Category: African Americans

Although movies are generally seen as a means of escaping the everyday world to a few hours of fantasy, they can also have a profound impact on how we view the world around us, including our concepts regarding racial issues. It is through the analysis of film that we can understand the values and ideologies emerging from our culture and gain a glimpse into how the powers that be define us, a sort of ‘single voice’ that works to promote the status quo or to effect social change.

However, it is also up to us, as the audience, to determine how we will interpret these messages. There have been several theories proposed regarding how race is represented in the media. To understand the concept fully, it is necessary to understand how media influences society, with examples from the movies Trading Places, Just Cause and Crash used to illustrate these.

The ‘single voice’ typically belongs to those who hold the power and leaves very little room for differences of opinion. “Broadly speaking, the media exist in a very close, sympathetic relationship to power and established values. They favor a consensus view of any problem: they reflect overwhelmingly middle class attitudes and experience. Basically, this unfits them for an authentic portrayal of the black community and its problems” (Hall, 1974).

More than simply speaking of the news or documentary forms of media, Hall’s ideas encompass the world of entertainment media as well. He indicates that even here, where the goal is supposed to be strictly entertainment, the media continues its long-standing tradition of reinforcing middle-class society’s concepts of the world. “Above all, the media are defensive about the sacred institutions of society – whereas black people most encounter problems in these sensitive power-areas: employment, public discrimination, housing, parliamentary legislation, local government, law and order, the police” (Hall, 1974).

In order to appeal to the middle class, many of the films that come out of Hollywood tend to reflect the hopes and dreams of this class of society. This typically involves the concept that the lifestyle of the very wealthy is the only lifestyle worth having. It also reinforces the thought that it is only through hard work and struggle that one can appreciate this good life. The black man, and occasionally a woman, is allowed to enter this world only at the invitation and assistance of a white man while the typical portrayal continues to hold him down at the lower rungs of society. This type of portrayal reinforces the concept that black men are not capable of success and white men are not very capable of failure.

As Hall (1974) makes obvious, even comedies that are merely supposed to entertain, such as Trading Places, can contain several unremarkable messages that serve to maintain and promote the existing power relations within society, representing the black man as a necessary failure.

According to Hall (1974), the way in which race is depicted in the media reinforces a negative concept of race in society without bringing attention to the fact that this is being done. It does this, he says, by the way in which the media focuses reports and relates to the world. “The media tend to favor experts, privileged witnesses, middle men – whereas blacks are predominantly an out-group, outside the consensus.” (Hall, 1974).

Because they are an out-group, they are not permitted to reflect their society in the way it should be reflected, from a true perspective and with a focus on what is really important or representative. Instead, they are required to either conform to the predominantly white male ideology of the Western world by adhering to its precepts or are kept quiet and behind the scenes. This means that the representation of race is not true to life, but is instead a fabrication based on the observations of outsiders or a focus on the eccentricities of a vocal, but not necessarily representative, minority subgroup.

This means that only one aspect of society can be clearly understood while others, perhaps the majority, remain unknown. “The media are sensitive to middle class ways of life – whereas blacks belong to the skilled and semi-skilled working class” (Hall, 1974), making their dreams and aspirations significantly different from those of the solidly middle class, but never alluding to what those dreams might be.

Within the movie Trading Places, this kind of ideology can easily be traced. The entire premise of the film follows the story of a white man who grew up within a privileged environment and a black man who has always lived on the streets, reinforcing the Western idea of the ‘natural’ societal structure. Throughout the movie, the only time black men are seen is when they are downtrodden, struggling to survive and either homeless or just on the verge of being homeless, reinforcing these conceptions within mainstream society. At no point are black men shown to be possibly successful unless they are serving white people or have taken on a white man’s persona.

This point is finally made when the only way Valentine achieves any kind of success is through the hand of a white man, Winthorpe, illustrated by the rapid fire instruction Winthorpe gives Valentine as they walk into the stock exchange.

These racial stereotypes that reinforce the idea of the black man as incapable of blending into the white man’s world are brought into clear and deliberate focus during the scene on the train. This is at a point in the film when Eddie Murphy and Dan Ackroyd’s characters meet to try to steal the orange crop report from Beaks. Valentine gets on the train wearing the very colorful traditional full length robe of Zimbabwe and presents himself as a very loud, very obnoxious and very self-absorbed individual. Winthorpe appears in blackface, another flashback to the old days of blacks in cinema, and joins Valentine in his crazy antics.

This seeming contradictory action of focusing attention on the stereotypes being displayed begins to illustrate the important role being played by the audience itself in interpreting the movie. Although it had been proven by the Frankfurt School in the 1930s that media has demonstrable social effects upon its audience, further investigation into the theory in America illustrated why the idea of the media as an all-powerful straightforward tool for social manipulation was incorrect.

It was determined that the audience itself had a lot to do with how information being presented would be interpreted. “The viewer came to be credited with an active role, so that there was then a question … of looking at what people do with the media, rather than what the media do to them. From this perspective, one can no longer talk about the ‘effects’ of a message on a homogenous mass audience, who are all expected to be affected in the same way” (Morley, 2005).

This realization led to the development of Stuart Hall’s ‘encoding/decoding’ model of communication at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. This model suggested that the same event can be encoded and decoded in more than one way. “Messages propose and ‘prefer’ certain readings over others, but they can never become wholly closed around one reading: they remain polysemic (i.e. capable, in principle, of a variety of interpretations)” (Morley, 2005).

This polysemic principle makes it difficult to correctly understand the message, no matter how transparent it is communicated. The introduction of screen theory brought the text of the media back into the discussion regarding how media affects society by focusing on the idea that the media, particularly the films coming out of Hollywood, worked to ‘position’ their audiences in a way that served to ‘fix’ them into a specific perspective.

The film Just Cause also plays against the audience’s expected interaction with the racial stereotypes displayed in the action. The film depicts the fictional story of a black man placed on death row accused of the brutal rape and murder of a young girl, Joanie Shriver, in a small Florida town. As Paul Armstrong, defending attorney, investigates Bobby Earl Ferguson’s case, he learns that Bobby Earl was arrested on circumstantial evidence and coerced into making a confession through severe beating and racist attitudes, despite the fact that the sheriff, Tanny Brown, is also a black man. As the action progresses, the local police force is demonstrated to be particularly violent.

Other holes in the defense are exposed as well, eventually concluding that another criminal, Blair Sullivan, in the same prison, a known and confessed killer, killed the young girl. As information obtained from Sullivan leads Armstrong and Brown to the murder weapon and a close relationship between the police chief and the dead girl is exposed, it seems clear to the audience that Bobby Earl is innocent and the police chief is corrupt. Based on testimony released in a letter to the parents of the dead girl from Sullivan, Bobby Earl is released from prison.

However, this is not where the movie ends. Sullivan calls Armstrong during the celebration party and points Armstrong to a grisly scene in which Sullivan’s parents have been killed as they sat around the dinner table. Reacting to this in a scene that clearly illustrates the depravity of the criminal, Armstrong gains a recorded confession from Sullivan in which Sullivan confesses to having secured Bobby Earl’s release from jail in exchange for Bobby Earl killing his family.

Thus, it is discovered that Bobby Earl was guilty of his crime all along. His primary goal in involving Armstrong has been to punish Armstrong’s wife, Laurie, who had failed to keep him protected some years earlier resulting not only in the loss of his Cornell scholarship but, in retaliation for him getting off on charges of rape, his final night in prison on this earlier incident was also the night Bobby Earl was castrated by his fellow prisoners.

The film addresses the idea that the justice system seems to be discriminatory, even when those in the justice system are of the minority race. Bobby Earl tells Armstrong that once Tanny Brown takes a disliking to you, nothing good is going to happen. By giving the impression through most of the film that Bobby Earl is innocent, the audience continues to gain a conception that the justice system is somehow broken. However, there continue to be hints throughout the film that there is something missing.

The police who knew him prior to the murder indicate he was always mean while the viewer is never given this opportunity of prior experience. Another inmate, portrayed as absolutely crazy, is a white man who, Armstrong is told, refers to Bobby Earl as his final victim yet this same inmate quickly divulges his crime leading to Bobby Earl’s release. This behavior seems quite contradictory and begins to call into question the concept of whether or not race truly had anything to do with the sentencing. At each level of society, racial balance is kept – the boys washing Bobby Earl’s car are a racial mix, Katie Armstrong’s birthday party is populated with an equal mix of black and white girls, there is a black and a white criminal, a black and a white police force and a black and white truth seeker.

However, the racial sympathies of the audience continue to shift along with the revealed information. In the end, it is difficult to determine whether the film is attempting to reinforce or dispute racial stereotypes as the accused black man is revealed to be a depraved killer yet the brutal black cop is revealed to have ‘known his man’ and acted humanely to protect society.

The interaction of racial stereotypes is obviously explored throughout the film Crash. A good example of this is when Jean Cabot, the character played by Sandra Bullock, automatically grabs her husband’s arm as they are walking down the city street when she sees two black men, Anthony and Peter, walking behind them. She does this because she feels threatened by their mere presence, but they haven’t done anything overtly threatening yet. Her action immediately speaks to Anthony, who is already hurting about his treatment in a nearby restaurant where the waitress offered extra coffee to all the white people but not to him and his black friend.

Although the waitress’s treatment is pointed out by Peter to have been non-discriminatory because they didn’t want or order coffee, the waitress was herself black and they didn’t leave a tip, Anthony chooses not to listen to reason like this. In anger more than anything else, he decides to carjack the white couple because of Jean’s automatic fear. This confirms Jean’s fear at the same time that its reinforces the stereotypes of young black men, but it also presents some of the underlying reasons why young black men fall into this characterization.

The film exposes the more common human tendency to fall back on pre-conceived and often not well-considered concepts housed deep in their psyche, as when Jean grabs her husband’s arm, when determining behavior. As Mezirow describes it, the frame of reference is actually composed of two different elements. The first of these is the habits of mind, which are described as “broad, abstract, orienting, habitual ways of thinking, feeling, and acting influenced by assumptions that constitute a set of codes” which may be “cultural, social, educational, economic, political or psychological” (Mezirow, 1997: 5-6).

