Category: African Americans

Introduction

Over the last 2 decades, media industry played a huge role in determining how people socialized in our communities¹. Media can greatly influence how individuals in our societies relate and understand one another. In the past, media critics have alleged that African Americans are prejudiced and underrepresented in the media industry. Similarly, African Americans claim that their underrepresentation in the media industry has not only stereotyped them, but also limited their roles in the industry. As such, the newspapers preserve specific roles in the caricatures depicting African American actors².

By doing so, the industry has enhanced stereotypes and prejudices against the race. In the research questions, the article below analyses how African Americans are depicted in editorial cartoons and in their daily lives³. Similarly, the article illustrates the racial stereotypes displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons and their daily lives. The article is subdivided into introduction, literature review, research questions, operationalization, findings, data analysis, reflections, and conclusions subheadings.

Literature review

Race is a term used by a number of people in reference to specific clusters of people notable by bodily features such as skin colors. Racism refers to a set of thoughts, which suggests the dominance of a single social group over others. Dominance arises due to differences in biological or cultural traits across various races. On the other hand, stereotypes refer to overgeneralization with respect to the outlook, conduct, or other traits unique to a specific cluster of people.

According to Cohen Karl, cartoon editorials depict different races depending on the stereotypes exhibited by the society⁴. By doing so, the media industry has enhanced stereotypes and prejudices against specific races⁵. Before slavery was abolished in North America, African American were depicted using coon caricatures⁶. The caricatures linked the African Americans with apes. Through this, the authorities were able to justify slavery. During much of the 20th century, cartoon portrayals of African Americans as apes were to some extent more understated⁷. According to Reeves Andy, a number of the anti-African American cartoon depictions were directed against the African American celebrities.

Given these challenges, newspaper editors and media stakeholders are now trying to tackle the alleged accusations⁸. Currently, newspaper editors are expanding their boundaries to allow equal representation of all races in the industry regardless of their race or gender. Through this, the cartoonists are encouraged to come up with portraits that do not depict negative stereotypes against any race.

Research questions

The research paper identified how the media industry plays an influential responsibility on how people perceive races. The media industry portrays how different races relate. In the recent past, the media has been condemned for meddling with the intention of realizing racial equality and propagating undesirable racial prejudices⁹. Given these challenges and the historical stereotypes of African American, the media fraternity should tackle the alleged accusations. They should try to expand their boundaries to allow equal representation of all races in the industry. Highlighted below are the research questions the study sought to find solutions.

1. Research: How are different African Americans depicted in editorial cartoons?
2. Rational: To find out what racial stereotypes, if any are displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons?

Operationalization

As indicated below, the unit of observation was editorial cartoons. During the research process, the variable was the African American race. To assess the key variables, a coding scheme was utilized. The coding scheme depicted African American race into three categories. The categories were positive, negative, and neutral. With respect to negative stereotypes, African American cartoons in editorial cartoons were depicted as beings with anti-social conducts and socially unacceptable behaviors such as committing crimes, carrying weapons, public indecency, deviance, lazy, and shabbily dressed. Concerning positive stereotypes, they are depicted as people with acts of charity, intelligence, hard work, and well dressed. With respect to neutral stereotypes, the race was depicted as open-minded and conservative.

For this study, the data were collected through field research. The method entailed acquiring public data from secure and reliable criminal justice institutions, face-to-face interviews, and questionnaires. Based on the above, it is apparent that to measure the key variables the extent of the above prejudices have to be measured. Usually, scholars find it challenging to quantity prejudice. Measuring prejudice is challenging because individuals vary in the manner and degree of prejudice they exhibit. For instance, an individual who comes up with belittling remarks about a specific race may be narrow-minded or just uninformed.

In addition, individuals often do not confess to being biased. Individuals may harbor inherent racial biases even when they do not have obvious prejudices. Inherent prejudices can be measured in three methods. Various investigators evaluate attitudes that point to the presence of prejudice in an individual. Other investigators observe conduct instead of evaluating attitudes. Individuals conduct in nerve-wracking conditions may be chiefly beneficial at disclosing inherent prejudice. Other researchers measure the unconscious relations individuals exhibit with respect with a specific race.

To measure the effects of these prejudices to the African American race, a questionnaire was adopted to determine how people react or feel about them. In the questionnaire, the African American were asked to detail their perspectives about how they are depicted in editorial cartoons. On the other part of the questionnaire, several questions measured on a five point Linker scale were included. Linker scale is a variable measuring tool with strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree options. The scale was very effective because it indicated the extent of the prejudice in our society.

