The concerns about death and the possibility of an afterlife have always intrigued humans across all cultures and religions. The majority of cultures believe that mortal death is not the end of life for people. A few, especially those that rely on scientific evidence as a basis for their knowledge, have contrary beliefs. Finding answers to such questions is relevant in helping people make an important decisions and when grieving. In addition, comparing the beliefs of two or more ancient cultures can shade light o incongruences and facts. Although both the Mexican Aztec belief and the Egyptian Cosmos believed in an afterlife, their faith differs in other aspects like transcendence and judgment of deeds, the obligation of the Mortal, home for the soul, reincarnation.
Transcendence and Judgement
Transcendence means the ability to go beyond the natural or expected limit. In the context of life, it is the ability to continue existing beyond natural death. The Egyptians believed in transcendent, whereby the positive individual experience that the deceased had was the primary determinant of the nature of life the person experiences (Nyord5). In other words, people whose life on earth was full of good deeds will have a better afterlife compared to those who were evil. Therefore, the cosmic belief system encouraged people to live by doing good so that when they die, they will have an improved quality of life.
Similarly, the Aztecs, who mainly occupied modern day Mexico, believed that their humans existed beyond the death of the body. Death was only a transition from the present existence, which continued beyond the earth. However, unlike the Cosmic culture, the Aztecs did not believe that the acts of a person, whether good or bad, did not matter when it came to the kind of life a person would live beyond death. Interestingly, the Aztec culture held that the way a person died was the sole determinant of the kind of existence they would have in the afterlife (Dockray, par. 6). For instance, warriors who died in battle and the women who lost their lives during childbirth went to paradise while those who had a prolonged illness would go to the underworld. Thus, there was transcendence with different kinds of life depending on the nature of death.
Obligation of the Mortal
The existence of life after death gives hope for a possible reunion which can help people not to despair during the mourning period. Yet, there is a concern that not all the deceased have a privilege of enjoying the life in paradise. Whether based on good deeds or the type of death, both cultures believed that there was a chance of having a damned afterlife. Relatives and friends of the deceased who were alive had some obligation to their dead to help ease their afterlife.
Within the Cosmic belief system, it is evident that the living believed that they should equip their dead with the necessary tools. For example, the people wrote mortuary texts which were intended to be read by the deceased for their encouragement or direction (Nyord, 7). Moreover, some people would be buried with their work tools, such as the axe or arrows that they could use for socio-economic sustenance afterlife. Thus, it was relevant to bury the deceased with some possessions that the people or the priest judged would be useful while writing letters for their direction.
Comparatively, the Aztec cultural beliefs remained connected with the people who died as ancestors and would occasionally pray for them or give honor depending on how the person died. For example, in one of in one of the prayers, the people have to recite that the deceased have loaned them their life for a short time, but they will eventually die just like the sounds of waterfall do in a dry season (Dockray, par. 9). The implication is that the living remained connected the ancestors and had an obligation to thank them or pray for them. For example, the people who died in war to save the land and those who were sacrificed were honored and even worshiped.
Nature of Afterlife and Reincarnation
The possibility of the existence of an afterlife intrigues people to imagine how a typical day for a dead person looks. Since the body decomposes and the soul or spirit remains immortal, there are concerns about such existence. The ancient Egyptians and the Mexicans had some answers to such questions, though with variations in their faith. The Egyptians believed that the houses they lived in were only temporary structures while the grave was the real house (Shah, 40). No wonder many skills were taken in curving the tombs and graves to appear beautiful.
In addition, as part of their daily requirements, every deceased person had a path of life to follow. The dead had a clearly defined roadmap that they had to undertake after the end of the physical death (Zago, p.1). Noteworthy, at the point of death, each of the person was buried with a text book which provided the necessary information to transverse the difficult terrains (Calvert, par. 13) the kings and the pharaohs were buried in the pyramid tombs near river Nile that had well holes. Therefore, it appears that the Egyptians believe that the dead continued with life as usual in their tombs.
Conversely, the Aztecs believed that the life after death occurred in two steps, one involving staying in one of the paradises and then reincarnation to be another animal form. For example, the warriors who died in battle stayed for four years in paradise and then came back as hummingbirds or butterflies (Schoppert, par.4). However, the people who went into the underworld had to work their way back to one of the paradises and have some rest before reincarnating to another animal and coming back to life.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the concept of the afterlife between the Egyptians and the Aztecs of Mexico has several similarities with remarkable distinguishing factors. Both believed that the physical death was a transition and that people lived beyond death. However, they differ with regard to the determinant of the beauty of life-based on good deeds or circumstances of death. The other distinctive factor is that the Aztecs believed that the obligation of the mortals was to pray for and honor the dead. At the same time, Egyptians held that the obligation was to equip them with the necessary tools for survival. Lastly, the Aztecs held on to the belief of reincarnation after some time, while for the Egyptians, the deceased did not come back to earth.
Dockray, Hillary. Ancient Aztec Perspective on Death and Afterlife. The Christi Center Always Here After Your Loss. Web.
Nyord, Rune. On interpreting ancient Egyptian funerary texts. Magazine of the Center for Studies on Cultural Diversity 1, no. 19 (2022), 1-23. doi:10.35305/cl.vi19.48.
Shah, Bipin. The Sacred Pyramids, Ziggurats and Mountains-their Purposes and Why They Were Built? Research Gate, (2020), 1-40.
Zago, Silvia. Conceptualizing Life after Death. The Evolution of the Concept of Duat and Related Notions in Egyptian Funerary Literature. PhD diss., University of Toronto (Canada), 2019.
Human beings are not eternal, and no matter how long their life is and how healthy they are, everybody knows that death awaits them at the end. Some people die accidentally due to the sad coincidence of events; others leave life according to their own will. Death occurs to all people without exception at the end of their lives. No matter how it happens, it is a subject of intense discussions and even experiments because all people are afraid, fascinated, and intrigued by what awaits them after their physical body stops functioning. The main question that is left without an answer, but represents utmost importance for the whole of humankind is whether there is a spiritual world that awaits people after death, and if it really exists, what it represents.
The spiritual world for people means the immortality of their souls, which is in general highly important from the point of view of religion and philosophy. Christianity and Islam pose much attention to the modest, humble, and correct life of believers who want to be gratified for their goodness in the afterlife. There are a number of sins that are punished by eternal sufferings for the soul that are called to engage people in virtuous lives in the hope for a happy afterlife. However, no matter whether hell or heaven expects their souls, it is clear that the immortal soul exists and proceeds from one world of earthly human beings to the eternal spiritual world. Other religions such as Buddhism deny the fact of the souls existence and state that human life exists only due to the flow of super-powers and super-energies in the world.
My personal opinion on the issue is heavily influenced by the religion I have because all followers of Christianity are taught from a young age to believe in the immortality of human souls to make people responsible for the outcomes of their lives. People should live carefully, without sinning and committing atrocities towards other people or nature in order to be rewarded for this later. I believe that there is something beyond the world in which humankind lives because of many stories about mysterious forces that guide people, give them extraordinary possibilities, and bring sacred knowledge to the human world. I am sure that the soul of each person is transformed after his or her death and passed on to another creature, not sure the human being but an animal or a plant. It is impossible to get the whole cultural, spiritual and intellectual knowledge passed on from century to century by our ancestors; it would take much longer for people to grasp all basics of life in case they did not have the subconscious memory of their souls.
Besides, I believe in the existence of an immortal human soul because I am sure that only education and upbringing cannot produce great people or criminals; there is something beyond their social and genetic background that makes them commit the greatest good and the greatest evil in their life. One life would be not enough to raise such people as Hitler or Gandhi. For this reason, I am sure that our soul is much wiser than we are, showing us the way through life by symbols, hidden signs, and hints that we rarely understand but the presence of which we certainly feel. The immortal soul is something for the sake of which people live and do good if there were no belief in immortality, people would grow immoral and would not think about the consequences of their deeds.
Ancient philosophers dedicated much of their writing to issues of life and death. Analyzing the work of Epicurus and his opinion on death voiced in the work Letter to Menoeceus , it becomes clear that the philosopher was highly confident in the existence of the immortal soul and its transition from one form of living into another one. However, he attributes more attention not to the death itself, but to the nature of fear of death. Epicurus relies on pure logic and practice approaches the subjectivity of this fear, trying to explain why it is senseless and foolish. He manages this point of view, characterizing the act of death finish of the human existence. Thus, he wonders why people should be afraid of death since it never concerns them directly. As long as people are alive, death is not the problem for them since it is absent; as soon as they die, that is, death approaches them, they no longer exist, thus being unable to be concerned with it (Epicurus 100).
