Category: African Americans

Introduction

Despite decades of addressing the issue of equity in general and the impropriety of racial profiling, in particular, the misrepresentation of African Americans in media still remains a topical issue. The specified phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the factors, which stereotypes regarding Black people thrive on, persist in the modern society, particularly, in the form of media images and literary representations of African Americans.

Seeing that the current image of African Americans is filled with the prejudices that used to be around for several decades running, it can be assumed that the specified image is shaped by the dominant part of the U.S. population and, therefore, that it blocks the actual African American culture from being manifested in the modern society.

Methods

The study of the subject of interpretation of the image of African Americans in media was carried out as a qualitative research, as there was no need to quantify the relations between the key variables.

Ethnography was chosen as a research method, whereas the analysis of the existing studies of the representation of African Americans in modern and traditional media was used as the means of retrieving the data. The information was chosen with the help of the opportunistic sampling technique and processed with the help of coding based on a deductive approach.

Findings

The study has shown that the current representations of African American people in media not only incorporate a variety of stereotypes but also are mostly based on how the representatives of the dominant culture want to see African Americans. On the one hand, some of the early writings show African Americans as fighters for freedom and, therefore, the promoters of equality in relationships.

Particularly, the creation of the National Social Equality League deserves to be mentioned (Cook 277); in fact, Cook specified that “a black man once headed” (Cook 277) the society in question, which serves as a graphic proof of determination and passion of African Americans. On the other hand, the current concept of Black culture seems to be shifting towards the image that can be defined as a rather laid-back, careless, and undetermined one (Franklin and Carlson 112).

As the study of the existing literature shows, the specified difference in the actual identity of African American people and their image in media is linked directly to the tradition of portraying the specified denizens of the American population in media (Martinez 28).

Herein the root of the problem lies; although the modern standards of societal interaction, including the principles of equity, promote the idea of subverting biased ideas and prejudices related to African Americans and other cultures, the very basis of modern representation of Black people and the African American community is rooted in the stereotypes created by European Americans, whereas the voice of the former can hardly be hard.

Additionally, the study has revealed that the current image of an African American, much like the representation thereof several decades earlier, still thrives on reinforcing the idea of African American people being inactive, goofy and, therefore, harmless to the rest of the communities (Leiter 3).

Discussion

The study results show clearly that there are significant biases in the current representation of African American people in media, especially in the traditional one. The current portrait of an African American person is obviously dictated by the way, in which the African American identity perceived by European Americans. Therefore, when viewed through the prism of the above-mentioned perception, the media representation thereof is altered significantly (Drysdale et al. 78).

Despite the fact that the current concept of the African American culture and its representatives does not demonize the specified denizens of the American population, it still represents them in the light that is far from being favorable.

Particularly, the above-mentioned inactiveness, which can be traced in a range of past and modern interpretations of an image of an African American, can be interpreted as the way, in which European Americans would like to see the aforementioned population. In fact, a similar problem used to occur at the very beginning of the integration of the image of African Americans in art, as the lack of success of The telephone among the specified denizens of the U.S. population shows:

Such poorly made movies as Jumpin’ Jack Flash, Burglar (both 1987) and The Telephone (1988) wasted Goldberg’s talents. African-American audiences particularly found little to like in these films because they depicted Goldberg as an oddball with no identity as a Black woman. (Otfinoski 85)

Thus, the way, in which African American people used to be portrayed in media and the manner, in which they are depicted nowadays, do not differ much. The same prejudices that used to define the course of representing African American people in media still have a significant effect on the image of Black people in art.

Particularly, the findings of the research show that unique characteristics of the African American culture used to be kept in the shadow as the European Americans decided, which representation of the specified denizens of the population aligned with the idea of African American people being lazy and inactive.

As it has been stressed above, the concept of harmlessness, which can be attributed to the current representation of Black people and the Black culture in general in the contemporary media cannot be deemed as negative; however, it makes the very concept of the African American culture bland and deprived of any elements that could challenge people to think and discuss.

Indeed, the contemporary art pieces and literature that are supposed to represent African American population are remarkably bland, as the overview provided above shows. The samples selected for the study indicate that members of the Black community are portrayed in contemporary art and literature, as well as modern media in general, in the way that does not provoke thinking and further discussion for the most part, with several rare exceptions.

Based on the comparison of the current representation of African Americans in art and literature with the ones that were introduced into the specified area several decades ago, one must admit that some of the stereotypes, such as the alienation of the Balck culture, the alleged simplicity thereof, etc., as well as several other erroneous concepts of Black people and their culture, still define the way, in which media portrays the aforementioned denizens of the American population. Therefore, the stereotypes that used to dominate the society years ago, though swept under the rug with the introduction of the principles of equity into the modern society, still define the attitude of the U.S. population to the specified segment.

The specified tendency for the Black culture to be discriminated against in the contemporary art and literature is very disturbing; moreover, it shows that the current image of a black person portrayed in modern media is still powered by the stereotypes that have been in existence for years. The specified stereotypes, once trickling into modern media, define the specifics of relationships between African and the European American population of the United States; moreover, these stereotypes prevent the latter from understanding the very concept of the African American identity. As a result, the image in question gets misinterpreted to the point, where it can no longer be associated with the culture in question, thus, leading to more misunderstandings.

Conclusion

Because of the persistence and the staying power of stereotypes, which emerged due to the lack of equality at the primary stages of intercultural relations, the present-day image of African American people is still influenced considerably by the European American culture.

Moreover, the influence, which the specified stereotypes have on the development of the image of Black people in media, may subvert a range of progressive ideas and representations of the above-mentioned culture and people in media. As a result, the outcomes of the specified stereotypical portrayal of Black people in art and literature may be dire.

The portrayal of African American people in traditional media has been enhanced by prejudice and stereotypical concepts, which were reinforced by the principles of racial profiling that were viewed as a standard of societal interactions a century ago. Nevertheless, contemporary art and media still incorporates some of the ideas that were typical for racial profiling several decades ago.

Although the above-mentioned components are rather subtle, they, nevertheless, affect the way, in which people of other races see African Americans; as a result, intercultural interactions are altered by the way, in which modern media portrays the Black culture.

Works Cited

Cook, William W. African American Writers and Classical Tradition. 2010.

Drysdale, Jessica Renee, Jay Lutz, James E. Gober, and Thomas Allan Scott. Interview with James E. Gober. 2009.

Franklin, Bob and Matt Carlson. Journalists, Sources, and Credibility: New Perspectives. New York City, New York: Routledge, 2010. Print.

Leiter, Andrew B. African American Masculinity in the Harlem and Southern Renaissances. 2010.

Martinez, Jonathan. Art and Humanities. New York, NY: Jonathan Martinez Publishing, 2009. Print.

Otfinoski, Steven. African Americans in the Performing Arts. 2010.

Introduction

The notion that race is inextricably linked to privilege has been proven time and again throughout history. The race has some serious socioeconomic and other implications. Racial differences serve as one of the most prevalent factors for the systematic discrimination of individuals throughout the United States and within the United Kingdom. As a direct result of a focus on racial differences, conflicts have arisen and the notion of bringing an end to white dominance has been dealt with on an ongoing basis. Doane (2003) examined the notion that whiteness studies focus on race relations within the traditional sense and there is a dire need to refocus our discussion on the ramifications of race. Whiteness studies according to focuses on race, ethnicity, and sociological relations and aims at understanding race within a social and historical context.