To find out what racial stereotypes, if any are displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons, the researchers collected data from the magazines and newspapers libraries. The data indicated the current and the past editorial cartoons depicting the African American race. The scale of measurement during the analysis was an ordinal scale. Reviewing editorial cartoons focusing on African American race published over the time the restrictive policies on racial prejudice have been in place is an effective and secure method of evaluating how the media has implemented such policies.

Data sampling

To achieve our objectives, appropriate data sampling tools were selected for this research. As such, the research utilized probability sampling¹⁰. The research entailed two units of analysis. The units were the cartoon editorials and the African American race. The population targeted by the research comprised of all the newspaper and magazines firms. The research comprised of 50 editorials from Globe, Star, and Post¹¹. On the other hand, the sampling frame comprised of the list of all the editorials sampled. The lists were randomly selected. The scale of measurement was an ordinal scale. The sampling criterion strengthens the study as it enabled the researchers to reach the targeted participants. The whole research was done within a period of 14 weeks.

Findings

For appropriate data findings, appropriate data collection method was selected. For this study, the data method was field research. This method entails acquiring data from secure and reliable newspapers. As indicated above, the research comprised of 50 editorials from Globe, Star, and Post¹². A survey was undertaken among three media. In each of the three media, editorial cartoons on African American were analyzed. The findings were documented as indicated below:

• 15, 10, 25, 0

To come up with a frequency table indicated below, several steps were undertaken. The above outcomes were broken into positive, neutral, negative, and other intervals. Thereafter, the intervals were grouped together. The intervals represented the number of prejudices. Afterwards, a table with separate columns was made. The interval columns indicated the number of prejudices noted in each category. Similarly, the columns represented the frequency and percentage of the outcome. Later, the researchers analyzed the list of statistics from left to right. Through this, the numbers of frequencies were placed in the appropriate row. For instance, positive outcomes were 15. Therefore, the figure was appropriately placed in the row containing positive stereotype subheading. The other outcomes were also appropriately placed. Finally, the percentage of each category was calculated. The percentages were then recorded in the column headed percentage. The frequency distribution table created by the researchers is indicated below.

Table 2: frequency distribution table indicating the frequency and percentage of each category.

Data analysis

After the data was collected, they were compiled and analyzed on a frequency distribution table. Later, frequency and percentage figures were obtained from the data collected. Thereafter, the data were analyzed for accuracy. From the table above, the researchers were able to identify the way different African Americans are depicted in editorial cartoons. Similarly, the tables enabled the researchers to identify the racial stereotypes displayed in Canadian editorial cartoons. Through the findings, the researchers were able to determine the racial prejudices in Canadian media.

From the table, it is apparent that a number of Canadian cartoons depicting African American are prejudiced. A number of the newspapers sampled depicted African American as beings with anti-social conducts and socially unacceptable behaviors such as committing crimes, carrying weapons, public indecency, deviance, lazy, and shabbily dressed. The percentage of negative prejudice was 50%. Thirty percent of the newspapers sampled had a positive prejudice of African American¹³. As such, the editorials depicted the race as people with acts of charity, intelligence, hard work, and well dressed. On the other hand, 20% of the editorials sampled had neutral prejudices of African American. The editorials depicted the race as open-minded and conservative.

Reflections

The strength of the research conducted is that it offered the researchers with a review of how African Americans are depicted in the cartoon editorial in Canada. The research findings are of benefits to the media stakeholder and activists. During the research process, a number of potential problems that are likely to influence the progress and outcomes affected the researchers¹⁴. For instance, the process of convincing individuals to be part of the study was difficult. For example, most individuals did not like to be involved in procedures that tend to question or investigate their biasness¹⁵.

Just like any other research, investigators were faced with ethical issues during their studies. Therefore, they had to be watchful when tackling ethical dilemmas encountered in the field¹⁶. The problem of consent had been recognized as one of the issues that were likely to affect the progress of the proposed research. In particular, the issue of examining the extend of racial prejudice in the identified individuals was a challenge because people tend to conceal information on prejudices against other races.