Logically, Epicurus arrives at the generalization that only one of the two may exist simultaneously either a person or death. Judging from this angle, Epicurus assumes that people should not be afraid of death because as soon as it comes they will no longer exist, and while they exist there will be no death. He also comments on human dissatisfaction with life people are initially born to be happy, so in case they are not happy and do not see a way to live their life happily, they have a set of tools available for leaving the life. Hence, Epicurus makes a conclusion that life cannot be sad or gloomy for people, and those who do not need it can leave it on their own will, thus getting free from the painful anticipation (Epicurus 101).
Plato approaches the subject of the afterlife in a different way, trying to prove whether the soul is an immortal substance or not. Utilizing the main assumptions of logic in the dialogue of Socrates with Cebes, Plato starts with the argument that all people should be afraid of death unless the immortality of the human soul is proven. He asserts that the human soul surely lives longer than the human body, being able to exist in several people; however, he doubts that it is immortal. No matter how long it exists, in case there is the end of its existence all people should fear death if they suppose they are the final element of its existence. In the process of the discussion and application of several logical inferences Socrates concludes in the dialogue: Then, it seems, when death attacks a man, his mortal part dies, but his immortal part retreats before death, and goes away safe and indestructible (Plato 97). Finally, this conclusion arouses one more inference from the whole set of arguments used in the process of discussion soul is immortal and imperishable, and our souls will indeed exist in the other world (Plato 97). As one can see, ancient philosophy provides a strong basis for assuming that the human soul exists and proceeds to another world after death to be reborn in another creature afterward.
Notwithstanding the fact that the immortality of the human soul is widely recognized by philosophy and religion, it is still evident that the question does not find a unanimous decision on the subject Buddhism is a good example of the counterargument to the existence of an immortal soul. Buddhism, in general, denies fear of death as the most wicked human weakness and egocentrism, the sense of possessing a soul that is actually unable to belong to anybody being a universal Soul, the unity of energies and forces that govern the whole world and not only one personality (Rahula 113). For this reason, Buddhism calls not to be afraid of death because every creature and every object in the world suffers death and rebirth every single moment of life, making fear of death senseless (Rahula 112).
Buddhism is governed by the idea of no-soul or no-self (the so-called doctrine of Anatta) (Rahula 113). The human being is considered to have two deeply-rooted psychological ideas the one of self-protection and the one of self-preservation. To ensure the fulfillment of the former people create God, and the latter is ensured by the idea of an immortal Soul (Rahula 113). Thus, Buddhists state that all considerations about God (with any name in any religion) and immortality of human souls are false, subjective projections deriving from the human fears and weakness, while in fact there is no super-power and no soul but only a set of super-forces, energies that govern the universe (Rahula 113).
Summing everything that has been said up, it is possible to see how the issues of the afterlife and the immortality of the human soul find proponents and opponents in religion and philosophy. The greatest thinkers of ancient times, as well as modern philosophers, have been obsessed with determining the immortality of the soul, while Buddhism rejects its existence in general. Christianity is governed by ethics and morality much, trying to direct people at good deeds and making them ashamed of sins (immoral and unethical actions that impede on others rights or do harm to others) in the fear to get to hell after death. Those who live a good life, on the contrary, are promised to get to heaven where their happy life will continue and where their soul will not be submitted to tortures but will get the reward for all virtues the person committed during lifetime.
All theories and beliefs that have been discussed in the present work certainly possess some drawbacks and advantages for those who are interested in the issues of death and the afterlife, giving much food for thought regarding the immortality of the human soul. Nonetheless, there is no doubt that the belief in the human soul immortality creates additional reasons for being ethically correct and responsible for ones actions on a long-term, in-depth basis. Nobody will ever know whether there is something that awaits people after death, so the main source of information is human faith that dictates appropriate behavior. For this reason, it is necessary to rely on the existing opinions and to choose the ones that suit ones religion, personal philosophy, or values consideration of all these theories should be conducted only under the acceptance of an initial fact about overall ignorance of what really expects human beings after death.
Since the emergence of religion and the study of philosophy, the fate of the human soul after death has been an issue that has attracted much attention. Most philosophers have differed over the issue and put forward theories and explanations to validate their stands. On the other hand, religion has maintained that the soul is immortal and survives the death of the body. Two of the greatest philosophers of early time, Plato and Aristotle, held contradicting views and explanations as to the fate of the soul.
Plato on Death
Plato argued that the soul is immortal and therefore survives the death of the body. In contrast, Plato argued that the soul cannot exist without the body and it therefore perishes together with the body at death. Both philosophers put forward arguments to support their stand on the matter. However, there is no definite agreement as to the issue and remains a matter of faith for religions and speculation for free thinkers.
Plato based his stand on several arguments. First, he taught that good people receive rewards both in this earthly life and in the afterlife. He argued that goodness was not a means to an end but an end in itself. This was one of the basics of his teaching of the immortality of the soul. He believed that the association between the soul and the body served to deform its pure state. Despite the deformation, the soul retained a certain portion of its real nature with its expression in the longing for wisdom.
This argument supports his teaching that the destruction of an object results only from its own evil. As such, the soul can only meet destruction through its own inner evils. Plato maintained that immortality is the only affliction of the soul that can only harm it even though no evidence exists to explain the effect of death on the soul
Secondly, Plato used reincarnation to advance his stand further. At the time, the Greeks held a belief that everything that was in existence was in a recurring cycle that was eternal. As such, Plato believed that death and life were complementary and one came after the other. He gave the example of sleep. After sleep a person wakes up and after waking up, sleep follows. The same was with death and life: they were cyclic and therefore one came after the other. As such, the soul cannot die because there is life after death.
Thirdly, he argued that the soul existed before the body. He supported this statement by observing that humans possess a special kind of knowledge in the ability to draw comparisons. This is evidence of a pre-existent soul. He however claims that this knowledge is lost at birth and retraced with the special help of an instructor.
Aristotle Afterlife
Aristotle used scientific approach by combining biology and metaphysics concepts to explain the idea of the immortality of the soul. Aristotle taught that the unity of the soul and the body was crucial and therefore, the soul cannot exist alone without the body. He argued that the souls main purpose is development and that this is only possible in association with the body.
As such, the sole purpose of the soul is dependent on the body and if the body dies, then the soul succumbs to the death too because it cannot exist alone.
Aristotle further held the belief that the soul was responsible for the existence of the body as the source of locomotion and other changes. Based on this claim, he stated that the soul could not survive death since it was the source of locomotion for the body. The view that substances possess specific body forms enhanced Aristotles claim. He claimed that an inward soul that these substances possessed maintained them in existence. He viewed the soul as a collection of reason moved by a need for significance.
As such, different life forces that served different purposes made up the soul. Upon death of the body, these forces returned to their source leading to the disintegration of the soul. In addition, he believed that the body came into existence before the soul. This implies that the ability to reason developed before the ability to feel. As such, the body must have initiated the development of the soul hence its immortality.
Aristotle vs Plato Afterlife
Aristotles arguments are more plausible compared Platos. Platos arguments are highly metaphysical and complex to comprehend. Platos arguments are simple, logical and easily conceivable by the mind. The inclusion of scientific and metaphysical knowledge makes his arguments all-inclusive and easy to conceive and understand.
The fate of the human soul after death has been an issue of much attention. Most philosophers have differed over the issue and put forward theories and explanations to validate their stands. On the other hand, religion has maintained that the soul is immortal and survives the death of the body. Plato and Aristotle had their contribution on the issue and it is still today a matter of either faith or speculation. Precisely, Aristotles arguments are more plausible than those of Plato are.
Death and the afterlife are themes that have always been interesting for people and horrific at the same time. The thoughts about death and the beyond can send shivers down the spine of a contemporary person and the attitude of ancient Greeks to death was practically the same. The reason for this affinity of views on death and the afterlife can be explained by the fact that a contemporary person, in fact, knows no more about the secret of afterlife than an ancient Greek did. The only difference is that we know more medical facts that prove to be useless when speaking about death and afterlife from a spiritual point of view. In Ancient Greece, death was even more incorporated into the daily life of all people as death was prevalent among all people because of numerous military conflicts, diseases, giving birth to children, etc. The spiritual importance of death, parting with the world of the living and leaving it for something new and unexplored has been one of the most valuable themes of ancient Greek literature and art.