Doane’s literature review

Doane conducted a comprehensive literature review in his examination of the privilege afforded to individuals by their race. His hypothesis dealt with the notion that race within the United States was a social construct that has transcended history and has existed as a direct result of diverse groups of individuals living near each other. This served as a means of establishing stratification. This stratification was based on race. There were privileges attached to being white and restrictions attached to being any other race. He chronicled the etiology of racism as one which began when virtually with the advent of America and can be traced back to when the population was such that there was some diversity but whites represented an overwhelming majority. As such, whites reaped the benefits which included wealth and power. In addition to this, they were afforded basic human rights which others were precluded from having. This served to make the notion of white supremacy a reality. As time went on, the need for inclusion of African Americans became a pressing need and as a direct result of the freedom fighter, African Americans were technically afforded equal rights by the passage of the 1866 Civil Rights Act. This act did serve to make the climate a bit better for African Americans, however, the great racial divide still exists today.

Mills’ philosophical construct

Mills (2003) examined the notion of white supremacy as a philosophical construct. In so doing he was able to present strong empirical proof by framing the discussion within the context of social and systematic change occurring within a historical context and transgressing all boundaries. Mills purports that to truly examine the concept of white supremacy one should view it as an independent entity and compare it to the global social system as it exists today. In his philosophical view, he focuses more on the current state of affairs instead of looking at it within its historical context. He is adamant about the fact that we should “challenge the everyday assumptions of normalcy, undermine the taken for granted and upend the conventional wisdom” (Mills, 2003, p1). One thing is clear from his discussion—he truly believed that history has served to proliferate a system wherein whites enjoy privilege and power and are supported in their quest to dominate over others. This according to Mills is the downfall of the system. What needs to be done is that racial harmony needs to be established and whites need to take an active role in ending racism instead of propagating a system of increased disparity.

The vein of socioeconomic status

Brown et. al., on the other hand, examined the whiteness in the vein of socioeconomic status as afforded by race. They establish a correlation between race and socioeconomic status and present a picture of a paradoxical situation. The paradox existing among African Americans deals with the great disparity evident within African American communities throughout the United States. On one end of the spectrum, we see an unprecedented number of indigent African Americans while simultaneously there is an increase in the number of African Americans who have climbed and continue to climb the socioeconomic ladder. For the first time, middle-class African Americans are bridging the economic gap between themselves and their white counterparts. To understand the dynamics of this paradox, one needs to take a closer look at the dynamics of socioeconomic status and race.

First and foremost, the contemporary African American middle class emerged with the advent of the Civil Rights movement (Walker & Wilson, 2002). This was a direct result of wide-scale social and political changes which in effect removed the lion’s share of the restrictions placed on African Americans and were strategically impacted to restrict social mobility and access to educational services and the like. In addition to the increased access to services and the ability to climb the ladder of success, the removal of restrictions served to assure that African Americans can live in the more “desirable” neighborhoods. This effectively and efficiently facilitated an unprecedented increase in the number of middle-class African Americans. As sweeping social and political changes placed fewer restrictions on social mobility, educational access, and residential patterns of African Americans, this expanded opportunity structure permitted more people of African descent to improve their socioeconomic status and enter the ranks of the middle class. According to the most recent U.S. census, the poverty threshold was $13,738 for a family of three and $17,603 for a family of four (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Anyone with income over the poverty threshold and below what is considered wealthy is considered to be within the middle class. Utilizing those guidelines to define class, a great many African Americans are defined as middle class. Sue and Sue (2003) remarked that the population of middle-class African Americans within the United States exceeded one-third of the entire population of African Americans.

A sociological standpoint

Ford (1997) described the African American middle class as a very diverse population comprised of individuals who are very close to the poverty line (the working poor) to individuals in the upper-middle and elite social classes. Essentially, the range here is from the poor to the affluent. These individuals are variable in their level of employment and employment status, their lifestyles as well as their material possessions. Despite this diversity, however, they all share one common thread. They embody the qualities of a strong work ethic, and orientation to achievement, racial pride, and adherence to societal norms (Sue & Sue, 2003). One element that has become apparent to the middle-class African American is a strong desire for social mobility and an action plan to achieve that mobility.

From a sociological standpoint, middle-class African Americans are seriously underrepresented in academia and through professional literature. There remains the stereotypical image of the African American population as a very uniform entity with the lion’s share of its constituents being poor and ignorant (uneducated). These stereotypical images serve to mitigate the efforts of the contemporary Civil Rights Movement. It is prudent that when examining issues related to race, culture, and socioeconomic status one realizes the complexity of these issues and treats them with sensitivity.

The paradoxical situation as described by Brown et al. paints a picture that proves to be somewhat limited when compared to the body of research present. It illustrates a condition of African Americans wherein the middle class is ever-expanding. If one takes the time to examine this claim one can see that the number of African Americans within the middle class is increasing and the racial socioeconomic gap is indeed decreasing when one simply looks at class but when one looks at the stratification within the middle class a different picture emerges. One can see that the majority of African American middle-class individuals fall within the lower third of the middle class. As one goes up the social ladder, the disparity in incomes between African Americans and their white counterparts remains wide (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Brown et. al. asserts that there is a dramatic change in the disparity of income as it relates to race. They asserted that African American income is closer to that of their white counterparts and attributes this to the increase in education among African-Americans. When one examines the statistics are they are one can see that the facts are more complicated than they seem. According to the most recent census, approximately 83.6% of all whites possess a minimum of a High school diploma as compared to 72.3% of their African American counterparts. 54.1% of all whites have attended college but did not graduate while 42.5% of all African Americans did also. 26.1% of all whites obtained a bachelor’s degree while 14.3% of their African American counterparts did. Finally, 9.5% of all whites obtained an advanced degree while 4.8% of their African-American counterparts did (U.S. Census Bureau–Educational Attainment Census Brief, 2000).

In examining this picture more closely, we can see that the gap between educational levels among African Americans and whites is quite narrow when one examines educational levels less than a Bachelor’s degree. However, when one examines the education of a Bachelor’s degree or higher a different picture emerges. The percentage of whites with a Bachelor’s degree or higher is almost twice that of their African-American counterparts. Is the gap closing? Once again we are faced with a paradox. It is accurate to say that it is indeed closing but it is also accurate to say that it is not. The current status of the gap needs to be explained in light of what the most accurate measure has to say. The gap is closing for individuals who have a level of education up until some college. For college graduates, the gap is still large and proves to be consistent throughout the years.

Conclusion

Finally, when one examines the two paradoxes presented in this paper, it is clear to see that on the surface the picture appears to be clear. It appears the African American middle class is larger than ever, however, when one examines the stratification of the middle-class one can see that the socioeconomic gap has not been a bridge to the degree that is reported. There has been some change in the socioeconomic status of African Americans but the lion’s share occurred between the indigent population and the lower middle class. A family of three with an income of as little as $15,000 can be considered middle class utilizing the guidelines of the United States Census Bureau. This fact effectively and efficiently served to skew the picture and contributed to the findings that there is a great paradox about the socioeconomic status of African Americans. Another claim made by Brown et. al. was that African-Americans are bridging the educational gap. This claim is a very optimistic one but it is very premature. I do see African Americans bridging the educational gap but it will some time. The Civil Rights movement indeed served to increase the opportunities afforded to African Americans but many African Americans fail to take advantage of this. Unfortunately, the majority of those individuals are indigent. This poses an interesting possibility are those individuals poor because they did not take advantage of the increased opportunities or did they fail to take advantage of the new opportunities because they are poor? This is a question that will be debated for some time to come.