Conclusions

In conclusion, it should be noted that media industry played a huge role in determining how people socialized in our communities. Media can greatly influence how individuals in our societies relate and understand one another. In the past, media critics have alleged that African Americans are prejudiced and underrepresented in the media industry. Before slavery was abolished in North America, African American were depicted using coon caricatures. The caricatures linked the African Americans with apes. Through this, the authorities were able to justify slavery. During much of the 20th century, cartoon portrayals of African Americans as apes were to some extent more understated. The research paper above highlighted how the media industry plays an influential responsibility on how people perceive races. From the research findings, it is apparent that a number of Canadian cartoons depicting African American are prejudiced.

References

Babbie, Earl. Fundamentals of Social Research. Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thomson Learning, 2014. Web.

Booth, Wayne C., and Gregory G. Colomb. The Craft of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. Web.

Cline, John. Contemporary Communication Content Analysis. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub., 2002. Web.

Cohen, Karl F. Forbidden Animation: Censored Cartoons and Blacklisted Animators in America. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland &, 2007. Web.

Krippendorff, Klaus. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 2003. Web.

Lentin, Alana, and Gavan Titley. The Crises of Multiculturalism Racism in a Neoliberal Age. London: Zed Books, 2011. Web.

Lynch, Stacy, and Limor Peer. Analyzing Newspaper Content A How-To Guide. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2002. Web.

Reeves, Andy. Cartoon Corner: Humor-based Mathematics Activities : A Collection Adapted from Cartoon Corner in Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2007. Web.

Reiter, Roland. An Analysis of Movies, Documentaries, Spoofs and Cartoons. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2008. Web.

Satzewich, Vic. Racism in Canada. Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 2011. Web.

Steuter, Erin, and Deborah Wills. At War with Metaphor: Media, Propaganda, and Racism in the War on Terror. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008. Web.

The Globe. The Globe and Mail  Home. The Globe and Mail. 2015. Web.

The Post. Todays Press Covers Kiosko.net. The National Post Canada. 2015. Web.

The star. Canadas Largest Daily. Thestar.com. 2015. Web.

Valleriani, Kathleen A. Community Feedback on Second Content Analysis. Chicago: National Reading Conference, 2014. Web.

Wilson, Clint C., and Fe Rrez. Racism, Sexism, and the Media: The Rise of Class Communication in Multicultural America. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003. Web.

Footnotes

1 Alana, Lentin, and Titley, Gavan. The Crises of Multiculturalism Racism in a Neoliberal Age. (London: Zed Books, 2011.), 123. Web.

2 Erin,Steuter and Wills Deborah. At War with Metaphor: Media, Propaganda, and Racism in the War on Terror. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008.), 32. Web.

3 Earl, Babbie. Fundamentals of Social Research. (Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thomson Learning, 2014.), 21. Web.

4 Karl, Cohen. Forbidden Animation: Censored Cartoons and Blacklisted Animators in America. (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland &, 2007.), 43. Web.

5 Wayne, Booth., and Colomb, Gregory. The Craft of Research. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.), 34. Web.

6 Vic, Satzewich. Racism in Canada. (Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 2011.), 61. Web.

7 , Andy,Reeves. Cartoon Corner: Humor-based Mathematics Activities: A Collection Adapted from Cartoon Corner in Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. (Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2007.), 54. Web.

8 John Cline. Contemporary Communication Content Analysis. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub., 2002.) 56. Web.

9 Clint C ,Wilson, and Rrez Fe. Racism, Sexism, and the Media: The Rise of Class Communication in Multicultural America. 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2003.), 21. Web.

10 Stacy, Lynch, and Peer, Limor. Analyzing Newspaper Content A How-To Guide. (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2002.), 54. Web.

11 The star. Canadas Largest Daily. Thestar.com. 2015. Web.

12 The Globe. The Globe and Mail  Home. The Globe and Mail. 2015. Web.

13 The Post. Todays Press Covers Kiosko.net. The National Post Canada. 2015. Web.

14 Klaus, Krippendorff. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. (Beverly Hills:Sage Publications, 2003.), 67. Web.

15 Kathleen A Valleriani. Community Feedback on Second Content Analysis. (Chicago: National Reading Conference, 2014.), 17. Web.

16 Roland, Reiter. An Analysis of Movies, Documentaries, Spoofs and Cartoons. (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2008.), 145. Web.

The introduction of African American Studies in the curriculums has had a lot of support as well as disapprovals regarding the content coverage. This paper forms an analysis of the challenges and the right Trans or multi-disciplinary approaches required to contribute to growth and development of the studies.

The first challenges the researchers of these studies have to face include the Geographical boundaries. Evidently, most analysis and writings of the studies have dealt with the African Americans in the United States thus losing the disciplines global significance.