The mythological image of the world of the dead, Hades, a gloomy, dark, and wet realm, ruled by its namesake, Hades, is perfectly described in The Odyssey by Homer. In the eleventh book, the protagonist descends to Hades to meet many deceased heroes and those who are punished by Gods severely. A very picturesque statement is made by Achilles who says, do not make light of death , I would rather work the soil as a serf on hire to some landless impoverished peasant than to be King of all these lifeless dead (Homer 152). This statement shows that there was a strong opinion among ancient Greeks that heroic death in the youth was worse than a long quiet life. Even heroic death was still death and eternal staying in Hades could not be imagined as a pleasant one. Even worse it was for those who were in Gods disgrace, like Tantalus and Sisyphus sentenced to eternal tortures for their faults. The first, Tantalus, was a son of Zeus who stole the Gods food and has been deprived of food forever. Sisyphus, a former king who had deceived and killed his guests, was sentenced to endless toil, he wrestled with a huge rock with a huge rock with both hands (Homer 155). Thus, The Odyssey shows the immense fear and worshipping of Gods that were typical in Ancient Greece. They valued earthly life, worshipped the memory of the deceased relatives, observed and respected all traditions connected with aftermath.
Visual arts of Ancient Greece usually reflect the plots taken from daily life of people, thus, mythological plots and plots reflecting traditions are popular. Visual arts perform the function of a chronicle. Funeral motives are common on the vases and jugs that are meant to be used during funeral ceremonies or in daily life. If they are not meant for funeral, the representation of funeral traditions is a reminder for those who are alive to worship memory of the dead.
This abundance of ritual motives on the ancient Greek brown ware symbolizes the importance of living for their deceased relative. Their sacred duty was to perform all rituals that were necessary before the funeral so that the dead could reach Hades and enter it. In case, if the relatives failed to perform the rituals accordingly, the soul was doomed to eternal wandering between the worlds of the living and the dead, endless and restless wandering. This is why before final parting with the soul of the dead; the relatives were showing their grief and sorrow openly. The central role during the ceremonies was assigned to the dead as it can be observed on the krater belonging to the Geometric period (Department of Greek and Roman Art par. 4), where the deceased is pictured in an unusual position, on his side, to attract attention to this element of the picture.
However, after the euphoria (Department of Greek and Roman Art par. 2), the relatives tried to build something that would connect them with their late relative and symbolize their feelings to him/her. They erected monumental earth mounds, rectangular built tombs, and elaborate marble stelai and statutes were often erected to mark the grave and to ensure that the deceased would not be forgotten (Department of Greek and Roman Art par.2).
Grave monuments differed depending on the welfare standards of the family of the dead. For instance, the Grave stele of a youth and a little girl (Department of Greek and Roman Art par. 3) is a real masterpiece that has survived up to the present moment. The stele has the inscription stating that it is dedicated to a young deceased man by his father and mother. The stele is very tall and crowned by a sphinx that symbolizes the high place of mythology in the life of ancient Greeks.
Drawing a conclusion, it is possible to state that death, funeral traditions, and the concept of aftermath occupied significant place in the lives of ancient Greeks. They worshipped memory of their late relatives and their traditions and feelings found perfect reflection in visual art and literature. Still, aftermath has always been a hidden and unexplored area and it remains the same nowadays.
Works Cited
Department of Greek and Roman Art. Death, Burial, and the Afterlife in Ancient Greece . In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Rieu, Emile Victor, and Christopher H. Rieu. UK: Penguin Classics, 2002. Web.
What happens to a human being after death is a topic covered with mystery and confusion. People go out of their way to bicker and fight about their vision of the afterlife, of the void that one awaits after dying. They become so invested in trying to define their fate that they forget to pay attention to what is happening around them. Chuy, or Jesus, the main character in Gary Sotos The Afterlife, is a fifteen-year-old boy whose sudden and senseless death shows others the value of cherishing the present. The author uses magical realism to embark the reader on a journey of reflecting on life when nothing can be done to change it. Such a technique of combining reality and the afterlife makes the readers lose themselves between the two worlds, empathizing with the main characters as if their fate could be redeemed.
The primary purpose of Gary Sotos The Afterlife is to show the significance of human life and forgiveness from the perspective of those who lose it. Chuy, being a self-conscious 15-year-old kid, managed to discover the blessings of love and compassion only after he became a lifeless ghost whose days on Earth were counted. During a long journey coming back and forth to Yellow Shoes, a man who killed Chuy for a compliment, the boy discovers the power of forgiveness and love for others. The boy, whose insecurities catalyzed hatred for everything surrounding him, became the one to forgive his killer (Soto).
However, while he wanted to convey the message of forgiveness to his family, he could not do anything. No matter how ones perception of life may change after death, it will never have a meaningful impact on real life itself. Hence, it makes sense to learn these things while one is alive.
Throughout the story, the author manages to successfully combine the worlds of reality and the afterlife. At some point, there were moments when Chuy stood among real people as there was no line between life and death. The only thing that somehow disrupted this convergence was the feeling of chill Chuy passed on to Richard (Soto 15). Moreover, the interaction between Chuy and Crystal was so natural and down-to-earth that it was easy to get lost between the afterlife and everything happening on Earth. The characters could easily wander down the streets of Frasco and reflect on the places they saw. However, at some point, the reader may become confused about why no one can see Chuy walking around the Yellow Shoes house. The ones who died felt more alive than the ones who faced grief and injustice.
The use of the supernatural element of the afterlife provides a contrast to the storyline. On the one hand, there is a real world of frustration, grief, and vigilance. On the other hand, there is a world after death that manifests forgiveness and love. At some point, it almost feels as if one needs to die to find peace with the cruelty of the world. Indeed, it is reasonable to assume that letting go of hatred is easier when there is no way back. However, the perspective of innocent children whose life ended so abruptly shows that if they can accept their death, the same should be done by others. The cultivation of anger that goes on in the real world, along with the power of forgiveness manifested in the afterlife, shows the two sides of perceiving an issue.
Such a technique of transcendent experience teaches the reader the power of cherishing life. Once the readers identify themselves with Chuy, they feel nothing but support and love for him. The process of accepting death and forgiveness could be shown solely from the perspective of the victims families. However, the emotive response would be different in such a scenario. The magical component of being in the same spot as the ones alive provides the reader with a more powerful identification with the character. The technique of bringing magic and reality together provides insights into the perception of the storyline. Hence, magical realism is a powerful tool in the hands of the creator.
The paradigms of life and death seem to intersect only at one point in ones existence. This point is nothing else but death itself. However, when looking deeper into the problem, these two opposites go hand in hand. Gary Soto managed to bring these worlds together through the lens of an innocent and almost meaningful death. As a result, the level of compassion and empathy for the characters grew immensely. The notion of magical realism, in this case, presents how a singly story may be conveyed with the help of something supernatural. The Afterlife is a prominent example of a literary piece that combines ordinary life and magic to present the moral from various perspectives. The story of Chuy is the story of how imaginary narrative helps bring more meaning to the real one.
Work Cited
Soto, Gary. The Afterlife. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003.
The tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamun is one of the most significant archaeological finds in the exploration of Ancient Egypt. It is located in the Valley of the Kings and was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter (Sambuelli et al. 1). This tomb is referred to as KV62 in standard Egyptological designation. Compared to other royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings, Tuts tomb is less richly decorated and contains fewer artifacts (Sambuelli et al. 1). Additionally, some objects, including the sarcophagus and shrine, were likely created for the burial of another deceased but were hastily used for Tutankhamun. This fact is associated with the pharaohs early and probably sudden death, which required the builders and decorators to arrange the tomb quickly. The most valuable aspect of the tomb is the wall paintings that reflect the religious views of the Egyptians, as well as explain burial rituals and beliefs about the Afterlife. The tomb of Tutankhamun also displays many artifacts that have ritual significance. The most notable of these is the golden mask and quartz sarcophagus containing the pharaohs coffins and mummies.
The Valley of the Kings
The Valley of the Kings is located on the east coast of the Nile near the city of Luxor. It is the largest collection of royal and elite tombs of the Ancient Egyptians, created during the New Kingdom (1500-1100 BC) (Handwerk para. 2). The particularly dry conditions of this location were perfect for preserving the mummified remains. The Valley of the Kings is the burial place of the most famous pharaohs, including Seti I, Ramses II, and Tutankhamen, as well as the queens, priests, and elites of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties (Handwerk para. 3). Wilkinson notes that in later periods (950850 BC), many prominent tombs were afterward reused by other elites (12-34). The tombs located in the Valley of the Kings also have developed underground parts.
The Valley of the Kings is full of artifacts, making it an attractive destination for both archaeologists and robbers. Despite the fact that as early as 1912, researchers considered it to be fully exhausted, Howard Carter, in 1922, discovered the most significant and fascinating tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun (Wilkinson 30-36). This discovery was the last of the discovered tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Since then, archeologists have been exclusively describing and documenting the already known artifacts and monuments in this location.