Jean’s action is habitual, a culturally ingrained means for a woman to seek protection from a man and a keen awareness of the dangers of living in the city in which young men acting alone or in pairs on dark city streets often do not have good intentions in mind when following behind white women. The point of view is the way in which these habits of mind become evident to both the individual and the people who are witness to its expression.

This is when Anthony recognizes her action for what it is and when Jean herself puts her head down in sheepish shame at having such an automatic and obvious reaction. As we become aware of our point of view through various experiences and events, such as witnessing a film like Crash, the transformative learner will examine their reactions and assumptions, realizing where they erred in judgment and assumptions and attempt to reconcile this new awareness with what has been learned, either for positive or negative effect.

Transformative learning in its most basic sense is the way in which adults more consciously learn to adapt and shape their behavior in given situations. Officially, it is described as “the process of effecting change in a frame of reference” (Mezirow, 1997: 5).

As Mezirow explains, adults tend to behave according to a set series of assumptions that define the world as they know it. These can consist of “associations, concepts, values, feelings, conditioned responses” (Mezirow, 1997: 5), anything that provides the adult with a frame of reference for dealing with the particular situation at hand, whether it be a simple transaction at the grocery store or an unusual encounter with an individual of a different race not typically interacted with. By recognizing these events and the associated behaviors, as well as the reasons behind these behaviors, the transformative learner can grow from the experience and modify fallacious behavior to achieve a more balanced understanding of others.

The movie Crash was released with the tagline, “You think you know who you are. You have no idea.” This suggests the intention of the film was not so much to illustrate and reinforce the various stereotypes people have regarding race and ethnicity, but to force the audience to engage with their own preconceived ideas regarding these issues and perhaps begin to confront the fallacies and realities involved.

The movie demonstrates how personal assumptions can blind us to our own habits of mind and thus bias our own perspective. Jean Cabot is honest enough with herself to realize her action on the street was probably provoking to the two black men, but her anger at being proven right in her fear causes her to act out against Daniel, the Hispanic locksmith, and is then forced to examine her behavior on a more realistic basis. Although she doesn’t necessarily change her assumptions, she is able to think about them, evaluate them and come to a more rational conclusion about why and how she feels the way she does.

In doing so, she demonstrates the transformative learning process for the audience. This is the entire point of the movie, to cause the audience to stop and take a hard look at one’s assumptions, whether they are correct or not, and come to new conclusions regarding their validity. While Anthony judges the waitress at the beginning of the film to have stereotyped against him and his friend as probably not being great on tips, Peter makes it clear that she had little reason to judge against them as she was black and they hadn’t ordered coffee, but that the stereotype of bad tippers did hold true in their case as they didn’t leave a tip at all.

The question becomes should one act out the almost automatic responses we have learned as a result of experience, such as the waitress in the restaurant who already ‘knows’ she will not get a good tip from the only two black men in the place, or should we reconsider our automatic responses and take a closer look at other people, as Jean suggests she should have done on the street when they were being followed by the two black men who carjacked their Navigator?

Each of these three movies was made in a different decade beginning with Trading Places in the 80s, Just Cause in the 90s and finishing with Crash in the first decade of the 21^st century. Through this analysis of these films, one can begin to trace a progression of thought that tends toward less stereotyping and greater emphasis placed on audience involvement.

While the earliest film reinforces the concept that the only successful man is a white man or a black man who has adopted white man’s standards and secured the assistance of a white benefactor, the latest film actively challenges the audience’s role in interpreting stereotypical behavior and social placement. Just Cause is demonstrated to fit perfectly in the center of these two approaches.

While it reinforces the stereotypical conception of the black man as criminal and potentially insane, it also forces the audience to think about the assumptions they’ve made, why they’ve made them and what it all means. Crash does this to a much more intense degree in its constant challenging of racial stereotypes and behavioral assumptions. Although Hollywood may play a significant role in how we interpret the actions and probable character of those around us, these films demonstrate that a great deal of responsibility for continued racial stereotyping remains squarely in the heart and mind of the individual.

Works Cited

Crash. Dir. Paul Haggis. Perf. Sandra Bullock, Don Cheadle, Matt Dillon and Jennifer Esposito. (2004).

Hall, Stuart. “Black Men, White Media.” Savacou, Journal of the Caribbean Artists’ Movement. Vol. 9/10, (1974).

Just Cause. (1995). Hollywood, CA: Fountainbridge Films.

Mezirow, Jack. “Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice.” New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. N. 74, (1997).

Morley, David. “Audience Research.” Courtesy of The Museum of Broadcast Communications (2005). Web.

Trading Places. (1983). [DVD]. Hollywood, CA: Paramount.

Introduction

Over the last 2 decades, media industry played a huge role in determining how people socialized in our communities¹. Media can greatly influence how individuals in our societies relate and understand one another. In the past, media critics have alleged that African Americans are prejudiced and underrepresented in the media industry. Similarly, African Americans claim that their underrepresentation in the media industry has not only stereotyped them, but also limited their roles in the industry. As such, the newspapers preserve specific roles in the caricatures depicting African American actors².

By doing so, the industry has enhanced stereotypes and prejudices against the race. In the research questions, the article below analyses how African Americans are depicted in editorial cartoons and in their daily lives³. Similarly, the article illustrates the racial stereotypes displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons and their daily lives. The article is subdivided into introduction, literature review, research questions, operationalization, findings, data analysis, reflections, and conclusions subheadings.

Literature review

Race is a term used by a number of people in reference to specific clusters of people notable by bodily features such as skin colors. Racism refers to a set of thoughts, which suggests the dominance of a single social group over others. Dominance arises due to differences in biological or cultural traits across various races. On the other hand, stereotypes refer to overgeneralization with respect to the outlook, conduct, or other traits unique to a specific cluster of people.

According to Cohen Karl, cartoon editorials depict different races depending on the stereotypes exhibited by the society⁴. By doing so, the media industry has enhanced stereotypes and prejudices against specific races⁵. Before slavery was abolished in North America, African American were depicted using coon caricatures⁶. The caricatures linked the African Americans with apes. Through this, the authorities were able to justify slavery. During much of the 20th century, cartoon portrayals of African Americans as apes were to some extent more understated⁷. According to Reeves Andy, a number of the anti-African American cartoon depictions were directed against the African American celebrities.

Given these challenges, newspaper editors and media stakeholders are now trying to tackle the alleged accusations⁸. Currently, newspaper editors are expanding their boundaries to allow equal representation of all races in the industry regardless of their race or gender. Through this, the cartoonists are encouraged to come up with portraits that do not depict negative stereotypes against any race.

Research questions

The research paper identified how the media industry plays an influential responsibility on how people perceive races. The media industry portrays how different races relate. In the recent past, the media has been condemned for meddling with the intention of realizing racial equality and propagating undesirable racial prejudices⁹. Given these challenges and the historical stereotypes of African American, the media fraternity should tackle the alleged accusations. They should try to expand their boundaries to allow equal representation of all races in the industry. Highlighted below are the research questions the study sought to find solutions.

1. Research: How are different African Americans depicted in editorial cartoons?
2. Rational: To find out what racial stereotypes, if any are displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons?

Operationalization

As indicated below, the unit of observation was editorial cartoons. During the research process, the variable was the African American race. To assess the key variables, a coding scheme was utilized. The coding scheme depicted African American race into three categories. The categories were positive, negative, and neutral. With respect to negative stereotypes, African American cartoons in editorial cartoons were depicted as beings with anti-social conducts and socially unacceptable behaviors such as committing crimes, carrying weapons, public indecency, deviance, lazy, and shabbily dressed. Concerning positive stereotypes, they are depicted as people with acts of charity, intelligence, hard work, and well dressed. With respect to neutral stereotypes, the race was depicted as open-minded and conservative.

For this study, the data were collected through field research. The method entailed acquiring public data from secure and reliable criminal justice institutions, face-to-face interviews, and questionnaires. Based on the above, it is apparent that to measure the key variables the extent of the above prejudices have to be measured. Usually, scholars find it challenging to quantity prejudice. Measuring prejudice is challenging because individuals vary in the manner and degree of prejudice they exhibit. For instance, an individual who comes up with belittling remarks about a specific race may be narrow-minded or just uninformed.

In addition, individuals often do not confess to being biased. Individuals may harbor inherent racial biases even when they do not have obvious prejudices. Inherent prejudices can be measured in three methods. Various investigators evaluate attitudes that point to the presence of prejudice in an individual. Other investigators observe conduct instead of evaluating attitudes. Individual’s conduct in nerve-wracking conditions may be chiefly beneficial at disclosing inherent prejudice. Other researchers measure the unconscious relations individuals exhibit with respect with a specific race.

To measure the effects of these prejudices to the African American race, a questionnaire was adopted to determine how people react or feel about them. In the questionnaire, the African American were asked to detail their perspectives about how they are depicted in editorial cartoons. On the other part of the questionnaire, several questions measured on a five point Linker scale were included. Linker scale is a variable measuring tool with strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree options. The scale was very effective because it indicated the extent of the prejudice in our society.

To find out what racial stereotypes, if any are displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons, the researchers collected data from the magazines and newspapers’ libraries. The data indicated the current and the past editorial cartoons depicting the African American race. The scale of measurement during the analysis was an ordinal scale. Reviewing editorial cartoons focusing on African American race published over the time the restrictive policies on racial prejudice have been in place is an effective and secure method of evaluating how the media has implemented such policies.

Data sampling

To achieve our objectives, appropriate data sampling tools were selected for this research. As such, the research utilized probability sampling¹⁰. The research entailed two units of analysis. The units were the cartoon editorials and the African American race. The population targeted by the research comprised of all the newspaper and magazines firms. The research comprised of 50 editorials from Globe, Star, and Post¹¹. On the other hand, the sampling frame comprised of the list of all the editorials sampled. The lists were randomly selected. The scale of measurement was an ordinal scale. The sampling criterion strengthens the study as it enabled the researchers to reach the targeted participants. The whole research was done within a period of 14 weeks.