This come within reach of truth shuts the historical, social and cultural influences of African heritage outside the U.S.A. The studies ought to apply distinctive and appropriate analytical techniques that assist in studying of specific circumstances that captures and accounts for experiences of all the major societies of the African Diaspora especially outside the American setting. (Green, 2001)

Secondly, the worldview of African-American studies need well representation and understanding. African worldview consists of values and believes of people with African decent to shape their inter-personal relationship. There studies ought to dwell upon the relationship of people and the environment without denying the wide variation regarding values and believes that assist to distinguish them from people of different origin. According to Irele (2001), the notion regarding African worldview entails the mode of expression for the shared values or believes without uniformly basing the studies upon particular system or a set of practices.

The challenge most Africana researchers and writers have to tackle today entails ways of combating a notion that traditional African beliefs are historical relic of pre-modern life. (Irele, 2001) A lot of writing has distorted experience of African Americans. The procedure of examining the extent of evolution involving variants of African origin would be a strategy to addressing of the human problems among people of African origin without confinement to a specific region.

There is need for a more accurate understanding of the complexity involved in the experiences of the African people. This is a measure to understand the history and contemporary efforts of people. They are shaping their destiny, as opposed to the perception that Africa-Americans are people who wait to consume the western ideas or products.

The paradigm of unity is an important aspect of the African-American studies and many writers/researchers have taken it as a major contributor to the social studies discipline. It is an important feature that offers periodical perspective of the Black people. The adequacy of the paradigm requires great thoughts due to the flow required in a text and the fact that the aspect requires constant updating thus continuous research findings.

In line with Green (2001), there is need to introduce and embrace the interdisciplinary approach of teaching the subject by enabling a foundation that supports major expansions especially in the upper division of the graduate or undergraduate level of studies. The current curriculum follows the department based structure of the academic organization especially in most higher institutions of education that have familiar chapters like the history, social science, or politics.

The conventional wisdom is not enough to acquaint the readers with all the required detail. The alternative ways such as hypothesis and other data sourcing procedures that assist in interpreting experiences not considered within the boundaries of the subject.

There is a wide distinction between the various approaches used for instructing scholars with respect to the Africana studies. People must differentiate between interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary procedures of blending or integrating theories of a study. Multidisciplinary process of studying entails a conscious effort to examine the subject matter using various approaches either sequentially or in a parallel format.

For instance, a research topic tackled by various contributors form different disciplines. On the other hand, interdisciplinary approach entails blending of theories and methods from various disciplines of an individual study. Both the methods are reactive in relation to the boundaries set by the traditional disciplines.

Today, people should decide to adopt trans-disciplinary approach that rejects the existing disciplinary boundaries to diversify the subject and synthesize various approaches of understanding the world to acquire extra information. This is a big challenge because the current trends of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches continue to shape the Africana studies as a study subject lacking progressive interpretation of the culture. (Green, 2001)

There have been great omissions of literature concerning women in the past African-American studies. Current research studies ought to address appropriate strategies to enhance the contributions or manifests of women. The contribution should not be gender biased but treated in parallel by fully integrating the women side of events rather than picking their study as an add-on to that of male.

Women have widely contributed to the liberation struggle and today it is evident that they equally and possibly playing the role of leadership in a better way especially in areas pertaining education, maintenance of the family, working and politics.

Lastly, the biggest challenge requires clear articulation concerns the name used for the studies. Various titles vary from Blacks studies, African studies, Afro-American studies, Africana, Africa-logy and the most common African American studies. The terms are different and possibly portray different meaning while they cater for the same discipline. Lingual perceptions of suffixes and prefixes bring about wide differences and the unmodified topic gives people too much room to diversify the studies beyond the requirements.

References

Green, Charles. (2001). Manufacturing powerlessness in the black Diaspora: inner-city youth and the new global frontierWalnut Creek, CA: AltaMira press Publishers

Irele, Abiola. (2001). The African imagination: literature in Africa & the Black Diaspora.
Oxford; New York: Oxford University press Publishers

African Americans are citizens of United States of America forming an African American ethnic minority group whose ancestral land is Africa. Perhaps one of the poignant questions to ask is on how these African descendants arrived in America. From the age period of 1620 to around 1865, there was massive slave trade taking place in Africa to the west especially in countries like France, Belgium and England. In the west, these captives intermarried themselves and with white people, hence siring the African American ethnic group.