The Coffin Description
Before proceeding to the description of the coffins of Tutankhamun, it is necessary to pay attention to the sarcophagus, which is a unique example of the funeral traditions of the New Kingdom. The sarcophagus is made of brown quartzite and pink granite, but the combination of these materials was rather forced due to the limited time or materials available (Farrant). On the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun, one can see the figures of four goddesses, including Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Selket. These goddesses in Ancient Egyptian mythology were revered as protectors of the dead. The figures are located along the edges of the sarcophagus with spread wings, which can symbolize the divine protection of what is inside (Farrant). Eaton-Krauss notes that these figures initially had only outstretched arms with no wings, and the text on the sarcophagus itself was erased and recarved (Shaw 56-58). These changes probably indicate that the sarcophagus, like some other burial attributes, is another adoption from Smenkhkare/Neferneferuatens burial outfit (Farrant; Shaw 56-58). Smenkhkare/Neferneferuaten are the names of the pharaohs who ruled probably in the second half of the 18th Dynasty period and whose burial outfit was used for Tutankhamun. This fact, in turn, may be associated with the need to rush to the burial due to the untimely death of Pharaoh Tutankhamun.
However, the rectangular quartzite sarcophagus is only an outer layer. Inside it is three coffins that depict Tutankhamun in the position of the god Osiris (Marie para. 6). The inner coffin in which the mummy was located was wrapped in linen except for the head. It is made of pure gold weighing over 110 kilograms and repeats the shape of Tutankhamuns mummy (Marie para. 7). The middle and outer coffins are made of wood and covered with a thin layer of gold and plaster. The middle coffin is also covered with polychrome glass pastes, while the outer one is equipped with silver handles for the movement of the lid (Marie para. 9). The figure of Osiris holds a crook and flail crossed on his chest, inlaid with gold, as well as pieces of red and blue glass (Wilkinson 112-118). The coffins are located one inside the other, and all of them, in turn, is inside the sarcophagus. Inside the inner coffin was the linen-wrapped mummy of Tutankhamun.
The Structure of the Tomb
The structure of Tutankhamuns tomb is fairly well studied and contains several rooms. It includes four main rooms; the antechamber, the annex, the burial chamber, and the treasury room ( King Tuts Tomb Layout para. 1; fig. 1). It is noteworthy that this tomb, upon discovery, was not plundered, which is rare for the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Despite the fact that the tomb contains almost 5,000 objects, the tomb of Tutankhamun is smaller in size than the rest of the royal tombs found, as he ruled for a limited time and did not leave an extensive legacy ( King Tuts Tomb Layout para. 3). The passage to the tomb is made of limestone, and the steps go down into the Valley of the Kings. At the end of the passage is a plaster wall depicting a jackal and nine slaves, symbolizing the royal power of Tutankhamun ( King Tuts Tomb: Entrance Passage para. 1). Behind it is another plaster door with the seals of Tutankhamun and numerous priests.
The antechamber is located immediately after the passage and is a connecting element from which one can get to other rooms. Again, compared to the tombs of other pharaohs, this room was more modestly decorated but contained about 700 objects such as couches, chests, baskets, large statues, beds, and stools ( King Tuts Tomb: Antechamber para. 3). From the antechamber, you can get to the burial chamber with the adjoining treasury, as well as to the annex (fig. 2). The annex is the smallest of the chambers in the tomb and contains various objects as well ( King Tuts Tomb: Annex para. 1). It is noteworthy that the door to this room is cut on the left side of the antechamber and is located between the legs of the couches. Additionally, the floor level in this chamber drops three feet relative to the other rooms ( King Tuts Tomb: Annex para. 2). Among them were items such as oils, foods, wines, pottery, dishes, stools, games, and baskets ( King Tuts Tomb: Annex para. 1). This room contained 280 objects in total that were located in disarray.
Fig. 1. Tutankhamuns tomb layout (Farrant).
The Paintings Description and Meaning
Besides treasures and many objects, Tutankhamuns tomb contains unique wall paintings located on each of the walls. Due to the early death of Tutankhamun, the drawings are located only in his burial chamber (Alchin para. 2). Each of the four walls displays different themes and plots, including the Funeral Procession, the Amduat, the arrival in the Underworld, and the arrival of Tutankhamun in the Afterlife (Nyord 1-8). Thus, the drawings reflect the religious ideas of the Ancient Egyptians about the Afterlife and the rituals associated with this concept.
The background of all the walls and paintings in the burial chamber is gold, which is associated with the rule of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. All the figures of people depicted on the walls are young, which shows the tendency of the Ancient Egyptians to idealize people in art (Alchin para. 3). Despite the actual heights of Tutankhamun, his figure was portrayed as the largest and stood out from the rest of the paintings (Cleveland-Peck 85-94). The Egyptians used six primary colors for their tombs, including white, black, red, yellow, blue and green (Alchin para. 4). Each color had a symbolic meaning and emphasized the distinctive characteristics of each of the represented figures.
The eastern wall of the burial chamber depicts the funeral procession of Tutankhamun. First of all, there is an image of Tutankhamuns mummy on a sleigh pulled by 12 people (Alchin para. 5). These figures symbolize the people closest to the Pharaoh. They are depicted wearing white sandals and bands, which identifies them as priests (white is also the color of purity and greatness, a sacred color). 12 people are represented by one group of 5 people, three groups of 2 people, as well as a lonely freestanding figure. Some of them can be identified by the elements of clothing: the hereditary Tutankhamun depicted in the crown, the two viziers, the chief treasurer, the General Horemheb, as well as the High Priests.
The western wall of the tomb describes the path of Tutankhamun to the Afterlife, described in the text of the funerary book, which is called Amduat. This book is the Book of the Secret Chamber and means That Which Is in the Underworld (Alchin para. 6). In particular, this text describes the journey of the Sun God through 12 parts of the Underworld from west to east. This path must be safe for Tutankhamun to enter the Afterlife successfully. The 12 parts of the Underworld meet the 12 divisions of the book and represent 12 night hours (Alchin para. 6). Additionally, they are also symbolized by the 12 baboons also depicted on the wall. There is also a depiction of the Solar Barque and Tutankhamun as Osiris on the wall. This plot illustrates the Egyptians ideas about the Pharaohs transition to the Afterlife through the Underworld and the return to divine form.
The south wall illustrates Tuts arrival in the Underworld, where he is greeted by Hathor, Anubis, and Isis. NetBet is the incarnation of Hathor, who is the patroness of Upper Egypt and also the protector of the pharaoh along with Wadjet (Alchin para. 7). Thus, the southern wall depicts the successful arrival of the pharaoh in the Afterlife under the auspices of the gods and his transition to the Afterlife. The North wall contains three separate scenes depicting the immediate arrival in the Afterlife. Tuts heir, Ay, performs the opening of the mouth ritual in front of Tuts mummies. He is dressed in the robe of a priest with leopard skin (Alchin para. 8). Next, the Heavenly Goddess Nut welcomes Tutankhamun to the Afterlife and accepts him among the gods.
Most notable are the three separate depictions of Tutankhamun, representing the Egyptians perception of the essence of the pharaoh. On the first, he is represented as Horus, the son of the god Osiris and wears a double crown (earthly incarnation); as the god Osiris (true essence in the Afterlife); and the image of Tutankhamuns Ka (Alchin para. 8). Thus, the northern wall most thoroughly depicts the Egyptians ideas about the Afterlife and the Pharaohs transition into it. Moreover, in general, the paintings in Tutankhamuns tomb illustrate royal funeral rites as well as religious beliefs. The texts on the walls are associated with the Book of the Dead, which describes rituals for burying the dead for their successful entry into the Afterlife. As can be seen from the paintings, in the Afterlife, the Pharaoh takes on his true god form and takes his place among the other gods.
The Religion Text and the Book of the Death
The religious texts of the Egyptians were intended to protect the dead on their journey to the Afterlife. Most importantly, these texts prescribe specific funeral rituals to be followed. The Book of the Dead is a set of rules that are reflected in spells created to protect the mummies and the spirit of the departed. These spells were engraved on various material objects to provide protection. In particular, Tutankhamuns mask and coffin contain the spell ahead of mystery (Lucarelli 137-140). This text concerns the position of the golden mummy mask and reflects the myth of how Ryo bestowed the mask on Osiris to heal his injuries. Moreover, extracts from the Book of the Dead are also on the golden chapels of Tutankhamun located above his coffin (Cleveland-Peck 85-94; Lucarelli 137-140). Spell texts could be engraved on any tomb artifacts and reflect this objects purpose in the Afterlife. In general, the Book of the Dead described how funeral rituals should be performed.