References

1. Conley, D. (1999). Being Black, living in the red: Race, wealth and social policy in America. Berkeley, University of California Press.
2. Ford, D. (1997). Counseling middle-class African Americans. In C. Lee (Ed.), Multicultural issues in counseling: New approaches to diversity (2nd ed., pp. 81-107). Alexandria, VA, American Counseling Association.
3. Sue, D., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally different:. Theory and practice (4th ed.). New York, John Wiley.
4. U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Poverty in the United States: 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
5. U.S. Census Bureau. “Educational Attainment Census Brief.” U.S. Census Bureau. 2000. Web.

Introduction

Even though slavery has been abolished in the United States, the high-profile scandals of black people’s rights infringement still occur. Many fields do not take into account the interests of black individuals. As a result, the situation escalates, and the Black Lives Matter movement is proof of this pattern (Taylor 41). The paper aims to examine cases of discrimination and racism in the modern world through the fashion, food, toy, cosmetic, and health sectors.

Main body

Gucci House released a jumper for sale, which was later criticized by users for its racist nature. The wardrobe item with a controversial style was a black balaclava sweater with red fringing in the form of large lips on the collar and an opening for the mouth in the middle. In social networks, people found similar to the comedians’ image, whose caricature depicts black people (BBC News Business). At the beginning of the 19th century, a folk theater in the USA, known as the Minstrel Show, popularized comedians in black makeup who mocked African-Americans by depicting their accent (Hornback 131). Scenes with actors grimed by black people abounded in prejudice and offensive stereotypes, and the wardrobe item became the subject of ridicule.

Accusations of racism also touched the food sector, including popular products. For example, PepsiCo Corporation’s Aunt Jemima logo has an image of a dark-skinned woman, the heroine of a song from the famous minstrel show at the end of the XIX century (BBC News World). It is noted that this portrait offends the image of a black servant in a white family. Along with PepsiCo, Mars Inc also plans to change Uncle Ben’s rice product packaging, featuring an elderly African American who worked for a Texas farmer (BBC News World). PepsiCo also announced that it would provide more than $ 5 million over five years to support the African American community (BBC News World). Therefore, many companies are changing their product to achieve racial equality in all areas of life.

In the United States, large retailers announce that they will no longer lock individual products for representatives of the African American community in separate boxes. According to Neil and Brown, the woman who faced this problem stated that she felt shame and humiliation. The Walmart hypermarket chain announced the cessation of this practice (The New York Times). The intensified struggle of blacks for their rights has helped African Americans achieve justice from cosmetic stores and drugstore chains that sell cosmetics.

Another well-known case was related to the Easter set, and in a box of sweets worth eight pounds were three sweet ducks. According to Young, Products made of white, milk, and dark chocolate were signed “fluffy”, “crispy”, and “ugly” (The Independent News). A dark chocolate duck attracted the special attention of visitors to the store with the signature “ugly”. The supermarket temporarily removed the product from sale and changed the packaging design. Representatives of Waitrose apologized to customers and explained that the chocolate set was named after the cartoon “Ugly Duckling” shot by Disney based on a fairy tale by Hans Christian Anderson (Young, The Independent News). Thus, it is another case of discrimination that occurred in modern society.

The coronavirus pandemic revealed an unsightly picture of modern America. Black Americans are more dependent on public transportation and less likely to work from home. Moreover, they make up a significant part of the critical workers; hence they exposure to Covid-19. According to Pilkington, the excessive mortality that makes up black individuals’ lives three times more than whites causes mass unrest (The Guardian News). Consequently, the country is still racially divided and continues to lack equality.

In conclusion, the blackface genre and other racist items flourished in the United States when black people did not have fundamental civil rights and served the fun of a purely white audience. However, remnants of past centuries are still in society, and the appearance of comic style in modern brands carries a racist character that insists on public discontent. Cosmetic and health sector cases are also associated with the dissemination of negative stereotypes about black people.

Works Cited

“Aunt Jemima to change branding based on ‘racial stereotype’“, BBC News World. 2020, Web.

“Gucci withdraws jumper after ‘blackface’ backlash“, BBC News Business. 2019, Web.

Hornback, Robert. Racism and Early Blackface Comic Traditions: From the Old World to the New. Springer, 2018.

Neil, Vigdor and Elisha Brown, “Walmart Says It Will No Longer Lock Up African-American Beauty Products“, The New York Times, 2020, Web.

Pilkington, Ed. “Black Americans dying of Covid-19 at three times the rate of white people“, The Guardian News, 2020, Web.

Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta. From# BlackLivesMatter to black liberation. Haymarket Books, 2016.

Young, Sarah. “Waitrose Accused of Racism over ‘Ugly’ Easter Chocolate Duckling”, The Independent News. 2019, Web.

Purpose of the article

African American communities, like other minority communities, grapple with severe social issues that hamper their physical, social, psychological, and economic development. Issues such as discrimination and inequality continue to plague this community. As a result, the access of African Americans to quality education, well-paying jobs and quality health care facilities is normally lower compared to the dominant white community and other minority communities. Additionally, these social disadvantages create more social ills for African American communities, for instance, high crime rates. Several studies such as those of Eberstein, Nam and Hummer (1990) and Frisbie, Biegler, Turk, Forbes and Pullum (1997) show that African Americans record higher rates of infant mortality than the dominant white community due to the social ills that grapple them. The problem that will be addressed in this particular study is the potential impact of education level, income level, crime rate, access to adequate prenatal care and family dysfunctionality on infant mortality rates among the African American community. The study aims to answer the following research questions:

• Is there a relationship between maternal education levels and infant mortality rates among the black community?
• Is there a relationship between household income levels and infant mortality rates among the black community?
• What is the relationship, if any, between crime rates and infant mortality rates?
• What is the relationship between access to prenatal care and infant mortality rates?
• Is there a relationship between family dysfunctionality and infant mortality rates?

It is hoped that this study will make some contributions. First, the study will increase the knowledge of social factors on infant mortality rates. Second, the findings of the study will provide the basis upon which future studies can be carried out particularly on other minority groups. Third, the findings of the study will help the government and policymakers to come up with policies that will help to reduce the rates of infant mortality among African Americans, for instance, by tackling the social ills that plague the community.

Theoretical perspective

This study will be guided by the classic demographic transition theory which was introduced by Thomson in 1930 and later by Nostestein in 1953. The theory postulates that fall infertility is a consequence of the variation in the quality of life as a result of urbanization and industrialization. The theorists argue that urbanization and industrialization have improved the quality of life, for instance, through improved medical and health care facilities and services. As a result, the number of surviving children has increased forcing many married couples to reduce the rate of conception. Additionally, the cost of life in industrialized and urban centers is expensive and therefore it becomes difficult to bring up a large number of children (Mason, 1997, p.444). The classic demographic transition theory has been used by several demographers in their studies including Cleland (1985), Cleland and Wilson (1987), and McDonald (1993) among many others. This theory has several weaknesses.