As captives, the group faced serious challenges composing of racial discrimination, prejudice and segregation. The white Americans took them as tools and elements of hard labor with poor or no pay in return. Moreover, these African Americans had no right to do anything leave alone airing their own views or making their own decisions.

The dual labor market hit them hard as most of them were not educated and even if the white Americans allowed them to go to school, education was expensive for them. In addition to that, the white Americans did not allow black American children to sit in the same class with their white counterparts. Redlining became common in those days (Kolchin, 1994, pp.78-83).

The American history denotes that, even if the labor market became decentralized, African American ethnic minority group had little knowledge on the operation of these markets. Low level of knowledge meant derailment of African Americans from acquiring high stake office jobs perceived to belong to white Americans only. The only place for work available for the African American minorities was hard labor jobs like digging and other manual activities (Beijborn, 1996, Para.5-7).

The environmental setup of the black people in America did not allow them to question the deeds of the white man and the inequalities they met. In unison, the African Americans struggled in vain to meet their liberties albeit a myriad of obstacles. In return, the white Americans fought mercilessly to deny them civil right liberties.

For example, they had no right to neither vote nor choose a leader of their own. Segregation became dominant right from education to food to clothing and accommodation. In the south of America, segregation laws applied strongly eliminating black Americans from schooling in white schools. The white Americans barred African Americans from achieving federal rights like employment rights as a form of discriminating them (Magar, 2009, Para.2-8).

Another issue of concern was affirmative action, which violated the rights of women. Sexual harassment to black women was common, leading to race ethnic clashes. Race ethnic sex generated racism imperfectly. Consequently, racism took precedent so strong to quicken liberation front then civil war escalated.

In fact, for every three white Americans killed, about fifty African Americans died as well. To prove these facts, during the electoral process of 1867, a gang called Ku Klux Klan terrorized, maimed, and massacred black Americas with authority from the elite white Americans.

There was prejudice and segregation to any African American who dared to vote or take formal education. However, not all white Americans were happy with the ongoing discriminations, prejudices and racism attacks. A quite high percentage of white Americans supported the move while others rejected it vehemently and hence subjected themselves to attacks.

African American prejudice, discrimination and segregation exist even up to today in America. To end these vices, African Americans formed civil rights movements to liberate them and assign them freedom. Through liberation, mass murder and execution of civil rights kingpins like martin Luther King and others, the war became almost a success. However, even up to today the prejudices and discriminations including still hold is an American society (Hooker, 1999, Para. 6, 8-9).

In conclusion, the civil rights act of 1964 rescued African Americans from incessant segregations in employment bureaus, political, economic arena including involvements in doing business hence, stabilizing their economic standards. The climax of their liberation and perhaps the greatest achievement of black and white supremacy in United States of America is the election of Barack Obama as the as the first black president.

Reference List

Beijbom, U. (1996.) A Review of Swedish Emigration to America. European Emigration. Web.

Hooker, R. (1999). African-Americans in the American Revolution. Web.

Kolchin, P. (1994). American Slavery: 1619-1877. New York: Hill and Wang.

Magar, P. (2009). Racism against African Americans. Buzzle. Web.

Although the merging of the nations is the most widespread tendency all around the modern world, and especially in the USA, with its melting pot conception, some peoples are trying o keep their traditions safe for the future generation. Still involved into the process of the nations fusion, these people are cast into a completely new nationality, with its own tradition and lifestyle.

At present, there are two basic mixed nations in the USA. These are African Americans and Latin Americans. Whether they can live peacefully or are bound to fight for their place in the sun is the topic of the given research.

The Way It All Began: Why Coming to the USA?

The People with Two Hearts: Between American and Spain

One of the most peculiar things about the Latin Americans, or Hispanics, is the fact that they manage to keep their culture highly worshipped and yet know the language and the culture of the country that they are living in. In fact, they can be called bilingual and bicultural, for the art of adaptation that they have shown as they have been living on the territory of the USA is stunning.

The journey that took the Latinos to the United States was long and tiring. Although it was not that tragic as the reasons that took the Africans to the United States once, the Hispanics did take their toll on the sufferings of moving to the new country and acclimatizing to its traditions and rules.

However, they settled in the new environment rather quickly, and in 1565 they already founded the city of St. Augustine in Florida. Nowadays one of the cities with the highest ratio of the Hispanic and Latin American population, St. Augustine was the Promised Land for the people who abandoned their traditions and their home in search for a better life.