The Description of the Artifacts
Tutankhamuns tomb contains many artifacts that reflect the Egyptians views of the Afterlife. The most notable of these is the golden mask that was placed on the head of the pharaohs mummy. It was found directly in the inner coffin and is made in the form of the face of Tutankhamun. This artifact was intended to protect the face of the deceased during his journey to the Underworld and is associated with Egyptian mythology (Lucarelli 137-140). The artifacts in the antechamber are mostly furniture and everyday objects that were designed to provide the pharaohs comfort in the Afterlife. Most notable are the couches containing a hippopotamus, a lion, and a cows head ( King Tuts Tomb: Antechamber para. 4). They are made of wood and gilded and most likely were used for ritual purposes. Additionally, this room contains the throne of Tutankhamun and three chariots. The entrance to the burial chamber is guarded by two large statues of the pharaoh, facing each other and containing inscriptions.
The annex also contained various artifacts that reflected aspects of the pharaohs life. The most notable are the games, which underscore the early age of Tutankhamuns demise ( King Tuts Tomb: Annex para. 2). In addition, food, coins, and oils were contained in the annex. The treasury contained the largest number of ritual objects that illustrate the funeral rites of the Egyptians. In particular, the most important artifact is the canopic jars, containing the pharaohs organs extracted before mummification ( King Tuts Tomb: Treasury Room para. 2; fig. 2). The banks were located on a gilded wooden shrine with images of goddesses who protected the organs of the pharaoh. The jars are made of alabaster and have the shape of a pharaohs head with clearly traced facial features.
The room also contained numerous small figurines of the pharaoh and gods, also made of wood with gilding. The statues depict different aspects of the life of the pharaoh, and 34 of them were discovered ( King Tuts Tomb: Treasury Room para. 3). The treasury also contained 14 boats that had ritual significance and were intended for the pharaohs movements in the Afterlife ( King Tuts Tomb: Treasury Room para. 4). It is noteworthy that all are located pointing to the west. Thus, the artifacts presented in the tomb of the pharaoh reflect both aspects of everyday life and are of a ritual nature. They were all placed there to accompany Tutankhamun in the Afterlife and to provide protection for his mummified body and organs.
The Burial Chamber and Treasury
The burial chamber is the largest room in the tomb, which contains a sarcophagus, and its walls are completely covered with paintings. Again, the paintings in Tutankhamuns tomb are large enough compared to other tombs in the Valley of the Kings, which identifies a possible rush to create them ( King Tuts Tomb: Burial Chamber para. 1). Fraser et al. note that an enormous wooden shrine nearly entirely occupied the burial chamber (127). Inside there were three more wooden shrines covered in gold that protected the sarcophagus. The exterior parts of the shrine are decorated with amulets of Osiris, and the fourth shrine depicts the eyes of Wadjet (Cleveland-Peck 85-94). It is noteworthy that the markings on the shrine also identify that they were created for a different tomb (Egypt Museum). Outside the shrines, the burial chamber also contains numerous paddles for a solar boat, vessels for wine and incense, and lamps depicting the god Hapi.
The treasury adjoins the burial chamber, and its entrance is located on the east wall. At the entrance to the treasury, there is a statue guard with a large portable shrine of the jackal-headed god named Anubis ( King Tuts Tomb: Treasury Room para. 1). This room contained chests, shrines, chests, boats, and presumably two stillborn daughters of Tutankhamun ( King Tuts Tomb: Treasury Room para. 1). All of these items are necessary for Pharaoh in the Afterlife, which also illustrates the religious views of the Egyptians. The largest items in this chamber are the Pharaohs canopic chest and the statue of Anubis. Additionally, the room contained many statues of the king and deities, boats, and chariots. All items in the treasury were of a ritual nature and served as an illustration of the Egyptians ideas about the Afterlife. In particular, they considered all of this necessary for a successful transition to the Afterlife. Each item either illustrates the protection of the gods or is necessary for the pharaoh when traveling to the Afterlife through the Underworld.
Fig. 2. The tomb of Tutankhamun (Journey to Egypt).
Sambuelli, Luigi, et al. The Third KV62 Radar Scan: Searching for Hidden Chambers Adjacent to Tutankhamuns Tomb. Journal of Cultural Heritage, vol. 39, 2019, pp. 288-296.
Shaw, Garry J. The Story of Tutankhamun. Yale University Press, 2023.
Wilkinson, Toby. Tutankhamuns Trumpet: Ancient Egypt in 100 Objects from the Boy-Kings Tomb. W. W. Norton & Company, 2022.
Any argument made on the existence of an afterlife requires an extent of conjecture due to the nature of death itself prohibiting first-hand accounts of afterlife experiences. Evidence found within one discipline also often contradicts that of another. It is therefore necessary to take a critical and interdisciplinary approach to explore the evidence used to debate the existence of an afterlife.
Most evidence for the afterlife in Religion rely on interpretations from works of art, literature, or teachings, such as artwork found in churches (like the Chatres) depicting images of an afterlife [1] and literature that alludes to heaven, hell, or reincarnation [2]. Some examples include the Ancient Egyptian portrayals of afterlives through “The Coffin Texts” and “The Pyramid Texts” [3]. In religions like hinduism and buddhism, the afterlife is dominantly portrayed by art [4], like the wheel of rebirth which “visually communicates… the realms of reincarnation”, and their practices [5]. Other notable examples are the Holy Bible [6], prayers and fables [7], and anecdotes from those claiming to have experienced an afterlife [8].
However, it is acknowledged that since there is little non-human-made evidence within religion (most coming from texts or art), different biases can influence the interpretations of evidence [9]. For example, the most cited anecdotal interviews for reincarnation are from children [10], universally known for their imagination and creativity. Moreover, this evidence may have been manipulated by religious leaders in order to influence followers. [11]
Religious evidence therefore tends to lack a sense of objectivity due to being interpretivist and more prevalent in pieces of art and literature, and can lack a sense of credibility due to the potential use of fiction, imagination, or hyperbole.
Anthropology
Anthropological evidence can be construed from cultural and archaeological perspectives. The existence of an afterlife is closely integrated with anthropology because, although the biological inevitability of death is shared by all species, humans are the primary origin of death concerns and are the initial creators of heterogeneous systems of afterlife beliefs.
Qualitative social research methods are essential for making an ethnographic approach towards collecting cultural evidence of an afterlife’s existence, focusing on observing and interpreting contemporary societies and their cultures, namely death rituals and ceremonies. The evidence is highly interpretivist and empirical. Many global indigenous tribes still exercise systems of afterlife beliefs, which act as a relief for ambivalence and fear toward death. Especially for less developed societies, the existence of the afterlife affects a society’s cooperation, both culturally and economically.[12] It is important to note that anthropology originated in the West in the 19th century. Therefore, when interpreting evidence of an afterlife in native societies, it is often done under the influence of imperialism. Charles Eastman wrote regarding an afterlife among plains Indians: “The idea of a ‘happy hunting-ground’ is modern and probably borrowed, or invented by the white man”[13]; which also suggests the cross-cultural nature of the evidence of afterlife belief and how it is closely linked with other disciplines such as religion, history and sociology.
For archaeological anthropology, there exists physical evidence such as artefacts, architecture and texts that were used in the afterlife rituals. With the help of other disciplines, anthropologists can examine and analyze these using advanced technologies, thus providing a more detailed insight into ancient afterlife beliefs.
Sciences
Physics
An empirically supported idea within physics is the law of conservation of energy, claiming that energy and matter can only be transferred [14] Consequently, a deceased human’s matter only transfers through decomposition. This suggests that the Christian belief of resurrected bodies being of “incorruptible matter” is an “oxymoron and impossibility in our universe” [15]. Moreover, Galileo and Newton demonstrated that matter remains constant throughout the “observable universe”, evident through the observation of “spectral lines of light”[16]. This questions a physical difference between life and the afterlife, suggesting life after death remains on this plane of existence. Evidence from physics, which tends to be more objective, conflict with the interpretivist religious evidence. Overall, positivist evidence can be used from physics to suggest life after death is the entropy of nutrients from decomposing bodies rather than another conscious state of being.
Psychology
Ascent of the Blessed by Hieronymus Bosch, many believe that the painting captures the idea of near-death experiences
In psychology, evidence surrounding the afterlife is generally interpretivist, dealing with investigating origins of belief in the concept, the development of such thoughts, and near death experiences (NDEs). Belief in the afterlife has been proposed as a means of dealing with individual mortality: while enhancing positive death perspective, such beliefs also allow an acceptance of the negative aspects of death[17]. The idea of immortality of the soul may also be an intuitive religious concept[18]. Hence, some psychological evidence suggests that the idea of an afterlife has been constructed to ease the human experience as opposed to arguing for its existence.