First, it is contradictory when applied on a decadal scale. The theory does not explain why the relationship between the level of industrialization and the first experience of fertility decline is weak in Europe and most of the developing nations. Secondly, in some developing countries such as some Asian and Latin American countries, the level of fertility is declining although these countries are predominantly agrarian and non-industrialized. Despite these weaknesses, the classic demographic transition theory can be applied in the study of infant mortality in minority communities such as African American communities. African American communities are relatively disadvantaged compared to Caucasian communities. Most African Americans grapple with unequal opportunities such as poor access to high-quality education and low paying jobs. As a result, their socio economic status is relatively low and they live in poor neighborhoods. The low educational and income levels as well as residing in congested and polluted neighborhoods are likely to increase the infant mortality rates in African American communities.

Empirical antecedents

Many studies have been carried out and much literature written about factors that influence infant mortality rates. Eberstein, Nam and Hummer (1990) carried out a study to determine the main and interaction effects of infant mortality as a cause of death. The researchers used live birth cohorts born between 1980 and 1982 in Florida State. The data for this research was obtained from the National Center for Health Statistics (1986). The dependent variable was the cause of infant death which was categorized into five groups namely: infections, perinatal conditions, delivery complications, congenital malformations and sudden infant death syndrome. The independent variables on the other hand consisted of race/ethnicity, marital status and prior fetal deaths.

Other independent variables measured by the study include: education, birth order, birth weight, month of initiation of prenatal care and maternal age (Eberstein, Nam and Hummer, 1990, p.415). Data analysis was done through multinomial logic regression to measure the gross and net impacts of the independent variables on the dependent variables. The results of this study are indicated in table 1. Eberstein, Nam and Hummer (1990) found out that the Hispanics recorded higher levels of infant mortality from perinatal conditions than other ethnic communities. On the other hand, the black communities recorded a higher infant mortality rate from SIDS than other ethnic communities. Infant mortality rate also decreased as the age of the mother increased. Low education levels were positively correlated with higher deaths from infections and perinatal mortality. The study by Eberstein, Nam and Hummer (1990) is important for this study because it explains how factors such as education levels and socio economic status affect infant mortality rates.

Closely linked to the Eberstein, Nam and Hummer’s study is the study carried out by Frisbie, Biegler, Turk, Forbes and Pullum (1997). The study is concerned with the racial and ethnic disparities in intrauterine growth retardation and other compromised birth results. The data used was obtained from the National Maternal and Infant Health Survey (NMIHS). These data were collected through questionnaire from a sample of mothers who had delivered their babies in 1988. Stratification was then done to classify the sampling elements according to their age, marital status and race among other categories. Multivariate analysis was used as the preferred data analysis technique. Frisbie, Biegler, Turk, Forbes and Pullum found out that the minority communities (Mexican Americans and African Americans) were more likely to record low socio economic status as indicated by low education and income levels. The highest occurrence of intrauterine growth retardation was in mothers with low educational levels, first-time mothers, mothers who relied on government aid and mothers who lacked access to frequent high-quality prenatal care. In sum, the highest rate of intrauterine growth retardation was recorded among African American mothers. The study by Frisbie, Biegler, Turk, Forbes and Pullum (1997) is important for this study because it shows how African American maternal and infant health is affected by many underlying social factors such as education and socio economic status.

Frisbie, Forbes and Hummer (1998) also carried out a study to determine the pregnancy outcomes among the Hispanic population. The data used consisted of the 1989, 1990 and 1991 Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). The data totaled more than 9 million births and more than 58,500 infant deaths. The logic regression models were used to analyze the collected data. The study by Frisbie, Forbes and Hummer (1998) found out that of the Hispanic subgroups, Cuban mothers record a higher rate of high school completion, a lower percentage of births given by mothers who are under eighteen years of age, and a higher rate of mothers who receive adequate prenatal care. The Puerto Ricans on the other hand record the highest percentage of smokers while the Mexican American mothers record the lowest level of education among the Hispanic population (see table 2). The results also show that the highest rates of premature births, low birth weight and infant mortality are recorded by Puerto Ricans. Mexican Americans follow Puerto Ricans closely in recording the highest rate of premature births and infant mortality. The usefulness of this article to the study is that it shows how social and environmental factors affect the health of the mother and the unborn child and how their health in turn determine the survival chances of the newborn baby.

Other articles useful to the study include Mason’s “Explaining Fertility Transitions” and Omran’s “The epidemiologic transition: A theory of the epidemiology of population change.” The article by Mason (1997) is a discussion of the evolutions made in fertility over the decades. It explains how fertility has fallen over the years from an average of more than four children per woman to an average of two or less children per woman. The article discusses the theories of fertility transitions namely: the classic demographic transition theory, the theory of wealth flows, the neoclassical microeconomic theory, and the ideational theory. This article is useful to the study because it provides the theoretical framework on which to base the study. The study has been based on the classic demographic transition theory which best explains the rates of infant mortality among the disadvantaged African American community. Closely linked to this article is the article by Omran. Omran (2005) explains the theory of epidemiologic transition which concentrates on the varying trends of health and sickness and on the relationships between these trends and their demographic effects. Omran’s article is usefulness to the study because it explains the factors that affect the demographic variables namely: fertility, mortality and migration. As a result, it provides a deeper insight and a better understanding of the correlation between infant mortality and social and environmental factors.

Hypotheses

This study will test the hypothesis that:

• There is no relationship between the educational level of African American mothers and infant mortality rates.
• There is no relationship between the income level of African American households and infant mortality rates.
• Crime rates in African American communities do not have a significant effect on infant mortality rates in these communities.
• Access to adequate prenatal care does not have a significant effect on infant mortality rates in African American communities.
• There is no relationship between the state of families in African American communities and infant mortality rates.

Data and method

Research design, data type and data collection technique

Survey will be used as the research design of choice for this study. Sampling will be done to select the samples to be included. The target population will consist of mothers from African American descent who are more likely to record low educational levels, low household and personal incomes, high crime rates in their neighborhoods, low access to adequate prenatal care and dysfunctional state of their families. Samples will be selected through simple random sampling technique in which the sapling elements will be selected without bias from the target population. This sampling technique will enable the researchers to select a sample that is representative of the target population. That is, it will ensure that every member of the target population has an equal and independent opportunity of being included in the sample. The data to be collected is primary data which will be collected through the interview technique. A semi-structured questionnaire will be used as the data collection instrument. The interviewers will use and follow the questionnaire to collect data from the recipients. The use of the semi-structured questionnaire as well as the presence of the interviewers during the data collection process will enable the researchers to obtain supplementary information and clarify vague questions or responses.

Data analysis

Inferential analysis will be used to analyze the collected data. Inferential analysis is used when the researcher wants to determine the present or absence of a correlation between the dependent and independent variables. It is also used to make conclusions about the population from which the samples have been drawn. This particular study will make use of the inferential analysis technique because the main aim of the study is to determine the existence (or lack thereof) of a relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The study is also interested in determining whether the population from which the samples were selected is homogeneous or heterogeneous. Correlation analysis will be used as the preferred inferential analysis technique to test the hypotheses of this study using the data collected for each sample country. Although there are several correlation analysis methods, the Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) will be used as the preferred analysis method.