Findings

For appropriate data findings, appropriate data collection method was selected. For this study, the data method was field research. This method entails acquiring data from secure and reliable newspapers. As indicated above, the research comprised of 50 editorials from Globe, Star, and Post¹². A survey was undertaken among three media. In each of the three media, editorial cartoons on African American were analyzed. The findings were documented as indicated below:

• 15, 10, 25, 0

To come up with a frequency table indicated below, several steps were undertaken. The above outcomes were broken into positive, neutral, negative, and other intervals. Thereafter, the intervals were grouped together. The intervals represented the number of prejudices. Afterwards, a table with separate columns was made. The interval columns indicated the number of prejudices noted in each category. Similarly, the columns represented the frequency and percentage of the outcome. Later, the researchers analyzed the list of statistics from left to right. Through this, the numbers of frequencies were placed in the appropriate row. For instance, positive outcomes were 15. Therefore, the figure was appropriately placed in the row containing positive stereotype subheading. The other outcomes were also appropriately placed. Finally, the percentage of each category was calculated. The percentages were then recorded in the column headed percentage. The frequency distribution table created by the researchers is indicated below.

Table 2: frequency distribution table indicating the frequency and percentage of each category.

Data analysis

After the data was collected, they were compiled and analyzed on a frequency distribution table. Later, frequency and percentage figures were obtained from the data collected. Thereafter, the data were analyzed for accuracy. From the table above, the researchers were able to identify the way different African Americans are depicted in editorial cartoons. Similarly, the tables enabled the researchers to identify the racial stereotypes displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons. Through the findings, the researchers were able to determine the racial prejudices in Canadian media.

From the table, it is apparent that a number of Canadian cartoons depicting African American are prejudiced. A number of the newspapers sampled depicted African American as beings with anti-social conducts and socially unacceptable behaviors such as committing crimes, carrying weapons, public indecency, deviance, lazy, and shabbily dressed. The percentage of negative prejudice was 50%. Thirty percent of the newspapers sampled had a positive prejudice of African American¹³. As such, the editorials depicted the race as people with acts of charity, intelligence, hard work, and well dressed. On the other hand, 20% of the editorials sampled had neutral prejudices of African American. The editorials depicted the race as open-minded and conservative.

Reflections

The strength of the research conducted is that it offered the researchers with a review of how African Americans are depicted in the cartoon editorial in Canada. The research findings are of benefits to the media stakeholder and activists. During the research process, a number of potential problems that are likely to influence the progress and outcomes affected the researchers¹⁴. For instance, the process of convincing individuals to be part of the study was difficult. For example, most individuals did not like to be involved in procedures that tend to question or investigate their biasness¹⁵.

Just like any other research, investigators were faced with ethical issues during their studies. Therefore, they had to be watchful when tackling ethical dilemmas encountered in the field¹⁶. The problem of consent had been recognized as one of the issues that were likely to affect the progress of the proposed research. In particular, the issue of examining the extend of racial prejudice in the identified individuals was a challenge because people tend to conceal information on prejudices against other races.

Conclusions

In conclusion, it should be noted that media industry played a huge role in determining how people socialized in our communities. Media can greatly influence how individuals in our societies relate and understand one another. In the past, media critics have alleged that African Americans are prejudiced and underrepresented in the media industry. Before slavery was abolished in North America, African American were depicted using coon caricatures. The caricatures linked the African Americans with apes. Through this, the authorities were able to justify slavery. During much of the 20th century, cartoon portrayals of African Americans as apes were to some extent more understated. The research paper above highlighted how the media industry plays an influential responsibility on how people perceive races. From the research findings, it is apparent that a number of Canadian cartoons depicting African American are prejudiced.

References

Babbie, Earl. Fundamentals of Social Research. Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thomson Learning, 2014. Web.

Booth, Wayne C., and Gregory G. Colomb. The Craft of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. Web.

Cline, John. Contemporary Communication– Content Analysis. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub., 2002. Web.

Cohen, Karl F. Forbidden Animation: Censored Cartoons and Blacklisted Animators in America. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland &, 2007. Web.

Krippendorff, Klaus. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 2003. Web.

Lentin, Alana, and Gavan Titley. The Crises of Multiculturalism Racism in a Neoliberal Age. London: Zed Books, 2011. Web.

Lynch, Stacy, and Limor Peer. Analyzing Newspaper Content A How-To Guide. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2002. Web.

Reeves, Andy. Cartoon Corner: Humor-based Mathematics Activities : A Collection Adapted from “Cartoon Corner” in Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2007. Web.

Reiter, Roland. An Analysis of Movies, Documentaries, Spoofs and Cartoons. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2008. Web.

Satzewich, Vic. Racism in Canada. Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 2011. Web.

Steuter, Erin, and Deborah Wills. At War with Metaphor: Media, Propaganda, and Racism in the War on Terror. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008. Web.

The Globe. “The Globe and Mail – Home.” The Globe and Mail. 2015. Web.

The Post. “Today’s Press Covers Kiosko.net.” The National Post Canada. 2015. Web.

The star. “Canada’s Largest Daily.” Thestar.com. 2015. Web.

Valleriani, Kathleen A. Community Feedback on Second Content Analysis. Chicago: National Reading Conference, 2014. Web.

Wilson, Clint C., and Fe Rrez. Racism, Sexism, and the Media: The Rise of Class Communication in Multicultural America. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003. Web.

Footnotes

1 Alana, Lentin, and Titley, Gavan. The Crises of Multiculturalism Racism in a Neoliberal Age. (London: Zed Books, 2011.), 123. Web.

2 Erin,Steuter and Wills Deborah. At War with Metaphor: Media, Propaganda, and Racism in the War on Terror. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008.), 32. Web.

3 Earl, Babbie. Fundamentals of Social Research. (Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thomson Learning, 2014.), 21. Web.

4 Karl, Cohen. Forbidden Animation: Censored Cartoons and Blacklisted Animators in America. (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland &, 2007.), 43. Web.

5 Wayne, Booth., and Colomb, Gregory. The Craft of Research. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.), 34. Web.

6 Vic, Satzewich. Racism in Canada. (Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 2011.), 61. Web.

7 , Andy,Reeves. Cartoon Corner: Humor-based Mathematics Activities: A Collection Adapted from “Cartoon Corner” in Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. (Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2007.), 54. Web.

8 John Cline. Contemporary Communication– Content Analysis. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub., 2002.) 56. Web.

9 Clint C ,Wilson, and Rrez Fe. Racism, Sexism, and the Media: The Rise of Class Communication in Multicultural America. 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003.), 21. Web.

10 Stacy, Lynch, and Peer, Limor. Analyzing Newspaper Content A How-To Guide. (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2002.), 54. Web.

11 The star. “Canada’s Largest Daily.” Thestar.com. 2015. Web.

12 The Globe. “The Globe and Mail – Home.” The Globe and Mail. 2015. Web.

13 The Post. “Today’s Press Covers Kiosko.net.” The National Post Canada. 2015. Web.

14 Klaus, Krippendorff. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. (Beverly Hills:Sage Publications, 2003.), 67. Web.

15 Kathleen A Valleriani. Community Feedback on Second Content Analysis. (Chicago: National Reading Conference, 2014.), 17. Web.

16 Roland, Reiter. An Analysis of Movies, Documentaries, Spoofs and Cartoons. (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2008.), 145. Web.

Introduction

Today, I want to talk to you about African American Greek Sororities. As asserted by Ross (2000), traditions and sororities are fundamental elements of modern society especially (165). Whether these organizations are used for shows before a large crowd, to conduct projects within cities and other urban settings, to support members within community settings and educational institutions of higher learning or fellowshipping over drinks, black Greek sororities aim at enhancing bonds that extend to more than friendship (Ross 166).

The principles and ideals that these organizations aim for in the development of brotherhood and sisterhood relationships that last a lifetime. This speech will thus focus on African American Greek Sororities in modern society. It will expound on the history, famous names and leaders that have been sorority members, and the impact these organizations have in society.

History of African American Sororities

The National Pan-Hellenic Council is a national organization that comprises nine African American Greek sororities and fraternities. The members of this organization are usually referred to as the ‘Divine 9’ and include:

1. Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority Inc. (AKA)
2. Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity Inc. (AΦA)
3. Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity (KAΨ)
4. Delta Sigma Theta Sorority (ΔΣΘ)
5. Omega Psi Phi Fraternity Inc. (ΩΨΦ)
6. Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity (ΦBΣ)
7. Zeta Phi Beta Sorority (ZΦB)
8. Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority (ΣΓΡ)
9. Iota Phi Theta Fraternity (ΙΦΘ)

Most of the member organizations were established during the 1900s. They have a strong African American affiliation especially given the fact that they mainly originated from African American colleges and universities that were existent in the 20^th century (Giddings 24).

Most of these sororities began their operation as civic movements. At the institutional level, African American Greek Sororities were encouraged due to the role that they played in the academic and political development within these institutions. It is due to this fact that African American Greek Sororities were considered as embodiments for African American students (Whipple 144). As a result, these organizations played a critical role especially with regards to the contributions that they had to the overall growth and development of institutions of higher learning.

Most of the ‘Divine 9’ members are existent up to the present day and age. These organizations have been able to cope with changes that come about with time resulting in their expansion to hundreds of chapters all around the United States. These organizations still have a strong presence in colleges especially during the orientation week of freshmen. Additionally, their presence can be felt during events such as founding anniversaries and homecoming. Given their impact, these organizations play a critical role in shaping the ideology, culture, and values of group members.

Famous Members of the ‘Divine 9’

There are many members of African American Greek Sororities that have ended up being influential individuals within American society. John Lewis, a member of Phi Beta Sigma ended up being a congressman of the 5^th district of Georgia. Lewis is a civil rights activist and the only living member of the ‘Big Six’ African-American Civil Rights Movement (Sergent 256). Thus, it is evident that the exposure and influence that he gathered from being a member of the Phi Beta Sigma played a critical role in shaping his career as well as his approach towards life.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is perhaps the most famous civil rights movement figure. He played a significant role in fighting for equality and bringing to an end racial discrimination during the 1950s and 1960s (Sergent 257). At this point, it is critical to mention that Dr. King was a member of the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity. Being an active member of the fraternity, Dr. King started to put his leadership skills to play. This was critical and played an important role in making him become a huge figure during the civil rights movement during the 1950s and 1960s.