NDEs are often characterized by the sensation of being in a different dimension, where the usual perception of space-time disappears while the physical dimension vanishes. [19]. Psychologist Emily Williams Kelly states that NDEs show that a form of consciousness exists even after brain activity becomes abnormal [20]. Kelly argues that “if our conscious experience totally depends on the brain, then there can’t be an afterlife — when the brain is gone, the mind is gone. But […] when the brain seems to be virtually disabled, people are still having these experiences.” [21]. NDEs can also be reproduced by drugs such as ketamine [22] making further psychological study more accessible. However, subjects are not definitively (irreversibly) dead [23] during NDEs, making the NDE argument for the existence of the afterlife potentially less credible. However, research conducted by the Loyola University Medical Center shows that even after being clinically diagnosed as brain dead, some patients continued to show electroencephalographic activity for 36.6 hours [24]. This is an example of empirical evidence that exists even in situations of definitive death, although the necessity for an interpretivist approach in such cases must be noted.
Evidence for the afterlife in psychology can vary between working towards understanding the nature of human belief in the afterlife and personal accounts; it therefore combines both empirical and subjective evidence. As the concept of the afterlife is an inherently human idea, taking a psychological approach to investigating its evidence is appropriate since psychology is the science of the human mind/behaviour. However, it requires the use of perspectives from other disciplines such as philosophy, making such investigation interdisciplinary.
Evaluation
Evidence for or against the existence of an afterlife can be seen to be very speculative, with evidence either being very interpretivist or positivist. While more positivist evidence decreases the influences of biases, afterlife is closely associated to wellbeing and choice and as such, subjectivity is necessary. Although both are needed for a more holistic understanding, conclusions from the different evidence conflict. This questions the credibility of each discipline’s evidence and questions the superior way into continuing to study this debate.
Magic and personal piety, were fundamental concepts within religion during the Ramesside period. Source A reveals the remains of 30 shabti dolls found in Nefetari’s tomb, with spells from the Book of the Dead carved in each, which ensured the dolls participation of hard labour in place of the deceased during the afterlife. This reliance on magic was largely a by-product of their religious beliefs. However, Shabti Dolls were restricted only to the wealthy and those of lower classes were expected to continue to manually work in the afterlife. Additionally, the Heart Scarab of Hatnefer, depicts the vitality of magic through life and death, as the Scarab amulet was worn by the living for protection, and by the deceased which symbolises new life. Personal piety also intensified during this period, which focused on gaining a greater connection to the gods. A wall painting, Votive stelae, reveals this with depictions of ears as a main focus of the artwork. The iconography of the ears illustrates how Egyptians wished the gods to take special interest in hearing their prayers. These sources interrelate to reveal how magic and personal piety were fundamental aspects within religion, often relied on through one’s life and progression into the afterlife.
Sources reveal that in order for a successful transition, afterlife concepts and mummification were crucial and must be followed. Source A reveals the cruciality for preparations such as the creation and placement of the shabti dolls to be a significant factor regarding their progression into the afterlife. In Egyptian belief, death was a transition, rather than the end. During this transition, the shabti dolls would accompany the deceased, thus adding to their importance. Similarly, a wall painting found in the tomb of Seti I depicts the Opening of the Mouth ceremony. This ceremony is critical for Egyptians to progress into the afterlife as it allows for sensory restoration. While this wall painting recognises afterlife beliefs and mummification it can be also be acknowledged that this artwork may have been an idealised version of the ceremony itself due to the bright colours and elaborate representation of the gruesome concept of death. Similarly, a relief of Anubis banagding Seti I, found in Seti I’s tomb demonstrates the afterlife belief that death involved personal interactions with the gods. These sources work in conjunction to express how afterlife concepts and mummification were necessary regarding death and the transition into the afterlife.
Tombs were heavily influenced by the level of wealth and status the deceased acquired, affecting the amount of preparation and enjoyment the deceased would experience in the afterlife. This is proven through the differentiation between the royal tomb of Nefertari and the tomb of a scribe, Roy. Due to Nefertari’s royal status and wealth, she was able to undergo more preparations for her tomb including use of the shabti dolls, seen in source A. Due to this, her tomb was elaborately decorated and obtained a wall painting of chapter 146 of the book of the dead, illustrating Nefertari’s journey through the 21 guarded portals of the domain of Osiris. The more extravagant representation of this ritual was to show her close nature with the gods and to highlight her elevated status through the adorned walls and spacious tomb. Contrastingly, Roy’s tomb was small and lacked such intrinsic, colourful scenes. Arched stelae found on the west wall, reveals his praise to the solar god, Ra. However, it contains rapid, informal sketches that have faded over time, making it an unfinished burial design. Due to its incomplete nature, it is subject to misinterpretation, affecting our level of knowledge. These sources cooperatively reveal how tombs during this period differed substantially in architecture and decoration, due to status and wealth.
In today’s day and age, the options for end of life care are countless and include nursing homes, at home hospice, live-in aides or visiting nurses and family support to name just a few. Most approaches regarding end of life care are often similar and include palliative care, living wills, aid-in-dying, “full code” and “DNR” in hospitals. Some people might argue that with more choices, deciding on an option can become overwhelming for either the patient or the family. The current quality of life and end of life care options are obviously better now than in early American history.
In the mid 1900’s, end of life care for the rich was very different than it was for the impoverished. Those with money had the means to hire attendants to care for them and their needs as opposed to people who were simply elderly, ailing or feeble. If a person were poor, they had to rely on their family for care or they would end up living life as a beggar or waiting to die in an almshouse, which is a house built by charitable people or organizations for poor people to live in. The residents in these homes were mostly drug and alcohol addicts, the mentally insane or unstable, other homeless people, and criminals. Also, if a person was sick and declining and came from an impoverished background, then death was almost certain. Leonhardt, David. (2006, September 27) wrote, “For most of human history, the average lifespan was considerably less than 50 years. It began to rise markedly in the 19th century, hitting 49 in the United States in 1900, and then took off in the 20th century.” The website Senior Living.org. (2019, July 25) states “There are many factors that impact the life expectancy of people and individuals. War, disease, genetics, diet, lifestyle, gender, and health are a few of those.” This does not include sudden death as with heart attacks and stroke, fatal accidents, and incurable diseases, dying is highly uncommon before someone loses their mobility, intellectual know-how, and sensation. While tragic in today’s world, dying at the age of 60 is considered young, and might have been the happy ending for a person from the past who accepted his or her death as an end to homelessness, poverty or illness.
Although the rich had more opportunity to obtain resources, they would still be lucky to survive if they became sick. Antibiotics and what is now known as modern medicine had not yet matured and money could only buy temporary relief but not offer a cure for the illness. Bellis, Mary. (2020, February 11) stated “Penicillin is one of the earliest discovered and most widely used antibiotic agents. While Sir Alexander Fleming is credited with its discovery, it was French medical student Ernest Duchesne who first took note of the bacteria in 1896. Fleming’s more famous observations would not be made until more than two decades later.”
The past also contained folk stories and fairy tales that often portrayed the elderly and frail in disturbing conditions. D. L. Ashliman. (2020, March 29) Edited and translated folk tales such as “Beauty and the Beast”, the “old hag” is a homeless woman who is ugly and impoverished. In the “Water of Life”, the youngest son and hero of the story is assisted by a handicapped dwarf, who is also unsightly and poverty stricken. One of the seven evils released from “Pandora’s Box” was old age. Just the nature of being elderly was comparable to being diseased with the only wish of having a swift yet, peaceful death.
Moving forward, sometimes churches, religion and health care would come together, one such entity is the American Red Cross and some think of this type of place as a “sanctuary”. In the past, churches or religious installations did not offer a general sanctuary to just any sick or aged person for end of life care. Only privileged, wealthy and prominent members of society had access to basic care at these facilities, even though the less fortunate had the same religious beliefs. These facilities resembled what we now know as nursing homes and were run by different types of religious groups. To obtain access to these facilities, even the rich would need someone to vouch for their good character and they would need proof of their wealth.
Since then, there have been drastic changes to the quality of life in the elderly. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016, March 11) “In 2016, approximately 15,600 nursing homes were in operation in the United States.” Through the use of insurance or self pay, both demographics, rich or poor have the same opportunity to obtain access to affordable healthcare. Also during the 1900’s, pensions and Social Security arrived as people were living longer and needed a means to support themself after retirement. Now, instead of anticipating their death, they were faced with a series of lifestyle choices. “How can I fully enjoy my golden years?” forms the opinion that the change in end of life decisions are now a golden prospect.