The Pearson’s correlation coefficient tests the existence (or absence), strength and magnitude of the correlation between two sets of variables so long as the data are interval: that is, the data are not arranged in either ascending or descending order. If r is +1.0 it means that the correlation between the variables is strongly positive. On the other hand, if r is -1.0 it means that the correlation between the variables is strongly negative. If there is no correlation between the variables, the r will be 0.0 (Coolican, 1994, p.43). The Pearson’s correlation coefficient therefore ranges between 0 and 1 and can take either a positive or a negative sign depending on the direction of the correlation between the variables. The estimated statistical equation is: Y = C + D – E – I – P where Y is infant mortality, C is crime level, D is family dysfunctionality, E is education level, I is income level and P is access to adequate prenatal care.

The use of a sample (particularly a small sample) to test hypotheses pertaining to a population is almost always accompanied by the possibility of a sampling error occurring. There is also the possibility that the correlation in the population from which the sample is drawn is zero. Hence, a strong correlation found in a sample might be due to chance. To test whether or not there is a correlation in the population from which the samples are drawn, the student t-test will be used. In this study, the level of significance to be used will be 0.05 (meaning 95% confidence level). The level of significance shows the probability that the magnitude of the disparity between the dependent and independent variables might have been as a result of a sampling error or by chance instead of by treatment. The 0.05 level of significance implies that the observed outcome can only happen by chance 5 times in 100 cases but 95 percent of the cases are as a result of the treatment. The decision rule is that: if the computed t falls within the range of the values of t in the student t table, the null hypothesis will not be rejected. This means that there is no correlation in the population from which the samples were drawn. On the other hand, if the computed t falls beyond the values of t in the student t table, the null hypothesis will be rejected and the alternative hypothesis will be accepted. This implies that there is a correlation in the population from which the samples were drawn.

Findings

Effect of educational levels on infant mortality

The estimation is that the samples with less than 9 years of schooling will record the highest rate of infant mortality, followed by samples with 9-12 years of schooling. Samples with more than 12 years of schooling will record the lowest infant mortality rates. The correlation between income and infant mortality should therefore be negative.

Effect of income levels on infant mortality

The estimation is that the samples with low household income will record the highest infant mortality rates while samples with high household income will record the lowest infant mortality rates. The correlation between income and infant mortality should therefore be negative.

Effect of crime level on infant mortality

The estimation is that samples living in high-crime neighborhoods will record the highest rate of infant mortality while samples living in low-crime neighborhoods will record the lowest infant mortality rates. The correlation between crime and infant mortality should therefore be positive.

Effect of access to adequate prenatal care on infant mortality

The estimation is that samples that have frequent and adequate access to prenatal care will record the lowest rates of infant mortality. On the other hand, samples that lack access to frequent and adequate prenatal care will record the highest rates of infant mortality. The correlation between access to adequate prenatal care and infant mortality is negative.

Effect of family dysfunctionality on infant mortality

It is estimated that single mothers or mothers living in conflict-ridden households will record the highest infant mortality rates. On the other hand, samples from intact and conflict-free households will record the lowest rates of infant mortality. The correlation between family dysfunctionality and infant mortality should therefore be positive.

Table 1: Cross-tabulation of sample by categorical independent variables and descriptive statistics for continuous independent variables. Source: Eberstein, Nam and Hummer (1990).

Table 2: National Center for Health Statistics Linked Birth/Infant Death for 1989, 1990 and 1991. Source: Frisbie, Forbes and Hummer (1998).

References

Eberstein, I.W., Nam, C., & Hummer, R.A. (1990). Infant mortality by cause of death: Main and interaction effects. Demography, 27.3, 413-430.

Frisbie, W.P., Biegler, M., Turk, P., Forbes, D., & Pullum, S.G. (1997). Racial and ethnic differences in determinants of intrauterine growth retardation and other compromised birth outcomes. American Journal of Public Health, 87.12, 1977-1983.

Frisbie, W.P., Forbes, D., & Hummer, R.A. (1998). Hispanic pregnancy outcomes: Additional evidence. Social Science Quarterly, 79.1, 149-169.

Mason, K.O. (1997). Explaining fertility transitions. Demography, 34.4, 443-454.

Omran, A.R. (2005). The epidemiologic transition: A theory of the epidemiology of population change. The Milbank Quarterly, 83.4, 731-757.

The desegregation efforts of Tennessee schools in the 1950s encouraged African Americans to push for more rights. As a result, the leaders of civil rights movements progressed beyond courts and learning institutions. Some whites assisted the people of color in engaging in the marketplace and street activities to break segregation walls, leading to a tragic and triumphant story. Sit-in demonstration strategies were not new because they had been utilized in the 1950s. However, the behavior of southern states in the early 1950s significantly impacted the civil rights movements. This prompted several African Americans students to sit in on February 1, 1960, in North Carolina, which ignited responses in the entire South. The act, which would be termed as simple, deviated Nashville’s laws and customs by holding the meeting at an all-white lunch counter. There were four people of color colleges in the area, which assured the movement of brave and dedicated civil rights advocates and leaders such as attorneys and clergy.

The heads of the groups organized Nashville Christian Leadership Council (NCLC) in early 1958. This organization established a non-violence program spearheaded by Rev. James Lawson from 1958 to 1959. Additionally, NCLC adopted the downtown lunch counters’ desegregation in early 1959. The organization tried to negotiate with different traders, although their efforts were unsuccessful. In late 1959, the movement staged two distinct sit-ins at various stores, which confirmed that African Americans would not be served on lunch counters. Therefore, a catalyst was required to launch the Nashville movement, and the Greensboro sit-ins provided it. Before the end of February in 1960, four different demonstrations were conducted at the downtown stores. The number of African Americans participating in the meetings had significantly increased compared to those held before. However, the February 27 demonstrations were characterized by violence and arrests. Seventy-five students were arrested, but none of the white agitators were sized.

The photograph on page 307 illustrates individuals with different emotions and characteristics. These people of color face the contrary sides, with some females smiling while the males have dull faces and are possibly unhappy. Additionally, these African American men seem to be in deep thoughts. However, Black female students are facing the white person to adhere to the rules of being friendly while at the counter. There are other people of color at the corner of the counter whose eyes are focused on the white person sitting close to the African Americans. There are also two whites comfortably walking inside the lunch counter and can be described as being in high spirits.

Kinship refers to social relationships that constitute an essential part of people’s lives in different societies. As a rule, kinship is understood as the relationship between the members of one family. However, this concept is complex and broad, and various cultures approach it differently. According to Scodari (2017), understanding kinship from a genetic or biological perspective would be incomplete because culturally determined family relations often form and need to be considered. Therefore, kinship interrelates with the concept of cultural inheritance as well as ethnic and racial identity issues. In this regard, the Black Lives Matter movement represents a notable phenomenon that can be studied in regard to the idea of family. This paper aims to discuss how kinship is related to the Black Lives Matter community.