Jesse Jackson, a fellow human rights activist was also a member of the Omega Psi Phi Fraternity. His participation in the human rights movement and the politics of the United States of America has ensured that African Americans enjoy their rights and equal representation before the state and the federal government.

Impact of African American Greek Sororities

Black Greek Sororities play a significant role in American society. These organizations play a critical role in representation to African American students in institutions of higher learning in the United States. It is through these organizations that these students discover themselves, develop their personalities, and build lifelong relationships with fellow members. Additionally, these organizations have also played a critical role in fighting for the rights of African Americans in the United States. Most of the civil rights movements as well as African American political figures have been members of these organizations and have played a critical role in ensuring that the rights of African Americans are respected and that members of the community enjoy equal representation at the state and national level.

Conclusion

African American Greek Sororities have developed to be an integral part of African American society. Starting as a student organization in African American colleges and universities in the 20^th century, these organizations have played a significant role in developing the personality and career of many African Americans as well as fighting for their rights. Therefore, their existence should be cherished given the positive impact they have on society. Thank you.

Works Cited

Giddings, Paula. In Search of Sisterhood: Delta Sigma Theta and the Challenge of the Black Sorority Movement, New York: William Morrow and Company, 1988. Print.

Ross, Lawrence. The Divine Nine: The History of African American Fraternities and Sororities, New York: Kensington Publishing, 2000. Print.

Sergent, Michael. “Volunteer motivations across student organizations: A test of person—environment fit theory.” Journal of College Student Development 31.1 (2000): 255-261. Print.

Whipple, Edgar. “A comparison of Black and White Greeks at a predominantly White university.” NASPA Journal 28.1 (2001): 140-148. Print.

These are citizens of the U.S. who have origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. In that, they are blacks who move to the United States due to certain reasons like learning and end up becoming residents as they work and carry out their activities just like the Americans. The males who go to further their education seem to become citizens of such a country as they have the right to live and work in the country.

These people have benefited from the advances that were made during the civil rights era mainly the educated this is because one is able to work and do other things that bring benefit to the country therefore they are seen as important change agents in the country with the contribution they make towards the economy of the country. The income level for these African American males is higher than that of the blacks and non-black American women this is because the men have a lot to do as compared to the women and thus make a higher contribution to t6he economy as compared to the women.

Such people face problems in the country such as job loss and unemployment during times of economic disparities and therefore they have no rights as the real Americans the gap exists between them. This is because working in the country does not guarantee you all the rights of a country and thus these people are given the less important jobs to perform even the educated ones. The fact is that there is no one to represent them in the government thus they have to face all the challenges of been mistreated as no one in the government to fight for their right. The life expectancy for the blacks is expected to be higher than that of the whites but this trend has dropped with time due to the care that is given to the white race as compared to the blacks. (Henry, 1992)

Individualism refers to the moral, political, or social outlook that promotes individual self-reliance and liberty. It is related to selfishness which is something that is seen in society to be a bad habit. The males in college have to be selfish to some extend so that they can attain the best skills and therefore the programs are not based on their morals thus they have to change the morals that they have and live like the whites.

These whites are given all the responsibility in the college meaning that no African American male in the college is able to follow the morals he has this is due to the rules that are placed by the college that they are not supposed to go against so they have to work their way through making sure they follow the college programs. One’s virtue has to be put into consideration in any institution but in this, they only put high concern on the whites as they have the rights and not the African American males.

It has been a problem for the country to have some rights for these people even though they are educated and some have higher education than the whites the thing is they do not respect the morals of these people and thus the right to do something and complain is not given to them. There is no liberty given in the college for the African Americans due to the fact that there are some rights that are given to the whites and not to them therefore no liberty of asking questions concerning something that is not understood and also movement is not all liberal to some areas. (Fridah, 1984)

Dissonance is a knowledge that an individual has in relation to something like the thoughts, values, and ether related things in the human know-how that enables the person to be able to make a certain decision on something the African American males faces a lot of problems in making the decision on what to do this is because in the colleges the gap exists for the whites and the blacks, therefore, one finds that the teaching criteria is very different thus they end up been taught things very differently.

There is a conflict in the learning of these males because the fact that they are blacks then it affects the college programs in the college as they have their special teachers and thus the education they get is not of the expected standard this is because they are trained on the minor things meaning that the conflict has to exist as what is taught is not able to allow them to work in the offices in the country. The programs seem to affect these blacks as they lack the right to complain concerning the education they get and thus they end up performing any job in the country that is of low ranks.

The people’s beliefs are not considered and they are forced to follow the available beliefs so as to be able to fit in the college but this conflicts with the beliefs one has and thus they find it hard to be able to tolerate the behaviors that are done in the college.

Immersion is whereby one is forced to learn another foreign language due to the fact that the activities that are conducted in that place make use of that foreign language. These people have to learn the language used in the U.S. so that they are able to understand due to the fact that the teachers use English in teaching them therefore the blacks have to learn this language so that they do not get problems in understanding what they are been taught. This becomes a bother to most of the African American men in the colleges as they are discriminated against in teaching because some of them are not able to top fully understand this language and thus end up not getting what they are been taught even if they get the worst teaching they are not able to complain.

Internalization refers to the acceptance of a set of norms established by people who are influential to the individual in that the person should start by learning the norms and then understand them so as to be able to accept them. The African American males in college have to learn these norms that may be against the ones from their country and accept so as to be able to fit in the college the program sets the norm that is not favoring them but in favor of the whites, this means that being in college you just have to follow the norms so that you can be accepted in it.

The interaction in the college is limited to the extent in which these people have to accept the norms by using the whites as their role models meaning that they have to understand why the norms are of value to them and they end up accepting even if they are not pleasing to them they have to accept. ( Charles, 1978)

Transformation refers to the changes that require different strategies, plans, and degrees in order to have something that is intended in a certain institution this transformation requires that one has to have the best plan in order to be able to reach the target. The programs in the college plan their activities in such a way that they benefit the whites this is because the rules and the lone up in the college are in favor of the whites. The blacks have to follow the strategies in college so that they can achieve the best education they require so that they can be important people in the country.

These changes make the program have problems because the future is not predictable sop they just make things out of predictions that the future will be favoring the installed program and will not affect the whites. The blacks are not given any liberty in any field in college meaning that the males find it hard to continue their education in these colleges is due to the fact that they are not given chance to say their views they follow that of the whites. Integration refers to combining the views of different people and be able to agree so that they can be used by others. The college has to ensure that the views that are in the college program can be of help to the learners.

The program should be able to bring the views of the learners that are the whites because the blacks have nothing to contribute in the program of the college they have to accept what is kept for them whether good or bad. (Ann, 1990)

The African American men are not given the right to have any contribution to the college program this is because there exist is the gap between the whites and the blacks in all field starting from the government this is because they have the citizenship but they lack representative in the government thus they have to face all the mistreatment that is done to them in the college and also in the workplace as they are given the minor posts even the educated. The gap exists even in the hospitals where the blacks are not given the right treatment like the whites the income level is also different to these people as they do not have all the rights been provided to them.

Reference:

Ann, p (1990). Black Americans poor education level. Durham, Duke University press.

Charles, D (1978). Higher education for blacks in United States and the challenges they face. Westport, Greenwood press.

Fridah, M (1984). Division in the learning for the whites and the blacks. Metuchen, Scarecrow press.

Judy, k (1987). Race different in public schools. Government research institute, Louisiana state university.

Henry, N (1992). Education for the males in the United States. Westport, Greenwood press.

Mike, D (1987). Education and the black authors for the common books. Washington, university press.

Moses, G (1994). The education for the afro- American and the consequences. New York: lambeth press.

Introduction

The goal of this phenomenological research was to scrutinize African American males’ perspectives as educational leaders in Atlanta’s high-performing Title I elementary schools to see whether there were any similar sentiments or views that motivated them to succeed in their jobs as institutional leaders and classroom educators. Kabilan (2013) established that to perceive phenomena from the standpoint of their research participants, phenomenological survey participants must surrender their own experiences and knowledge to the process in an authentic manner. Furthermore, according to Blase et al. (2010), “phenomenological research, the main reflection is by the person who has had a particular experience, and this analysis is a fundamentally centered on that experience and knowledge” Chapter 4 is a presentation of the data obtained from three African American male principals who lead institutions after having themselves had varied classroom experiences. Each African-American male respondent offered facts about his academic experience via his perspectives on high student and teacher achievement and culture at their current institutions. This chapter covers the results of the information collected and processed methodologically. (The discoveries, bizarre cases, themes, correlations, issues, evidence of competency, and the conclusion.) The participants examined whether their educational experiences were treasured and whether this influenced their intentions to become lifelong instructional leaders in metropolitan (Atlanta). The purpose of the study was based on the following prevailing research questions:

Data Saturation

In qualitative research and data gathering, the goal with sample size is to reach a moderate degree of data saturation (Gatson & Enslin, 2021).Considering that additional data would alter the themes and findings of a detailed analysis (Gatson & Enslin, 2021). I was extremely fortunate to get 3 of the 5 in the state that met the high-performing student assessment criteria (Georgia Department of Education, 2017). Here, in the state of Georgia and even in metropolitan Atlanta, there were relatively few African-American male principals that led high-performing Title I elementary schools.

General Description of Study Participants

The qualitative sampling included three African-American male principals aged 44 to 60 from high-performing Title I elementary schools in metropolitan Atlanta who self-identified as administrators with prior experience as educational leaders and classroom instructors. Each participant’s identity was concealed using a pseudonym. Participant 1 (“QQ”) is 60 years old, has been in education for more than 30 years and received an athletic scholarship from a state funded PWI University. He also strongly advocates for “Servant Leadership and Coaching,” as well as Military Veterans. Participant 2 (“BB”) is in his mid-forties and received an academic scholarship from one of the four Ivy League colleges with universities with campus-based ROTC programs in the early 2000s. He also graduated law school, is a member of a fraternity, and raucously supports “Merit-Based Initiatives and Incentives for recruiting new teachers.” Participant 3 (“TT”) is in his late forties. He is the son of immigrant caregivers from the Caribbean. He graduated on music endowment from a southern HBCU and he supports “community-based institutions and programs to enhance the new teacher experience.” The data and knowledge acquired from all the respondent assessments complemented the information collected from the questionnaire items and provided insight into how an instructional leader affected the personal lives and vocational choices of others from similar backgrounds in their respective schools and communities. The participant profiles also revealed their decision to be instructional leaders as a pathway to give back to their community. Qualitative research is based on remarks made by study participants about their previous experiences and is intended to reflect the true essence and meaningfulness of their experiences (Gatson & Enslin, 2021). Ultimately leading to a better understanding of the research questions regarding the continuum of the national shortage of African American males in classrooms contrasted to increased African American male student enrollment. Background data was necessary for this investigation because it immensely added validity to the research findings.