Modern advances in technology have paved the way for our lives to be prolonged for an uncertain period of time. Although most people will most likely pass away before they reach 100 years old, their lifetime can easily stretch across three or four decades. Americans today are trying to stay active and independent, living well by eating healthier and seeking early medical intervention in order to live longer.
In earlier years, cases of strokes, cancer, and paralysis led to the formation of pressure ulcers and oftentimes the affected limbs were amputated. Many of these cases were considered “dead cases” if they were rendered comatose or partially functional. Is wasting away in a vegitative or minimally functioning state considered living? According to the National Cancer Institute (2012, May 10) “The period at the end of life is different for each person. Their signs and symptoms vary as their illness continues, and each person has unique needs.” and “Patients and their family members often want to know how long a person who has cancer will live but that is a hard question to answer”. Recently, scientists are researching and using theories based on stem cells for the regeneration of healthy tissue to cure or reverse damage from disease such as cancer.
Today’s end of life cases are somewhat complicated because medical staff can not be certain that vegetative states or paralytic lifestyles will resolve due to modern medical intervention. Sometimes these conditions cannot be avoided or reversed even to a small degree. A physician tries to help these individuals by practicing beneficence and non-malfeasance however, once a person has declined to a worsened state, the question then becomes whether or not continuing curative care would be moral and ethical. There is still the question that comes up with no clear answer. Is it ethical to administer treatment when there is obviously no hope of a cure just to prolong life? Palliative care and hospices advocate for living out one’s final months or days comfortably; which usually means pain management until death, while others say that with life there is hope and curative treatment should continue. According to the website Helpguide.org (2020, April 15) “Hospice is typically an option for patients whose life expectancy is six months or less, and involves palliative care (pain and symptom relief) to enable your loved one to live their final days with the highest quality of life possible. Hospice care can be provided onsite at some hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facilities, although in most cases hospice is provided in the patient’s own home.” Unfortunately, modern medicine still depends mainly on helping people treat the symptoms of an illness, instead of curing it. Most hospitals in the United States have a policy that once care has been started it cannot be withheld. This is also true with life support, it cannot be discontinued once started as it leads to certain death. This is a decision that will be made by the family.There are many resolutions to end of life care, some creative, and some suspect of ethics and morality. For example, in some hospitals, medical staff observe what is called a “slow code”, where rather than trying to immediately save a patient; they prolong the time it takes to offer aid and any extended care can be avoided. This is done with the belief that they are ending one’s suffering. In the end, the outcome is literally all up to the individuals caring for you.
Death and the mortuary practices of antiquity are mainly examined through the lens of archaeological material evidence. From excavation we can infer the processes behind belief and rituals to some extent, often supplemented by written records of the time. However, death is surrounded by notions and concepts that are simply not tangible, illustrated by fantastical myths and notions of what ‘the afterlife’ is believed to be. Death, by its nature, is an event that is closely linked to emotional reaction. Therefore, it can be assumed that logic may not have always been at the forefront of mortuary behaviour, resulting in practices that can be somewhat contradictory and difficult to generalise. Despite this, groups have visible differences in belief and burial practice. In this essay I intend to highlight the mortuary beliefs and burial practices in Greece, Rome, Scandinavia, England and Ireland to explore how pagans and Christians were alike and how they differed from one another.
Among the most striking characteristics of classical pagan religion, is the acceptance of all manner of deities and customs. The fluidity present to adopt and assimilate ‘‘foreign’ beliefs reflects not only on the long-reaching nature of the Roman Empire, but the mindset of Roman citizens as a whole. These ‘foreign’ influences constituted various neighbouring peoples such as the Etruscans, Gauls and Latins, but notably the Greeks through Magna Graecia. (Hyde 1946, p157) To observe the extent of Greek influence in Roman religion, you need only look to the clear parallels between their deities; Jupiter represented Zeus, Mars stood in place of Ares and most importantly in this context, the Roman version of Hades was Pluton. His realm was believed to be the inevitable destination of all and there were no distinctions between good or evil in death, a concept that greatly differs from Christian beliefs of the later periods. Hades housed the souls of the dead who were believed to have lost their wit and sense of consciousness, a result of drinking from the waters of Lethe. (Hyde 1946) Thus, there was no concept of heaven verses hell in the Greek and Roman ideas of afterlife, it was merely an afterlife.
However, religion in Ancient Rome was contradictory in nature. As Hyde illustrates, “For the Roman, religion had no place at death, since the dying man had no reckoning to make with heaven .” (Hyde 1946, p158) Yet, while religion seemingly had no place for the dead, it appears that it did for the living in some regard. An overarching theme present in both Rome and Greece is that of purity and purification, which was put at risk by the presence of those departed. This is reflected in burial, as at Rome, pits were dug at the foundations of cities and capped with a ‘Manes Stone,’ that was lifted three times a year on sacred days. These days were deemed unlucky and it was believed that Manes could reappear during this time. It can be suggested that the stones in burials served to stay the dead spirits. To prevent the dead from lingering, proper mortuary rituals were observed and offerings were given. The Roman mourning period lasted nine days included ritual feasting. Though funerals were largely a private affair, there was a public holiday in honour of the Manes called Parentalia held from the 13th to the 21st of February. Not only was there a fear of the souls lingering where they were unwanted, but the bodies themselves were deemed impure. (Hyde 1946; Morris 1992)
Similarly, in Greece it can be said that the dead were marginal in society, expressed by their attitudes and replacement of previous burials, particularly in the Late Helladic period. (Kurtz, Boardman 1971) Strangely, this is in direct contrast to the meticulous, ritualistic treatment of the dead at the time of their burial and seemed only acceptable after the body had decayed. It suggests that the fear that spurred such treatment at the time of death was no longer an issue after a certain period, perhaps best expressed in the words of Garland, “Death is fully consummated when decomposition has ended.” (Garland 1985, p39) As with Rome, there were beliefs regarding the pollution death caused. The degree of contagiousness varied from polis to polis. Rules drawn up 400 BC by priests of Labyadai, Delphi state pollution to be a danger until the thigana was closed. Interestingly, the fear of pollution was not universal throughout the Greek World. Lykourgos of Sparta permitted burial inside the city and allowed grave markers near sacred places. (Garland 1985; Kurtz, Boardman 1971) Overall, it seemed rituals were key in both Rome and Greece to combat pollution and held greater importance than belief.
The fear of pollution can be illustrated, by the fact that burial in Greece and Rome normally took place outside the city walls, with the exception of children. Despite the end of adult intramural burial in Athens c.500 BC, child cremations and urn burials continued near homes, suggesting that there was less danger regarding them.(Kurtz, Boardman 1971, p188-190) Ritual preparation for burial included washing the body and hanging symbols of death, such as cypress near the door. Visitors purified themselves upon entering the home with a bowl of water, and the house was similarly purified using sea-water following the funeral. (Garland 1985) In Rome, rites were conducted for those who were lost at sea, an empty tomb would be erected in their memory. The gravitas of burial is best expressed through punishments received for not adhering to the practice, which included sacrificing a sow annually and branding the offending family to be tainted by death. Even in the case of cremation, a finger would be cut off and buried before the body was burned. (Heller 1932) In preparation for burial, the body would be washed with water, dressed in accordance with their status and laid out on a funeral couch, a coverlet placed over them. A coin was put in their mouth to pay Charon on their journey across the river Styx. The importance of burial led to the formation of Funeral Societies, where people paid to ensure a burial place for their ashes and the creation of the Columbarium. On the other hand, the poor were often buried in aforementioned pits (puticuli).
A key turning point for Rome was during the fourth century, when beliefs of death and the afterlife begin to shift. The ‘Edict of Tolerance’ was issued in 313 AD by Emperor Constantine, and Christianity gradually imposed itself as the one and only religion, a monotheistic religion, a sharp contrast to the assimilating nature of pagan Rome. (Ferri 2015, p117)Despite this, it is possible to draw some similarities of belief in regards to burial. Burial places had long been protected from violation in Rome by various laws due to their significance. One inscription from the time of Augustus prohibits their destruction as it was an obligation to bury the dead. There was renewed legislation against the destruction of burial places with the rise of Christianity. In 386 AD, an edict was issued denouncing thieves of relics. (Mark 1997, p40) Any violation of tombs in the fourth century was considered a severe crime and those found guilty were held in the same regard as murderers. Similarly, there was a continuation of early Roman law, that burials should be placed outside the city walls as evidenced from an edict in 381: “All bodies that are contained in urns or sarcophagi and are kept above ground shall be carried and placed outside the city.” (Mark 1997, p40 ) Burial between these groups may not have initially been separate, as under Roman law there was no reason why members of these two groups could not share a tomb. In the case of collegia funeratica, it is worth noting that an owner could not be excluded on the basis of his beliefs. Often, family members were buried in ‘family’ burial places and it is from these areas that the Christian cemeteries developed over time. Although the church was able to control their own cemeteries from the third century on, it is possible, according to Johnson, that mixed burials still took place.