In the African American context, kinship does not only refer to the nuclear family that includes two parents and their children, a notion common to the United States and Western Europe. Instead, as Belgrave and Allison (2018) report, kinship is the extended family based on “the communal values of solidarity, mutual helpfulness, interdependence, and concern for the well-being of every individual member of society” (p. 133). As can be seen, cultural relatedness plays an important role in defining kinship for the African American community. Therefore, the Black Lives Matter community is an important system that supports the idea of cultural kinship and unity.

Overall, Black Lives Matter is an organization aiming to eliminate white supremacy and support black communities. In this regard, the difference in the idea of family and kinship for white and black cultures is essential to understand because Western values are often imposed on the African-American community. Kinship is a unique characteristic that is not solely based on a generic relationship. The Black Lives Matter community supports the idea of unity and mutual helpfulness in the black culture.

References

Belgrave, F. Z., & Allison, K. W. (2018). Kinship and family. In F. Z. Belgrave & K. W. Allison, African American psychology: From Africa to America (4th ed.) (pp. 127-157). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Scodari C. (2017). When markers meet marketing: Ethnicity, race, hybridity, and kinship in genetic genealogy television advertising.Genealogy, 1(22), p. 1-14. Web.

This phenomenological qualitative study examines why very few African American Women (AAW) occupy executive leadership positions in the federal government. According to the Congressional Research Service, the United States federal government hires over 2.1 million civilian employees (Shimabukuro & Staman, 2019). African American Women are said to be employed in various positions of the federal government. However, according to the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (2018), African American women are incredibly underrepresented in leadership and high status and are only given low-grade positions. Pierce (2020a) believes that gender-based mentoring can play a crucial role in developing female leadership skills. Nevertheless, such type of mentoring causes challenges for African American females because of their gender and race; this is usually referred to as double jeopardy (Pierce, 2020b). Therefore, there is a necessity for interviewing African American Women and studying this topic further.

In order to see the whole picture and estimate whether this issue is critical, it is necessary to gather and analyze specific data. The chosen method for this study is to interview a vast number of participants, specifically, about 20.000 people. This is only a small part of those hired by the United States federal government, but it should be enough to make certain conclusions. However, due to the COVID-19 isolation, it is impossible to conduct face-to-face questionnaires, and Twitter, Facebook, and other social media are also unacceptable since not everyone has an account (Nolinske, 2021). Therefore, another method that would be safe while also providing excellent response rates is needed.

First, it is possible to use a telephone survey, a type of personal approach. According to Nolinske (2021), almost all people utilize mobile phones every day, and such a method provides anonymity and allows to ask consequential questions. Though some persons are not used to answer phone calls from unknown numbers, most people usually agree to participate in short surveys if the topic is serious and concerns them in any way (Nolinske, 2021). Therefore, considering the inability to conduct face-to-face questionnaires because of the virus, this is the best way to obtain African American Women’s interviews.

Another method that should be appropriate for this study, considering the current global situation, is online surveys. According to Nolinske (2021), during the first few days, they are proved to be more effective than mailed questionnaires and even in-person interviews. Such surveys require less time, may be finished whenever it is more comfortable for a participant, and allow people to feel safer, relaxed, and protected by anonymity and confidentiality rules.

The significance of studying this topic is difficult to be overestimated. One of the core American values is about equality and respected human rights, but African American women are extremely underrepresented in leadership and high status (Anderson, 2020). This proves the fact that there are gender and racial inequality, which is not based on any logical and authoritative reasons (Pierce, 2020b). Women, regardless of their skin color, should not be deprived of their rights, including the right to lead, guide, teach, and mentor. Though gender-based mentorship may solve this issue, it also causes particular double jeopardy for African American women due to their gender and race (Anderson, 2020). This serious problem requires more researchers and politics to interfere and take part in its elimination. African American females’ mistreatment and underestimation should become a global issue; that is why it is essential to study this topic and make it well-known.

Several important goals are expected to be accomplished by this study. First, new and crucial information may be learned during interviews and analysis of the answers. Then, this study may assist in making an extended number of people aware of this issue of African American women being underrepresented in leadership. As gender-based mentorship is proved to be effective in developing female leadership skills, it should be modified so that African American females would not face too many challenges. Finally, this study is likely to contribute to the academic field and research of this topic, which may introduce significant changes in allowing African American and other women to enter leadership positions more often.

References

Anderson, R. H. (2020). Challenging our gendered idea of mentorship.Harvard Business Review. Web.

Nolinske, T. (2021). Methods of survey data collection. National Business Research Institute. Web.

Pierce, F. D. (2020a). African American women’s perceptions about double jeopardy and mentoring in the federal government (Publication No. 8327) [Dissertation, Walden University]. Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies.

Pierce, F. D. (2020b, October 1-2). Modernizing the approach to mentoring for African American women in the federal government [Poster presentation]. Web.

Shimabukuro, J. O., & Staman, J. A. (2019). Categories of federal civil service employment: A snapshot[PDF Document]. Web.

U.S. Office of Personnel Management. (2018). Federal workforce data. FedScope Web.

Gender and race biases embedded into the construction of knowledge have made the leadership of prominent Black women invisible. As a social phenomenon, leadership has often been defined in male terms and linked to elitist positions, and operationalized in the public sphere. This has led to the establishment of leadership theories as rarely generalizable to women and minorities. As a result of that, sociological perspectives emphasize the function of Black male leaders. When it comes to the positions of Senior Executive Service professionals in the federal government, recent findings showed that the area is highly segregated by race, with only around 10% of Black executives (Senior Executives Association, 2020). Black women are not perceived as serving a part of the dominant power structure and, therefore, are regarded as irrelevant. Studying this issue from the Black feminist theory perspective is essential as the approach centers around the premise that Black women’s liberation is critical because of the need to provide autonomy, ensure human dignity, and help support their inherent value.

The barriers that women of color experience in achieving elective office are many, with Black women and individuals of color are underrepresented in the federal government. In the US, most officials in government are men, while most women officials are white, which points to the ongoing trend of the lack of diversity (Dittmar, 2020). AAW women are disadvantaged in such a context by their intersections of race, gender, and class inequalities with implications for all aspects of governmental participation, including pursuing an elective office. Moreover, as indicated by Dittmar (2020) and gender research literature in general, women candidates for statewide executive positions face overall skepticism from their appointers regarding their credentials, and citizens tend to be more comfortable with women holding rather legislative than executive positions. When it comes to statewide offices, it is expected that women seek to have more ‘feminine’ roles in the office, such as state education, rather than ‘masculine’ positions such as attorney general.

As suggested by research literature, there is a wide range of gender-related experiences that Black women encounter working toward senior leadership positions in the federal government (Mayberry, 2019; Nash, 2019). However, Black feminists have suggested that the available research lacks adequate representation and exploration of the personalized perspectives and experiences of Black women. Besides, Black feminist theory is concerned with countering the misinformation and stereotypes about the myths around race and gender differences (Nash, 2019). Black women’s experiences with life are different from those of Black men and white women, considering their history, culture, and sociopolitical factors concerned with the effects of global racial oppression (Curtis, 2017; Mayberry, 2019). Besides, even when Black women achieve professional advancement in senior leadership positions and acquire measures of economic self-sufficiency, “it is the social realm that racist and gendered stereotypes are continually used as ways of defining Black women’s identity and behavior” (Curtis, 2017, p. 95). Thus, Black feminist theory underlines how society still identifies Black women’s capabilities to be influential senior leaders with the present racial and gender barriers (Mayberry, 2018).