Demographics of Study Participants

The personal attributes of the principals chosen to engage in this qualitative phenomenological study are shown in Table 1. The researcher spoke with three African American principals of high-performing Title I elementary schools in metropolitan Atlanta, all of whom were male. The survey respondents were succinctly aligned with the research questions and agreed to be authentic in their responses to the questionnaire under the guise and protection of anonymity. The respondents’ average years of employment in public education were 17 years; their average duration as principal was 8 years. All three individuals had completed Master’s degrees, and one had completed a doctoral degree. The researcher aimed to secure the participation of all respondents through an initial e-mail and follow-up conversation aligned with IRB protocols. Multiple districts in metropolitan Atlanta were solicited but in the entire state, only five principals eventually met the stated criteria. As soon as three responded positively and their districts approved; data collection proceeded seamlessly.

Table 1: Participants’ Individual Attributes

Education and Professional Experience

The main participants in this qualitative research had a diverse variety of experiences as institutional leaders and classroom educators. The respondents’ expertise in public education as leaders ranged from 10 to 30 years, with the typical respondent having 17 years of involvement in leadership and education. One of the administrators had a little more than 10 years of professional experience with 2 in the classroom and 8 as an elementary school principal. Ironically and discovered after interviewing each, they have not crossed each other either personally or professionally. Metropolitan Atlanta is expansive and African-American male principals at the elementary school level in Georgia are rare (Georgia Department of Education, 2017). The most accomplished respondent has 30 years’ experience in the field of education. All the participants have earned a master’s degree, and one held an earned a doctorate. As indicated in Table 2, the three participants’ school administrator experiences varied from 8 to 30 years, with the average of all people taking part having 10 + years combined of experience as teachers and administrators.

Table 2: Professional Preparation of Participants

Data Gathering Procedures

Semi-structured interview questions were used to obtain data for this study. Because observational research and instructional practice had not been witnessed, and prior events could not be replicated, a semi-structured, virtual interviewing technique was chosen. Furthermore, Blasé et al. (2010) claimed that this interview procedure is the most effective approach for gathering case research for qualitative findings. An initial phone discussion was held for all administrators (principals), with the option of a face-to-face, phone, or virtual assessment. Each respondent chose virtual conversations (due to COVID concerns), which were documented using both digital recordings and audio recording software installed on the researchers’ computer. Audio files were tagged and preserved in each virtual instance. The survey procedure grid was used to capture written reports of each participant’s answers while the researcher performed the interview. As the virtual interviews were ending, participants were given the chance to add or remove material that had been recorded.

To gain clarity and a better knowledge of the message that the participants wanted to share, a follow-up questionnaire was performed due to the participants’ (principals) busy schedules. Each person’s verbal files were given a case number, and everyone’s transcript was assigned letters of the alphabet (QQ, TT, and BB) as an identity to safeguard their confidentiality. The data from the audiotapes were transcribed by me, the primary researcher as prescribed in qualitative research (Blase et al., 2010). An informal journal was utilized to generate a chart to classify the replies depending on the research questions. The transcribed content was coded using a highlighted approach to see whether any comparable themes appeared aligned with the Van Kaam methodology (Blasé et al., 2010). The word “trouble” was emphasized in dark pink if it was used. Other crucial comments were checked, such as “teachers didn’t care,” and identical phrases were categorized depending on the growing themes. According to a multitude of studies, the initial stage in data analysis is always coding and identification (Garcia et al., 2016). During this stage, the researcher discovers ideas, concepts, activities, and relevant indicators that eventually formulate themes.

Each interview was done in a different setting and was documented in its entirety. The researcher used the 7-step method for phenomenological research to transcribe and analyze the data after each discussion (Garcia et al., 2016). To ensure the accuracy of responses, each participant was given an electronic or hard copy of their transcript to check answers. None of the participants added to or clarified the transcript (Gaston & Enslin, 2021). The transcripts were analyzed for first-order themes derived from and paired with participant statements. The transcripts were also reviewed by a peer who coded the comments to ensure accuracy, and then compared to the researcher’s findings. Both reviewers’ codes were similar, and some were identical. The transcripts were independently reviewed after the first clustering of codes to identify second-order themes by grouping codes that were similar in meaning. All of this aligned with the Van Kaam methodology and protocols that permeated the Chapter 3, Methodology.

Path-Goal Theoretical Framework and Participant’s Terminology

Although, in earlier chapters terms and definitions were provided to add clarity, the study participant’s responses warranted certain key terms being revisited aligned with the study’s Path-Goal theoretical framework. The Path-Goal Theory framework requires keeping the exact words of the study participants in place to ensure authenticity and essence in coming to results and conclusions for the ultimate research findings (Evans, 1970). The exact terms used by the study participants were synonymous in meaning but quite a bit different in sound. Terms such as youngsters and pupils permeated their responses and Title I was rarely said. The phrases urban schools or poverty schools were said often though high-performing Title I elementary schools was the identifier and common denominator mentioned in earlier chapters. The investigator was always aware of what was being communicated during the interview and did not expend time having the study participants modify their word choice and answers.

. Again, Path-Goal Theory satisfaction implies that an organizational leader that is clear in their vision and concise in their communication will prosper their organization and produce results conducive to growth, achievement, and goal (Heck & Hallinger, 2014). The Path Goal Theory all participants were keen in touting accomplishments and accolades for their Title I institutions

The questionnaire used in the interview of study participants and ultimately the research questions themselves were too aligned with Path-Goal Theory in that they too elicited responses that speak to inspiration, aspiration, and goals satisfaction (Evans, 1970; Heck & Hallinger, 2014). The only difficult interview question related to the Path-Goal Theory was regarding employee evaluations. All three study participants indicated in some form (responses), or another evaluator(s) was neither competent enough nor knowledgeable as to all the job of elementary school principal of a Title I institution truly entails (Heck & Hallinger, 2014).

Not rising to the superintendent level of school systems in this research; most Path-Goal Theory speaks to that level CEO stating objectives and those personnel underneath executing those objectives and being rewarded for their success through compensation and bonuses (Heck & Hellinger, 2014). Salary and compensation are entities made public in the state of Georgia; but most employee evaluations are not. A touchy subject, as deemed by the investigator; therefore, evaluations were not delved into. The state’s recognition of high-performing was elevated in this research well above individual employee evaluations.

References

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The introduction of African American Studies in the curriculums has had a lot of support as well as disapprovals regarding the content coverage. This paper forms an analysis of the challenges and the right Trans or multi-disciplinary approaches required to contribute to growth and development of the studies.

The first challenges the researchers of these studies have to face include the Geographical boundaries. Evidently, most analysis and writings of the studies have dealt with the African Americans in the United States thus losing the discipline’s global significance.

This come within reach of truth shuts the historical, social and cultural influences of African heritage outside the U.S.A. The studies ought to apply distinctive and appropriate analytical techniques that assist in studying of specific circumstances that captures and accounts for experiences of all the major societies of the African Diaspora especially outside the American setting. (Green, 2001)

Secondly, the worldview of African-American studies need well representation and understanding. African worldview consists of values and believes of people with African decent to shape their inter-personal relationship. There studies ought to dwell upon the relationship of people and the environment without denying the wide variation regarding values and believes that assist to distinguish them from people of different origin. According to Irele (2001), the notion regarding African worldview entails the mode of expression for the shared values or believes without uniformly basing the studies upon particular system or a set of practices.

The challenge most Africana researchers and writers have to tackle today entails ways of combating a notion that “traditional African beliefs are historical relic of pre-modern life.” (Irele, 2001) A lot of writing has distorted experience of African Americans. The procedure of examining the extent of evolution involving variants of African origin would be a strategy to addressing of the human problems among people of African origin without confinement to a specific region.

There is need for a more accurate understanding of the complexity involved in the experiences of the African people. This is a measure to understand the history and contemporary efforts of people. They are shaping their destiny, as opposed to the perception that Africa-Americans are people who wait to consume the western ideas or products.

The paradigm of unity is an important aspect of the African-American studies and many writers/researchers have taken it as a major contributor to the social studies discipline. It is an important feature that offers periodical perspective of the Black people. The adequacy of the paradigm requires great thoughts due to the flow required in a text and the fact that the aspect requires constant updating thus continuous research findings.

In line with Green (2001), there is need to introduce and embrace the interdisciplinary approach of teaching the subject by enabling a foundation that supports major expansions especially in the upper division of the graduate or undergraduate level of studies. The current curriculum follows the department based structure of the academic organization especially in most higher institutions of education that have familiar chapters like the history, social science, or politics.

The conventional wisdom is not enough to acquaint the readers with all the required detail. The alternative ways such as hypothesis and other data sourcing procedures that assist in interpreting experiences not considered within the boundaries of the subject.

There is a wide distinction between the various approaches used for instructing scholars with respect to the Africana studies. People must differentiate between interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary procedures of blending or integrating theories of a study. Multidisciplinary process of studying entails a conscious effort to examine the subject matter using various approaches either sequentially or in a parallel format.

For instance, a research topic tackled by various contributors form different disciplines. On the other hand, interdisciplinary approach entails blending of theories and methods from various disciplines of an individual study. Both the methods are reactive in relation to the boundaries set by the traditional disciplines.

Today, people should decide to adopt trans-disciplinary approach that rejects the existing disciplinary boundaries to diversify the subject and synthesize various approaches of understanding the world to acquire extra information. This is a big challenge because the current trends of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches continue to shape the Africana studies as a study subject lacking progressive interpretation of the culture. (Green, 2001)

There have been great omissions of literature concerning women in the past African-American studies. Current research studies ought to address appropriate strategies to enhance the contributions or manifests of women. The contribution should not be gender biased but treated in parallel by fully integrating the women side of events rather than picking their study as an add-on to that of male.

