveland-Peck 85-94). It is noteworthy that the markings on the shrine also identify that they were created for a different tomb (Egypt Museum). Outside the shrines, the burial chamber also contains numerous paddles for a solar boat, vessels for wine and incense, and lamps depicting the god Hapi.
The treasury adjoins the burial chamber, and its entrance is located on the east wall. At the entrance to the treasury, there is “a statue guard with a large portable shrine of the jackal-headed god named Anubis” (“King Tut’s Tomb: Treasury Room” para. 1). This room contained chests, shrines, chests, boats, and presumably two stillborn daughters of Tutankhamun (“King Tut’s Tomb: Treasury Room” para. 1). All of these items are necessary for Pharaoh in the Afterlife, which also illustrates the religious views of the Egyptians. The largest items in this chamber are the Pharaoh’s canopic chest and the statue of Anubis. Additionally, the room contained many statues of the king and deities, boats, and chariots. All items in the treasury were of a ritual nature and served as an illustration of the Egyptians’ ideas about the Afterlife. In particular, they considered all of this necessary for a successful transition to the Afterlife. Each item either illustrates the protection of the gods or is necessary for the pharaoh when traveling to the Afterlife through the Underworld.
Fig. 2. The tomb of Tutankhamun (Journey to Egypt).
Sambuelli, Luigi, et al. “The Third KV62 Radar Scan: Searching for Hidden Chambers Adjacent to Tutankhamun’s Tomb.” Journal of Cultural Heritage, vol. 39, 2019, pp. 288-296.
Shaw, Garry J. The Story of Tutankhamun. Yale University Press, 2023.
Wilkinson, Toby. Tutankhamun’s Trumpet: Ancient Egypt in 100 Objects from the Boy-King’s Tomb. W. W. Norton & Company, 2022.