Very few African American Women occupy senior executive service positions in the federal government because the influence of Black feminism remains insufficient, even though women of color represent potent agents of change. According to the Senior Executives Association (2020) findings, the non-SES part of the federal workforce is 18% Black, but the SES workers are less than 11% Black. These findings suggest that systemic racism exists in the federal workforce, and there are several reasons for them. Systemic racism stems from institutional racism and is associated with an array of anti-Black practices. The unjustly received political power of whites and the division of resources along racial lines have enabled racist ideologies intended to create and maintain a rationalized white privilege in power. As a result, racial discrimination occurs in the core of individuals embedded in the federal workforce, thus influencing race-based decisions in the workforce. For African American women who have been bypassed and overlooked for SES and those who have taken strong positions against oppression and discrimination, it is crucial to be included in the federal workforce (Senior Executives Association, 2020). SES ranks will require AAW who are vocal and share their experiences and points of view on the mission to create an improved country and serve the general public the way they deserve and expect to be served from the public sector.

Therefore, the disparity in the representation of Black women in executive positions in federal governments is not bad luck as both structural and cultural barriers consistently limit the opportunities of women of color to attain roles as public leaders. For instance, Black feminist theory suggests that negative stereotypes of African American women, the majority of which can be tracked to the racist depictions of the population during slavery, create caricatures of women’s leadership (McLewis, 2021). Moreover, the negative stereotypes are more likely to influence Black women in contrast to their white counterparts (Nash, 2018).

Even though the double standards and gender-related stereotypes apply to all women trying to attain leadership positions in the federal government, persistent stereotypes of the so-called ‘angry Black women’ have an adverse influence on the unconscious bias regarding how a leader should look (Mayberry, 2018). Instead, women of color are often seen in the roles of caregivers, which is a significantly racialized stereotype creating significant barriers that the group has to overcome. Such stereotypes present challenges to Americans’ understanding of Black women as citizens and leaders, so it is complicated for Black feminism to push the agenda of equality of opportunity to help women of color pursue positions of executive leaders in the federal government.

To conclude, Senior Executive Service positions in federal government remain limited to only a minored proportion of AAW. To facilitate a change in this area with the help of Black feminism, it is vital to recognize and counteract the stereotypes and how racial and gender bias may impact one’s ideas of Black women’s leadership to create more opportunities for women of color to lead in executive positions the federal government. The misalignment between the overrepresentation of Black women as potential candidates for SES roles underrepresentation in the office is indicative of the trend. However, the experiences of Black women are unique and valuable and thus can help enrich SES positions in the federal government when serving the public. While African American women could be valuable and influential contributors to governmental efficiency, Black feminism alone is not powerful enough to guarantee equality of opportunity, with very few African American women occupying Senior Executive Services leadership positions in the federal government.

References

Curtis, S. (2017). Black women’s intersectional complexities: The impact on leadership. Management in Education, 31(2), 94-102. Web.

Dittmar, K. (2020). Advancing women’s political power in the next century. Boston University Law Review, 100, 1665-1687.

Jackson, D., Coombs, D., Trevisan, F., Lilleker, D., & Thornsen, R. (2020). US election analysis 2020: Media, voters and the campaign. Centre for Comparative Politics & Media Research.

Mayberry, K. (2018). African American women leaders, intersectionality, and organizations. Walden University Dissertations and Doctoral Studies. Web.

McLewis, C. (2021). The limits of choice: A black feminist critique of college “choice” theories and research. In L. Perna (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 1-57). Springer.

Nash, J. (2019). Black feminism reimagined: After intersectionality. Duke University Press.

Senior Executives Association. (2020). SEA statement on systemic racism in the federal workforce. Web.

Abstract

• The study investigates the link between intervention adherence and DUI recidivism.
• Issues:
  • The lack of diversity in the sample;
  • Limitations of using administrative data;
  • Absence of written consent and opportunities for withdrawal.
• Implications:
  • Substantial evidence in support of involved interventions;
  • Cultural differences have to be considered in program design.

The presentation examines the quality of research considering the effect of intervention adherence on DUI recidivism. The research question posed by the authors is clear; it is based on the sufficient literature review that describes the current problems in DUI recidivism prevention. The study employs a quasi-experimental design and purposive sampling, which, while choosing suitable participants, fails to address the issue of minorities’ representation. The results of the Cox Regression Model demonstrate that multiple risk factors can predict recidivation, but adherence to intervention programs lowers repeat offenses significantly. Overall, the study presents a high quality of research, but some ethical issues require further consideration.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Purpose: To gain insight into the reasons behind different responses to intervention programs.
• Does adherence (versus non-adherence or non-enrollment) to an intervention program lower DUI recidivism?
• Hypotheses:
  • Multiple risk factors influence DUI recidivism rates.
  • Factors: demographics (age, gender, race), prior DUI arrests, criminal history, traffic citations, weekly alcohol consumption, alcohol problems, impulse control, education.

In their study, Robertson, Gardner, Walker, and Tatch (2016) review the impact of different factors on people’s rates of DUI (driving under the influence) recidivism. Specifically, they pose a research question about the effectiveness of adhering to a driving program in contrast to non-adherence and non-attendance. Furthermore, Robertson et al. (2016) hypothesize that different characteristics (age, gender, race, education level, and others) influence the recidivism rates. The purpose of this research is to analyze the connections between multiple risk factors, interventions, and recidivism.

Literature Review

• The review provides sufficient information:
  • The demographic description of likely repeat offenders (30-years-old or younger White male).
  • The predictors of recidivism (ethnicity, criminal history, alcohol misuse).
• Existing literature does not examine multiple factors simultaneously.
• This study is based on a multicomponent intervention.

The authors use the existing scholarship to construct their research. Robertson et al. (2016) show that the previous findings describe potential repeat DUI offenders as men younger than 30 who “completed 12 or fewer years of education and have low socioeconomic status” (p. 597). The literature review is comprehensive, examining the different approaches to researching this topic. The scholars aim to prove that their study is significant since older research does not analyze the factor of program adherence or the impact of several factors on recidivism rates.

Design and Sampling

• One-group quasi-experimental design.
• Non-probability, purposive sample.
• Participants: Individuals ordered to complete the MASEP (Mississippi Alcohol Safety Education Program) between 2008 and 2010.
• Gender: 80.2% male, 19.8% female.
• Race: 58.8% White, 38.7% African American/Black, 2.6% other.
• Program completion: 62.4% completed, 8.8% non-adherent, 28.8% non-enrolled (Robertson et al., 2016, p. 601).

The authors utilize a quasi-experimental design with purposive sampling since they need to review the impact of one intervention on people who were ordered to complete the program. They collect the necessary information through the program’s data and state administrative records. It is implied that the first DUI offense is followed by the court’s order to participate in the MASEP, but Robertson et al. (2016) note that some of the individuals had prior DUI offenses.

Measures: Intervention

• Mississippi Alcohol Safety Education Program (MASEP).
• 4 weekly 3-hour sessions.
• Homework with additional information.
• Self-monitoring for substance use, triggers, and patterns.
• DUI avoidance plan presentation to peers.