Women have widely contributed to the liberation struggle and today it is evident that they equally and possibly playing the role of leadership in a better way especially in areas pertaining education, maintenance of the family, working and politics.

Lastly, the biggest challenge requires clear articulation concerns the name used for the studies. Various titles vary from Blacks studies, African studies, Afro-American studies, Africana, Africa-logy and the most common African American studies. The terms are different and possibly portray different meaning while they cater for the same discipline. Lingual perceptions of suffixes and prefixes bring about wide differences and the unmodified topic gives people too much room to diversify the studies beyond the requirements.

References

Green, Charles. (2001). Manufacturing powerlessness in the black Diaspora: inner-city youth and the new global frontierWalnut Creek, CA: AltaMira press Publishers

Irele, Abiola. (2001). The African imagination: literature in Africa & the Black Diaspora.
Oxford; New York: Oxford University press Publishers

African Americans are citizens of United States of America forming an African American ethnic minority group whose ancestral land is Africa. Perhaps one of the poignant questions to ask is on how these African descendants arrived in America. From the age period of 1620 to around 1865, there was massive slave trade taking place in Africa to the west especially in countries like France, Belgium and England. In the west, these captives intermarried themselves and with white people, hence siring the African American ethnic group.

As captives, the group faced serious challenges composing of racial discrimination, prejudice and segregation. The white Americans took them as tools and elements of hard labor with poor or no pay in return. Moreover, these African Americans had no right to do anything leave alone airing their own views or making their own decisions.

The dual labor market hit them hard as most of them were not educated and even if the white Americans allowed them to go to school, education was expensive for them. In addition to that, the white Americans did not allow black American children to sit in the same class with their white counterparts. Redlining became common in those days (Kolchin, 1994, pp.78-83).

The American history denotes that, even if the labor market became decentralized, African American ethnic minority group had little knowledge on the operation of these markets. Low level of knowledge meant derailment of African Americans from acquiring high stake office jobs perceived to belong to white Americans only. The only place for work available for the African American minorities was hard labor jobs like digging and other manual activities (Beijborn, 1996, Para.5-7).

The environmental setup of the black people in America did not allow them to question the deeds of the white man and the inequalities they met. In unison, the African Americans struggled in vain to meet their liberties albeit a myriad of obstacles. In return, the white Americans fought mercilessly to deny them civil right liberties.

For example, they had no right to neither vote nor choose a leader of their own. Segregation became dominant right from education to food to clothing and accommodation. In the south of America, segregation laws applied strongly eliminating black Americans from schooling in white schools. The white Americans barred African Americans from achieving federal rights like employment rights as a form of discriminating them (Magar, 2009, Para.2-8).

Another issue of concern was affirmative action, which violated the rights of women. Sexual harassment to black women was common, leading to race ethnic clashes. Race ethnic sex generated racism imperfectly. Consequently, racism took precedent so strong to quicken liberation front then civil war escalated.

In fact, for every three white Americans killed, about fifty African Americans died as well. To prove these facts, during the electoral process of 1867, a gang called Ku Klux Klan terrorized, maimed, and massacred black Americas with authority from the elite white Americans.

There was prejudice and segregation to any African American who dared to vote or take formal education. However, not all white Americans were happy with the ongoing discriminations, prejudices and racism attacks. A quite high percentage of white Americans supported the move while others rejected it vehemently and hence subjected themselves to attacks.

African American prejudice, discrimination and segregation exist even up to today in America. To end these vices, African Americans formed civil rights movements to liberate them and assign them freedom. Through liberation, mass murder and execution of civil rights kingpins like martin Luther King and others, the war became almost a success. However, even up to today the prejudices and discriminations including still hold is an American society (Hooker, 1999, Para. 6, 8-9).

In conclusion, the civil rights act of 1964 rescued African Americans from incessant segregations in employment bureaus, political, economic arena including involvements in doing business hence, stabilizing their economic standards. The climax of their liberation and perhaps the greatest achievement of black and white supremacy in United States of America is the election of Barack Obama as the as the first black president.

Reference List

Beijbom, U. (1996.) A Review of Swedish Emigration to America. European Emigration. Web.

Hooker, R. (1999). African-Americans in the American Revolution. Web.

Kolchin, P. (1994). American Slavery: 1619-1877. New York: Hill and Wang.

Magar, P. (2009). Racism against African Americans. Buzzle. Web.

Although the merging of the nations is the most widespread tendency all around the modern world, and especially in the USA, with its “melting pot” conception, some peoples are trying o keep their traditions safe for the future generation. Still involved into the process of the nations’ fusion, these people are cast into a completely new nationality, with its own tradition and lifestyle.

At present, there are two basic mixed nations in the USA. These are African Americans and Latin Americans. Whether they can live peacefully or are bound to fight for their place in the sun is the topic of the given research.

The Way It All Began: Why Coming to the USA?

The People with Two Hearts: Between American and Spain

One of the most peculiar things about the Latin Americans, or Hispanics, is the fact that they manage to keep their culture highly worshipped and yet know the language and the culture of the country that they are living in. In fact, they can be called bilingual and bicultural, for the art of adaptation that they have shown as they have been living on the territory of the USA is stunning.

The journey that took the Latinos to the United States was long and tiring. Although it was not that tragic as the reasons that took the Africans to the United States once, the Hispanics did take their toll on the sufferings of moving to the new country and acclimatizing to its traditions and rules.

However, they settled in the new environment rather quickly, and in 1565 they already founded the city of St. Augustine in Florida. Nowadays one of the cities with the highest ratio of the Hispanic and Latin American population, St. Augustine was the Promised Land for the people who abandoned their traditions and their home in search for a better life.

Torn Away from Homeland: Far from the Hot Sun of Africa

It was a little bit different with the African Americans, though. Since they were brought to the United States involuntarily, they were practically forced to live in the new country and according to the new rules. Taking into consideration that they were brought to the U. S. as slaves who have no rights or freedoms, it can be easily understood that the African Americans found the new life unbearable.

As the slavery was laid to rest along with the racism, there was some more air given to the African Americans so that they could lead a more or less normal life (Bailey). Although there are still some conflicts arising from time to time, the African Americans are finally treated the way that people should be in their new homeland.

The Life That They Live: Making the Difference

Discovering the World of the African Culture in the USA.

The Afro-Americans are famous for the novelties that they have brought to the United States, among them numerous specific features of their culture one of the most peculiar things about them is the fact that these people have absorbed the American culture, inheriting the most outstanding parts of its culture.

In contrast to the Hispanics, who tended to stay aside form the influence of the American culture and wanted to restore their own traditions in the place of their new settlement, the African Americans were eager to take the new culture and to intertwine it with their own vision of the world. This approach was foreign to the Hispanics, and the barrier between the two nations that were living in the same foreign land were parted even farther, feeling the growing tension between their cultures and their lifestyle.

This was the point where the rivalry between the Hispanics and the African Americans for a place of their own in the heart of America began. It was clear that the Hispanics were not going to subdue to the growing influence of the culture that surrounded them, as well as that they were not going to yield in this clash of cultures. It seemed that this was the starting point for the rivalry between the Hispanics and the African Americans.

On the Way to New Spain: The Latinos and Their Culture

In contrast to the African Americans, the Latin Americans kept to the stem of their culture as fast as they could. It was well understood that preserving the culture of a united but small and lacking the influence nation was almost impossible. The dominating culture was supposed to swallow the remaining of the Hispanic traditions and customs, chewing them into the new lifestyle that the Latin Americans could stick to without the risk to be called foreigners.

However, the idea proved wrong, and the Hispanics have introduced the culture that was no less influential and original than the one of the African Americans. The influence of theirs finally became immense and impressive, for the modern tendencies show that more and more people from Europe and America are getting captured with the lifestyle suggested by the Hispanics.

Amazing, but true is the fact that these people have been maintaining the traditions of theirs through the poverty and the misery of their immigrant life. This was something that should be highly appreciated and valued no less than the cultural impact of the African Americans. Again, the clash of cultures drew these two peoples together in a battle.

In a Course of Work: What Kind of Workplace Are They Provided with?

The African Americans Employed: Jobs, Salaries and Stakes

Although it is extremely hard for an immigrant, even a legal one, to find a full-time and well-paid job in a foreign country with the people’s prejudice against the foreigners and the lack of the working places even for the native dwellers, not mentioning the newcomers, the African Americans have managed to find their place under the hot sun of the United States.

As a rule, they do not take the leading positions, preferring to do the job of an ordinary officer, like most immigrants do, which is the major concern of the modern business researches in the United States.

There are still some difficulties in the employment sphere for the black people. It goes without saying that the discrimination in the sphere of employment still takes place, not only in the USA, but also in a number of countries where immigrants are to live.

The mistreatment of the foreigners must be rooting somewhere deep in the native dwellers’ psycho, for there is no other explanation why the African Americans should take lower positions and receive less money than an average white American does. Shepard has managed to express this idea in the very best way:

About one-third of African American men are employed in the highest occupational categories: professional, managerial, technical and administrative, whereas about one half of white men have jobs in these categories. Similarly, about 60 percent of African American women are employed in these occupational categories, compared to three-fourth of white women. African Americans are almost twice as whites are likely to work in low-level service jobs. (256)

Such data I something for the sociologists to be concerned about, for this also causes huge rivalry between the African Americans and the Latin Americans concerning the working places. Trying to earn for a decent living, both peoples face huge difficulties and are made to compete in attempt to get the desired job.

The Latinos and Their Ambitions: Time for Siesta

Unlike most of the American people, the Hispanics are not preoccupied with Napoleonic ambitions and career plans. the lifestyle that they lead, which is close to living in a rural area, is quiet sufficient for them, and they are rather unlikely to fight for the post of the president or else.

Still the nation has to find some means to earn for a living, and thus a lot of Latin Americans agree to take the positions that the Native Americans consider as the low-level jobs. This makes the Latinos the main opponents of the African Americans, which are eager to take the above-mentioned positions as well.