There is little revealed from the synods regarding Christian mortuary beliefs and customs in Rome. The Apostolic Constitutions, describe the mourning period for the deceased, outlining that the third, ninth and thirtieth day after death should be marked. (Mark 1997) This practice is a clear echo of pagan traditions, not unlike other customs practised by Christians at this time. Additionally, The Synod of Elvira, issued two canons that deal with mortuary practices. One prohibited the lighting of candles at burial grounds during the day as it was believed to disturb the dead, while the other barred women from spending a night at a cemetery. (Mark 1997, p43) An important source for understanding early Christian funerary customs can be found in Augustine’s writings. He reveals that leaving offerings for the dead continued in mortuary practice for a time. He mentions Monica, who had been about to make such an offering, before learning that it was forbidden due to its close resemblance to pagan rites regarding the dead. The late date indicates that pagan traditions still held so strong, that the church had to actively differentiate their practices, to the extent that funerary feasts were also barred. (Mark 1997, p47)Therefore, though elements of pagan tradition can be traced in Christian practices, a visible effort was made to separate them. In burial, this can be observed with the rise in inhumations. Christians were largely against the practice of cremation, preferring inhumation from the second century onwards, though the practice was later abandoned by pagans and had largely vanished by the fifth-century. Indeed, at this time, writers began to note the differences in mortuary practices of pagans and Christians, as illustrated by Minucius Felix who noted that Christian funerals were quiet in comparison, and that they did not crown their dead as pagans did. (Mark 1997)
The mortuary practices of pagans in Scandinavia are considerably more challenging to interpret in comparison to aforementioned Roman and Greek beliefs. A passage from Snorri’s Heimskringla is the only specific description of Viking burial, though it was written centuries after Christianity had overtaken pagan traditions. As a result, it is hard to determine how this may have skewed his view on the subject. Aside from his writings, there are only occasional descriptions of funerary practices in the Icelandic Sagas, or from the observations of contemporaries outside the Scandinavian World. (Price 2009) In general, it seems that burial was quite consistent throughout Viking settlements, most favoured cremation with the exceptions of the Icelandic and Greenlandic colonies. Inhumation occurred, albeit less frequently. Beyond cremation and inhumation, burials could take the form of mounds, underground chamber graves and ship burials. The most iconic of these from an archaeological standpoint are ship burials which can be as small as a rowboat or extend as large as a seafaring ship. An example from Kaupang, Norway features a ship burial of four individuals, two women, an infant and a man on a clinker-built boat. (Price 2010)
Despite similarities in certain trends, there were still differences in the details of burial, such as the placement of the body, stone settings and overall construction of graves. Variation is also visible from grave goods, which ranged from small adorning objects to furniture and livestock. An interesting fact that Price (2009) also highlights, is that a large proportion of the population were not allotted a grave, and it is difficult to determine the reason for this. Accounts from Arabic writers, such as Ibn Fadlan suggest that they may have been low status, ‘slaves’ who were essentially cast aside. However, it is entirely possible that these individuals were simply buried at sea, or had their cremated ashes scattered. (Price 2009, 2010). Through the writings of Ibn Fadlan, one could note that death rituals of the Vikings seemed almost theatrical, his account referring to days of feasting, sacrifice and drinking. These rituals are likened by Price to the performance of a story and the extravagance of ship burials could certainly reflect this. Scandinavian pagans were subsequently exposed to Christianity, through trade, diplomacy, raids and missions, and by the middle of the ninth century there were churches in areas such as Ribe and Hedeby. (Thompson 2004, p38)
In an Anglo-Saxon context, the conversion of pagans gained momentum around the seventh century and by Alfred’s succession in 871, conversion had been underway for over two centuries. (Hadley 2011, p290; Thompson 2004 p27) Consequently, seventh century furnished burials are often regarded as the last pagan burials, but there is little evidence to suggest that the artefacts from these graves were not Christian. Many grave goods interred within seventh century burials have Christian associations (i.e crosses) despite that provision for the afterlife is mainly attributed to pagan traditions. The presence of grave goods and clothed burials, such as that of St. Cuthbert, express a desire to ensure that the status of certain individuals were recognised after death. (Thompson 2004, p33) Therefore, while not often thought of as ‘Christian,’ it is clear that grave goods held some importance during this time. Hadley (2011), suggests that many of these artefacts could have had ‘apotropaic’ qualities in mortuary practice. Materials such as white quartz were interred with bodies as they may have been symbolic of purity, an idea spurred from the ‘Book of Revelation.’ In some instances, stones were placed in the mouth or over the eyes, which invokes a similar image to the Greek ritual of placing a coin in the mouth, though it is suggested that this practice was influenced by the Christian belief that the mouth and eyes were “conduits of sin.” (Hadley 20011 p300)
There is a degree of uncertainty surrounding the question of what defines a Christian burial in a later Anglo-Saxon context. In general, it seems that the common answer amounts to relatively simple burials, but this idea is not truly representative of early medieval burial practices. Prominent features of late Anglo-Saxon funerary culture actually include; complex rituals, visible structures and various methods of burial. Hence, there are often difficulties in differentiating pagan graves from Christian graves. The reason for this appears to be that the church did not offer defined guidelines regarding the correct form of a ‘Christian’ burial. Thompson (2004) suggests that there were competing, regional Christian powers present long before the Reformation and thus, widely different interpretations of mortuary practices co-existed. To complicate matters regarding burial even further, during the seventh to ninth centuries, churchyard burials mainly encompassed members of the clergy and the wealthy, indicating that the majority of Christian burials at this time must have been located elsewhere. Therefore, it can be assumed that burials located away from the church, perhaps at family burial sites, do not always indicate that the individual was pagan and not Christian. The complexity regarding burial at sites such as Hamwic represents this. (Thompson 2004, pp29-30)
A notable change in Christian burial and ideology occurs in the tenth century. During this time a burial tax was introduced, revealing the privilege of church burial, although it later develops into a compulsory fee when churchyard burials become more universal in the eleventh century. (Thompson 2004) Additionally, there was a notable decline of furnished burial rites at this stage. This change is believed to have been a deliberate decision to distance Christian burial from pagan funerary practices. Variety in burial remained quite common on the other hand, with multiple types of coffins and materials to line graves, though stones featured prominently. This is the result of each individual church making their own decision as to what was appropriate for burial, or allowing the family of the deceased to do so. As a result, there were varying degrees of priestly involvement in burials during this period. Despite this, there is some evidence of regularity with which certain grave types occur. In the majority of Christian burials, the body was laid in a supine position and aligned from west to east. Evidence for plot rows at churchyard cemeteries also indicate some form of increased coordination. Thompson (2004), explains the difficulties in accurately surmising burial during this period, stating that “The very concept of ‘Christian burial’ is one of rapidly changing ideas.”
Thompson also explores the Christian fear of a sudden death or an ‘unconfessed death.’ This fear was brought about through the Christian theme of judgement at Domesday and the prospect of divine punishment, an intrinsic part of the faith. Confession or penance was a method of redeeming or resurrecting a soul that was killed or burdened with sin. Hence why the tale of Lazarus underpins much of the funerary practices of Christianity in the Middle Ages. In the 10th century, the verb lazarizare, (to wrap in a shroud.) The shroud standing as a symbol of sin and the prospect of the rotting body being redeemed. The matter of sin seemed to have been tied with decay of the body, an belief that was probably fueled by the presence of relics and the incorruptibility of saints after death. (Thompson 2004). This sentiment is echoed in Ireland in the seventh century, when the cult of saints begins to grow, illustrated in that some burial grounds became centered around a saint. Ultimately, holy human remains and relics became a commodity in Christianity. (O’Brien )
To conclude, death is a complex concept that toes the line between earthly and spiritual. Ideas of the afterlife can be wide-spread or localised, andthus, it can be difficult to determine beliefs and make generalisations regarding mortuary practice. Regardless, differences are highly notable. Christianity is largely defined by its core beliefs of penance, judgment in the afterlife and ultimately, resurrection on Domesday. While death is commonly not the end for the soul in religion, in Christianity this extends to the body. In burial, Christianity shifted the focus from grave goods to gradually simpler burials overall, marked with the cross for symbolism, and inhumation replaced cremation. However, despite glaring differences between pagan beliefs and those of Christianity, it is clear that Christianity was greatly influenced by pre-existing pagan ways of thought.