The intervention is the MASEP, a court-mandated program for first-time DUI offenders issued in the state of Mississippi. It includes such steps as the education about health effects and driving impairments of alcohol and other drugs, Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET), group interaction to encourage discussion, individualized feedback about drug use problems and future risks, and problem-solving training (Robertson et al., 2016). Full adherence implies that a participant was present on all sessions and completed homework assignments as intended.

Measures: Variables

• Independent: program completion.
• Control:
  • Demographics (race, gender, age);
  • Prior DUI arrests, criminal history, traffic citations;
  • Recent alcohol and drug use (prescription pain medications, marijuana, mixing alcohol and drugs);
  • Weekly alcohol consumption;
  • Alcohol problem severity (AUDIT, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test);
  • Impulse control (Drinker Inventory of Consequences and Research Institute on Addictions Self-Inventory), Cronbach alpha = .62 (Robertson et al., 2016).
• Dependent: DUI recidivism (DUI-related arrest within 3 years of the MASEP referral/enrollment).

Since Robertson et al. (2016) proposed an analysis of multiple recidivism factors, the study has many variables. The main connection is drawn between the completion of the intervention and the rate of recidivism. Nonetheless, the authors also account for various aspects of people’s status, demographics, and history of drug use and offenses. The dependent variable is based on administrative records of arrests.

Data Analysis

• Strategy: a multivariate Cox Regression Model.
• Hazard ratios are examined as odds ratios.
• Examines various predictors of recidivism within 3 years.

Cox regression is a method that examines the time until the event (in this case, a repeat DUI offense). This model allows one to use multiple predictors, such as the control variables that were mentioned previously. It also is effective for handling censored cases, when recidivation does not happen in the established period of time. Thus, Cox regression can be used in this research to analyze participants who were and were not arrested on repeat DUI charges. The use of this model directly refers to the research question since it investigates the effects of completion on recidivism. It also helps to confirm the hypotheses that multiple factors impact recidivation rates by including other variables.

Data Analysis (Results)

The results demonstrate that the participants who completed the MASEP had a lower recidivism rate (23.1%) than non-adherent offenders (28.3%) and non-enrolled individuals (29.2%) (Robertson et al., 2016, p. 601). The difference is statistically significant between the first and the two other segments (χ 2 = 86.180, p < .001). In relation to the demographics, the rates vary significantly in all groups. Among the people who completed the intervention, females (17.3%) were less likely to recidivate than males (24.6%; χ 2 = 62.115, p < .001). The recidivation rates of African Americans (both men and women, 25.3%) were higher than those of White participants (22.0%; χ 2 = 20.757, p < .001). Offenders who were 33 and younger (24.4%) were more likely to recidivate than their older counterparts (21.8%; χ 2 = 12.588, p < .001). As for the predictors of recidivism, non-adherence, male gender, African American race, less education, young age, high AUDIT scores, low impulse control scores, a non-DUI criminal record, and previous traffic citations were found to be significant (Robertson et al., 2016).

Ethical Considerations

• Approved by Mississippi State University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB).
• Implied consent.
• Use of IDs and social security numbers lowers anonymity.
• Focus on White and African American males.

The study was approved by the IRB, and the authors guaranteed the participants full anonymity. However, Robertson et al. (2016) did not ask for written consent, stating that the agreement to participate was implied by the completion of the assessment. This lack of clarity and inability of individuals to withdraw the information raises some ethical issues for the study. Moreover, the sample’s purposive aspect highlights the need to represent minority populations adequately to avoid incorrect results. The demographics of the sample show that the research appraised mostly White and Black participants, while individuals of other races comprised less than 10% Similarly, less than 20% of all offenders were women, which also undermines the findings about their response to the intervention.

Consistency with Social Work Values and Priorities

• Relevant Values:
  • Service;
  • Social justice;
  • Dignity and worth of the person;
  • Importance of Human Relationships.

The examined study addresses the social problem of DUI offenses, providing insight into the effectiveness of intervention programs. Thus, its results can help people to improve the existing initiatives and lead to lower arrest numbers. Robertson et al. (2016) address the study’s finding that shows its lack of appeal for African American participants and people with less education. The program’s creators should reevaluate these factors to limit social inequality in access to knowledge. The authors’ comments about diversity show that they are mindful of people’s unique differences. The importance of human interaction can be seen in the program itself, which prioritizes group work, feedback, and peer support. Overall, the study’s consistency with the values of social work is limited by the sample.

Summary

• Research questions are clear.
• The literature review is sufficient.
• The sample lacks diversity.
• The analysis is transparent.
• Findings reveal new valuable information.

The study by Robertson et al. (2016) offers a new approach to analyzing potential recidivation among first DUI offenders. It is based on existing research, but it also provides some new data and shows that predictions should not rely on one factor. The sample does not represent some minorities sufficiently, which means that some of the findings may not be applied in many settings. Nonetheless, this study presents a model that can help intervention developers in creating programs that can appeal to and help people with different cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds. To sum up, the main weaknesses are the sample and some ethical issues related to anonymity and consent, while the chosen analysis model is a strength of the research.

Implications for the Research

• Intervention programs need to be understandable.
• Minorities’ cultural differences have to be acknowledged.
• Initiatives with multiple strategies may be successful.
• More research into the different risk factors is necessary.

The findings of this research indicate that the information presented during programs is challenging for some participants, depending on their education. The design of these interventions should change to appeal to more people. Adherence is tied to lower recidivation rates, thus stressing the importance of ensuring that people attend all sessions and complete all assignments. More studies should be conducted to see what particular activities encourage attendance. In particular, it is vital to find what is attractive to people with different experiences.

Reference

Robertson, A., Gardner, S., Walker, C. S., & Tatch, A. (2016). DUI recidivism by intervention adherence: A multiple risk factor approach. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 42(5), 597-605.

According to the data provided by the US Census Bureau (2019), African Americans constitute approximately 17 percent of the population in Florida. In spite of the fact that this race is in the minority in this American state, African Americans there are incredibly diverse. This diversity is illustrated by the different social and economic statuses of people, their education, age, and residence in urban, suburban, and rural areas of Florida.

The government of Florida pays a lot of attention to the fact that its policies should correspond with the diverse population’s needs. Perhaps, the most important step toward the satisfaction of diverse populations’ requirements is the creation of the Florida diversity council. Apparently, the council targets not only African Americans but people of other races as well. Nevertheless, racial minorities, in comparison to white people, are more prone to suffer from discrimination. Therefore, the diversity council is especially beneficial for African Americans because it helps them escape discrimination issues.

The council has established several diversity programs that target employment and education. The council has also created a DiversityFIRST™ Toolkit through which employees all over the country become aware of how to advance diversity in their firms. They could also learn from examples of the most successful companies that have incorporated diversity into their culture. The Florida diversity council does a great job of protecting the interests of African Americans. The council helps fight against racial, gender, and age prejudices and works on equal career opportunities for all Florida citizens. Nevertheless, employment is just a minor part of the issue related to unequal chances for a diverse population. The government still has a lot of work to do with equalizing access to decent healthcare and education.

References

US Census Bureaus (2019). QuickFacts Florida. Web.