As a rule, the Hispanics are left with nothing in this battle, and the African Americans occupy most of the profitable positions. The rivalry peaks here, and the struggle for the better position and for the better future of the people that have been forced to live in the foreign country.

The recent polls held in this sphere suggest that the situation with the working places for the immigrants can improve; however, still a great amount of time is needed to support the immigrants that cannot survive in the environment that requires the necessary competitive skills.

It is clear that, historically, the people of the Hispanic origin did not need to struggle for the job and earn the money with such difficulties, and it must be taken into account that they need to accommodate to the changing environment. In contrast to the African Americans, who are used to conflict in cases when they do not agree with what have been suggested, the Hispanics would rather grin and bear it, which does not add to the life endurance of these people and the psychological health of their environment.

However, when speaking of the promotion and marketing sphere, one can suggest that the Latin Americans have got quite used to the idea of living in a foreign country and making business in it, for they have achieved a certain progress in building the marketing relationships within the country:

A direct result of the Spanish-language-centered infrastructure of the U.S. Hispanic marketing industry is an ethnic division of labour whereby the Latin American corporate intellectuals from middle- and upper-class background rather than U.S.-born. (Davila 34)

This might seem amazing, but such is the present state of affairs in the Hispanic employment sphere. As it can be seen, the rumors about the Latin Americans not getting enough working places have been a bit exaggerated. However, this does not mean that the problem of employment of the Latin Americans has been solved once and for all. There are still some reasons to think that the battle will go on.

The Aspect of Education: Can the Same Things Be Taught in Different Ways?

What the Schools for Latinos Are Aimed at.

Like most schools, the educational establishments on the territory of the Latin America are aimed at giving children the basis for their future higher education and career development. At this point the schools where the Latin American children learn do nit doffer from the rest of the schools in the United States. The difference comes when the role of the bilingual education comes to the forth.

Darder emphasizes the role of the two languages in the education of the Hispanic children, making it one of the core points that make them different from the American children:

Within the last two decades, the issue of the bilingual education has taken on a heated importance among educators. Unfortunately, the debate that has emerged tends to recycle old assumptions and values regarding the meaning and usefulness of the students’ native language in education. (274)

Because of the tension that arises as the two cultures collide, the issue of the languages becomes one of the most heated subjects to discuss. Although the privilege of mastering two native languages seems quiet a profit for the Hispanics, they still cling to their native roots, trying to make the emphasis on preserving the national culture.

Do the U. S. Schools Suit the African American Children?

In contrast to the Hispanics, African Americans do well in mastering English. Since many of them hardly know about the African ancestors of theirs, and are not aware of the language that was spoken in the culture of their native land, the African Americans have no linguistic problems in the schools. However, there are still the issues that make them equal to the Latin Americans in terms of the quality and the results of education.

In fact, the African Americans are almost in the same situation as the Latin Americans in terms of the national identity and the educational systems. Their national peculiarities are ignored in the same way, disregarding everything that makes them different from then Native Americans.

Many teachers and principals state that they have not reformed the curriculum to reflect ethnic diversity in their schools because they do not have ethnic minorities in their school populations and, consequently, no racial or ethnic problems. These educators believe ethnic content is needed only by ethnic minority students or to help reduce ethnic conflict within schools having racial problems. (Willie 137)

Thus, it becomes clear that in the system of education the Latin Americans and the African Americans are not the opponents, but the companions in misfortune.

Through the Social Aspect and What Researchers Found There

The African Americans: Reaching for the Stars

However hard the immigrants could try to reach for the highest position in the society, there will always be the native dwellers that will surpass them in some of the aspects. Thus, striving to climb higher is what the Latin Americans and the African Americans have been trying to do since the time when they settled in the new country, but there have been very few positive results of their attempts.

Again, trying to get into the upper classes of the society, the two nations arrange another battle to obtain the best positions. However much scorn the Hispanics could display towards the blessed life of the rich I the USA, they cannot resist trying to nip on the piece of the upper class life.

But the African Americans surpass them in the respect of arranging their lives. Being more accustomed to the traditions and customs of the modern business world, they manage to become the leading part of the society much more often than the Hispanics, who prefer to stay rebels.

There is no need to say that the African Americans are doing their best to gain the access to the higher class society, which is sometimes crowned with success, but in most cases both African Americans and Latinos remain on the same middle class level. However, the data that has been presented so far are too scanty to restore the whole picture:

Researchers may assume a social lass level among the participants such as classifying African Americans or Latinos as urban and therefore in poverty without collecting the necessary data to substantiate this characterization. (Liu 48)

With such characteristics of the state of the African Americans and Latinos in the United States, it is necessary to add that the current situation needs a thorough revision. The results of the latter can seem encouraging for these nations to continue their attempts to belong to the higher class of society. Although they must make hard efforts to achieve this goal, the results must be worthwhile. And, after all, there has always been the need for the people who will push the country towards the progress.

The Latinos: Home, Sweet Home

As Vazquez admits,

Although impressive and important, studies that equate income with social status are nevertheless misleading. Latinos are indeed becoming more socially mobile, but the income numbers also show that 75 percent of Latino households earn below the national median, a proportion that is just as significant if one is interested in understanding the size of a low-wage, low-skilled Latino working class. (394)

With regard to the above-mentioned information, it could be logical to suggest that the approximately equal score on the social position might level the rivalry between the Latin Americans and the African Americans, but this idea proves wrong. The constant battle for the better position and the competition that people are involved into, that is, the contest where the smartest wins, make people’s character harder and more difficult to approach.

What makes the situation not so complicated is the fact that the Latin Americans cannot be called ambitious people, and they are not longing for the top positions. Working in the sphere where their skills can be used and appreciated is what Latin Americans are aimed at, and that makes the conflict between the two nations living as the foreigners on the territory of the United States not so escalated.

Conclusion

Regarding everything that has been mentioned above, it is possible to suggest that the tension between the two neighboring nations, African Americans and Latin Americans, is bound to last fro quite long period of time.

Because of the fact that they are actually experiencing the same difficulties, Latin Americans and African Americans will remain rivals, although they have a lot in common which could allow them to be friends, not foes. Instead of competing with each other to prove the superiority, they could struggle to achieve success together, yet they prefer to stay apart from each other.

The reasons for these nations to treat each other in this way can be different. Perhaps, one of the most important and weighty ones is that both nations are afraid of their cultures merging the way they have merged with the American one.

To keep their traditions untouched as long as possible, they prefer to maintain the relationships that allow them to coexist, but they are both reluctant to make friends and improve the situation within the sphere of education and employment. However, there is a link that might help these two peoples finally make friends. Called Caribbean Latinos, they are a mixture of the two. As Suarez puts it,

Certainly the shared Afro-Latino background that tends to distinguish them most within the pan-Latino composite, along with the attendant complementary relationship to blackness, promises to have unifying repercussions within the U.S. racial formation, where the significance of the color line seems to be in no way declining. (71)

In the light of the above-mentioned, there is still hope that the two great nations will find common language. Because of numerous factors the Latinos and the Afro-Americans have to get together to become stronger. In spite of all the obstacles that stand on the way to this union, there is hope that in the nearest future the Afro-Americans and the Latinos will build the relationships based on cooperation and mutual respect.

Works Cited

Bailey, Anne C. African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2005. Print.

Darder, Antonia, Rodolfo D. Torres, Henry Gutierre. Latinos and Education: A Critical Reader. New York, NY: Routledge, 1997. Print.

Davila, Arlene. Latinos, Inc.: The Marketing and Making of a People. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001. Print.

Liu, William M. Social Class and Classicism in the Helping Professions: Research, Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corvin Press, 2010. Print.

Shepard, Jon M. Sociology. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.

Suarez-Orozco, Marcelo, Mariela Parez. Latinos: Remaking America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2008. Print.

Vazquez, Francisco H., Rodolfo D. Torres. Latino Thought. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Print.

Willie, Charles W., Antonie M. Garibaldi, William Monroe. The Education of African Americans. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1991. Print.

The chosen population for this culture-centered healthcare intervention is the African Americans living in Jackson, Mississippi. The culture presented in Graph 1 provides an assessment of the main elements of beliefs and customs prevalent in this community that can affect the view of the health-related initiatives. African-Americans account for over 80% of the city’s population, with approximately 140,000 individuals of this ethnicity living there (“Race and ethnicity in Jackson, Mississippi,” n.d.). The issue of heart disease in the chosen population is affecting not only the community in Jackson but also across the county since over 170,000 people were diagnosed with a heart condition. On average, an individual from this community loses about ten years of life because of the complications as a result of cardiovascular disease, and this paper aims to develop a culturally appropriate intervention targeting this issue.

In order to design an effective intervention, one must consider the cultural specifics that affect the chosen and the factors that have the most significant impact on the heath of the African-Americans. According to Carnethon et al. (2017), in this population, the onset of cardiovascular conditions occurs at an early age, when compared to other populations. Another issue is the lack of adherence to disease management strategies, resulting in a high prevalence of disparities. Carnethon et al. (2017) argue that one of the issues that affect the health of African-Americans of the preference for soul food, which does not correspond with the dietary recommendations for reducing the heart disease risk provided by national healthcare organizations. It is because the majority of the food intake consists of sweetened or fried dishes, and the physical activity in this community is usually low. Additionally, the overall support of lifestyle changes in African-American families is low, which usually affects the interventions and efforts of various researchers to improve the health of this community (Carnethon et al., 2017). Based on this information and the factors assessed in the culturagram one can argue that heart disease prevention in this community should be led and supported by its leaders.

The main factors, such as food preference and physical activity levels, are difficult to change, especially considering the lack of trust towards healthcare institutions due to varied historical reasons that can be seen in this community. Considering other factors that contributed to the failure of many interventions designed for this population that Carnethon et al. (2017) outline and the need to “increase the engagement of all African Americans in the healthcare system”, one can argue that only engaging families or neighborhoods in the intervention programs can help reduce the risks of heart disease (p. e393). Hence, the main idea of the proposed approach is to improve the knowledge of the problem, its effects, and strategies for mitigating the adverse consequences by working with an entire community, instead of trying to affect one individual at high risk of developing heart disease.

The intervention targeting the reduction of heart disease within the chosen population at Jacksonville is compliant with the CLAS standards, since it considers the cultural specifics of the chosen population, promotes leadership and workforce engagement of the African-Americans, and established goals, such as promoting adequate health practices in this community, compliant with the cultural and linguistic specifics. Overall, the proposed scenario uses evidence-based practices to target heart disease in the chosen community.

References

Carnethon, M. R., Pu, J., Howard, G., Albert, M. A., Anderson, C. A. M., Bertoni, A. G., Mahasin S. M.,… Yancy, C. W. (2017). Cardiovascular health in African Americans: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 136(21), e393–e423.

Race and ethnicity in Jackson, Mississippi. (n.d.). Web.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to explore different aspects of African American and Hispanic cultures and to find out basic differences and similarities between them. African Americans and Hispanics are two major minority groups in New Jersey. They have their own unique cultures characterized by beliefs, values, cuisines, language, religion, and holidays. The paper will address these aspects of African American and Hispanic cultures and contrast some of these aspects to show their peculiarities and uniqueness.

African-American Culture

African Americans are descendants of black Africans who live in the western hemisphere. Their immigration to Americas began at the end of the 15h century; these days, they form major ethnic minority in the United States. (“African Americans’ Beginnings,” 2007) In fact, “African-American history starts in the 1500s with the first Africans coming from Mexico and the Caribbean to the Spanish territories of Florida, Texas, and other parts of the South.” (“The African-American Migration Experience,” 2008) They constitute 10% of New Jersey population (around 1 million people). African American community speaks African American English which can be characterized “by an expansive set of morphological, syntactic, semantic, phonological, and discourse features that differ systematically from the ways that the same meanings would be expressed in Standard American English.” (Neuman & Dickenson, 2006)

A number of religions are practiced within the community, though Protestant Christianity prevails. Scholars keep to an idea that American experience introduced Africans to Protestant Christianity, which let to certain transformations in African American religion and “provided a vehicle via which a distinctly Black American religious orientation could be expressed.” (Bukhari, Nyang, & Ahmad, 2004) Other religions practiced are Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, and others. At large, African Americans are devout; they have a number of religious and spiritual traditions and believe that religion contributes “to the improved trend of their emotional/spiritual well-being.” (McLoyd, Hill, & Dodge, 2005)

Slavery, inequality, and past discrimination influenced the structure of modern African American families. The West American family is often regarded as “a predecessor or model for the extended family structures found in contemporary African-American communities.” (“African American Families,” 2009) Modern African American families strive to sustain family identity with women being less likely to remarry. Together with traditional American holidays, African Americans observe their ethnic holidays. Among their national holidays are the birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr which is a federal holiday observed since 1986 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005), the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln, Frederick Douglass, as well as Black History Month, Emancipation Day, Kwanzaa, and a number of other holidays. African Americans also have their own cuisine; their traditional food includes fried chicken, cornbread, hoppin’ John, macaroni and cheese, collard greens, candied yams, and other dishes which traditional soul food dinner includes (figure 1).

Hispanic Culture

Latino Americans and Hispanics originate from Spain and Latin America. Most of them move to the United States in search of better life. These days, “the term “Hispanic” is often used to refer collectively to all Spanish-speakers.” (“ICHA History,” 2007) Currently, Hispanics constitute 16% of New Jersey population with the United States being the 5^th largest nation in the world which speaks Spanish. (“Hispanic Americans,” 2004) Most of Hispanics living in New Jersey speak English at least to some extent; those who were born there are bilingual. Family values are of biggest importance for the Hispanic people: “Traditionally, the Hispanic family is a close-kit group and the most important social unit … Individuals within a family have a moral responsibility to aid other members of the family experiencing financial problems, unemployment, poor health conditions.” (Brauer, 2006) Social values are also of great significance for Hispanics: “Valued behaviors include cooperation towards goal achievement, establishing positive interpersonal relationship, and concern for others. Cooperating with peers in working together to complete tasks is valued for the sense of camaraderie and a non-competitive approach in business.” (Torres, 1999) Hispanics have their unique cuisine with most popular foodstuffs being rice and vegetables.

Most of Hispanic people are Catholics, which accounts for a number of religious celebrations which can be observed within this nation. Main religious celebrations are Semana Santa (Holy Week), La Navidad (Christmas), Los Tres Reyes Magos (Three Kings’ Day) (figure 2), Cuaresma, and others. The cross, the rosary, the image of the Virgin Mary, and images of saints are the main religious symbols of Hispanic religion. Each Latin American country has a patron to who people pray. Certain towns and regions also have separate Patron Saints, and many Hispanic countries celebrate patrons’ festivities (Las Fiestas Patronales) (figure 3). Among the biggest Hispanic holidays are the Independence Day, the National Day, the Liberation Day, the Revolution Day, Calle Ocho Festival (figure 4) and the Day of the Dead (it is celebrated in Mexico). In Puerto Rico there are a number of holidays and festivals which are observed annually to show the happy spirit of Boricuas.

Discussion and Conclusions Section

Similarities between African American and Hispanic Cultures

One of the greatest similarities between the cultures of these two nations is their desire to preserve and sustain their cultural values. This, in the first place, is expressed through their family relations. For instance, African Americans “actively seek to preserve African cultural values by incorporating African cultural traditions into African American family life, through using African names, the wearing of African dress, and the display of African art, literature, music, and drama.” (McLoyd et al, 2005) Kwanzaa is one of the biggest national holidays aimed at preserving African American’s cultural identity. The essence of the holiday consists in celebrating African American culture and history. From December, 26 to January, 1 African Americans “honor their heritage with food, music, and dancing … Each night of Kwanzaa, people talk about ways to make their lives better.” (Doering & Tourville, 2006) Hispanics, in their turn, preserve their culture through their language: “The attachment to their language provides them with cultural identity, and their pride in it leads Hispanics to preserve it, no matter how many generations of their family have lived in the U.S.” (Valle & Mandel, 2003)

Another similarity is their devotion to religion. This primarily consists in poetry, music, and religious holidays. African American music abounds with religious songs which are often sung in churches (figure 5); religion is an integral part of this nation’s life with children being taught the basics of it by family members (figure 6). Hispanic people express their devotion to religion through numerous religious holidays and festivals. Three Kings’ Days is widely celebrated in Hispanic countries, as well as Las Fiestas Patronales, Calle Ocho festival , and Epiphany Festival of the Twelfth Night (figure 7).

Differences between African American and Hispanic Cultures

The main differences lie in the nation’s cuisine, language, and fighting with inequality and discrimination. Differences between cuisine and language of two cultures lie in their penetration into the Native American society and their uniqueness. African American cuisine could have been unique if it did not assimilate with the American traditional food. Hispanic, mostly Mexican and Latino-American cuisine, remained unique. Only natives succeed in cooking traditional food and their recipes are carefully passed from generation to generation. The same is true about the languages. African American language is now regarded as a dialect of Standard English. African American language is informal and is not used in writing. Spanish, on the contrary, is learned even by Native Americans and is considered to be one of the most important languages in the world.

Moreover, African Americans seem to be more persistent in fighting for their rights and equality. Though the world has seen several Rights’ Movements organized by Hispanics, the events which took place during the Civil Rights’ Movement and later, are more memorable. Perhaps, this is connected with the fact that Hispanics were less oppressed in the past and were not subjected to slavery.

Ways for This Information to Be Applied in the Classroom

The first way is to expand the used information and to organize it in lectures which would give a better idea about African American and Hispanic history. Secondly, video recordings with Hispanic religious holidays may be offered to the class for the students to better perceive Hispanic culture. Finally, African American religious songs may be listened to and analyzed, which would help to understand the importance of religion to African American people.

Materials and Methods Employed

Search engines were used to find Internet sources related to the topic. Books in the library were carefully looked through and the most relevant ones were selected. The information was evaluated and used in the research paper. The information in the Internet was accessed by using the main key words, for instance, “African American culture” and “Hispanic culture,” as well as more specific ones, such as “African American holidays, food, religion,” “Hispanic festivals and family tradition,” etc.

Books used in the paper are the most important and valuable sources. They are reliable and do not contain any biased information. Books are the most important sources used in this paper because they describe research on the cultures discuss, unlike internet sources which are just descriptive. Internet sites presenting information about African American and Hispanic culture were also quite useful.

Review and synthesis of information took the biggest amount of time. Both the cultures analyzed are rich in traditions and have a number of peculiarities. The brightest and the most memorable aspects of the cultures were chosen and described. I used note cards to write down the important features of the cultures analyzed; then I highlighted the most important information and organized it in a more coherent way.

This report is important to me personally because it enriched my knowledge about African American and Hispanic cultures. It is important to me as to a teaching professional because I am going to need the information I used in this paper in future. Cultural aspects of these nations will help me to better understand their history and, correspondingly, to teach it to others.

Images

Reference List

African Americans’ Beginnings. (2007). Web.

African American Families. (2009) Web.

The African-American Migration Experience. (2008). Web.

Facts for Features. (2005). Web.

ICHA History. (2007). Web.

Hispanic Americans – A Diverse People. (2004). Web.

Brauer, Ralph. (2006). The Strange death of Liberal America. Arbee.

Bukhari, Z.H., Nyang, S.S., & Ahmad, M. (2004). Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square: Hope, Fears, and Aspirations. Rowman Altamira.

Doering, A. & Tourville, A.D. (2006). Kwanzaa: African American Celebration of Culture. Capstone Press.

McLoyd, V.V., Hill, N.E., & Dodge, K.A. (2005). African American Family Life: Ecological and Cultural Diversity. Guilford Press.

Neuman, S.B. & Dickinson, D.K. (2006). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. Guilford Press.

Torres, S. (1999). Hispanic Voices: Hispanic Health Educators Speak Out. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Valle, F.J. & Judy M. M. (2003). How to Win the Hispanic Gold Rush: Critical Cultural, Demographic, Marketing, and Motivational Factors. iUniverse.

Figure 1: African American traditional soul food dinner. Web.

Figure 2: Three Kings’ Day. Web.

Figure 3: Fiestas Patronales. Web.

Figure 4: Calle Ocho. Web.

Figure 5: African American religious singing. Web.

Figure 6: African American children studying religion.

Figure 7: Epiphany Festival. Web.