Torn Away from Homeland: Far from the Hot Sun of Africa

It was a little bit different with the African Americans, though. Since they were brought to the United States involuntarily, they were practically forced to live in the new country and according to the new rules. Taking into consideration that they were brought to the U. S. as slaves who have no rights or freedoms, it can be easily understood that the African Americans found the new life unbearable.

As the slavery was laid to rest along with the racism, there was some more air given to the African Americans so that they could lead a more or less normal life (Bailey). Although there are still some conflicts arising from time to time, the African Americans are finally treated the way that people should be in their new homeland.

The Life That They Live: Making the Difference

Discovering the World of the African Culture in the USA.

The Afro-Americans are famous for the novelties that they have brought to the United States, among them numerous specific features of their culture one of the most peculiar things about them is the fact that these people have absorbed the American culture, inheriting the most outstanding parts of its culture.

In contrast to the Hispanics, who tended to stay aside form the influence of the American culture and wanted to restore their own traditions in the place of their new settlement, the African Americans were eager to take the new culture and to intertwine it with their own vision of the world. This approach was foreign to the Hispanics, and the barrier between the two nations that were living in the same foreign land were parted even farther, feeling the growing tension between their cultures and their lifestyle.

This was the point where the rivalry between the Hispanics and the African Americans for a place of their own in the heart of America began. It was clear that the Hispanics were not going to subdue to the growing influence of the culture that surrounded them, as well as that they were not going to yield in this clash of cultures. It seemed that this was the starting point for the rivalry between the Hispanics and the African Americans.

On the Way to New Spain: The Latinos and Their Culture

In contrast to the African Americans, the Latin Americans kept to the stem of their culture as fast as they could. It was well understood that preserving the culture of a united but small and lacking the influence nation was almost impossible. The dominating culture was supposed to swallow the remaining of the Hispanic traditions and customs, chewing them into the new lifestyle that the Latin Americans could stick to without the risk to be called foreigners.

However, the idea proved wrong, and the Hispanics have introduced the culture that was no less influential and original than the one of the African Americans. The influence of theirs finally became immense and impressive, for the modern tendencies show that more and more people from Europe and America are getting captured with the lifestyle suggested by the Hispanics.

Amazing, but true is the fact that these people have been maintaining the traditions of theirs through the poverty and the misery of their immigrant life. This was something that should be highly appreciated and valued no less than the cultural impact of the African Americans. Again, the clash of cultures drew these two peoples together in a battle.

In a Course of Work: What Kind of Workplace Are They Provided with?

The African Americans Employed: Jobs, Salaries and Stakes

Although it is extremely hard for an immigrant, even a legal one, to find a full-time and well-paid job in a foreign country with the peoples prejudice against the foreigners and the lack of the working places even for the native dwellers, not mentioning the newcomers, the African Americans have managed to find their place under the hot sun of the United States.

As a rule, they do not take the leading positions, preferring to do the job of an ordinary officer, like most immigrants do, which is the major concern of the modern business researches in the United States.

There are still some difficulties in the employment sphere for the black people. It goes without saying that the discrimination in the sphere of employment still takes place, not only in the USA, but also in a number of countries where immigrants are to live.

The mistreatment of the foreigners must be rooting somewhere deep in the native dwellers psycho, for there is no other explanation why the African Americans should take lower positions and receive less money than an average white American does. Shepard has managed to express this idea in the very best way:

About one-third of African American men are employed in the highest occupational categories: professional, managerial, technical and administrative, whereas about one half of white men have jobs in these categories. Similarly, about 60 percent of African American women are employed in these occupational categories, compared to three-fourth of white women. African Americans are almost twice as whites are likely to work in low-level service jobs. (256)

Such data I something for the sociologists to be concerned about, for this also causes huge rivalry between the African Americans and the Latin Americans concerning the working places. Trying to earn for a decent living, both peoples face huge difficulties and are made to compete in attempt to get the desired job.

The Latinos and Their Ambitions: Time for Siesta

Unlike most of the American people, the Hispanics are not preoccupied with Napoleonic ambitions and career plans. the lifestyle that they lead, which is close to living in a rural area, is quiet sufficient for them, and they are rather unlikely to fight for the post of the president or else.

Still the nation has to find some means to earn for a living, and thus a lot of Latin Americans agree to take the positions that the Native Americans consider as the low-level jobs. This makes the Latinos the main opponents of the African Americans, which are eager to take the above-mentioned positions as well.

As a rule, the Hispanics are left with nothing in this battle, and the African Americans occupy most of the profitable positions. The rivalry peaks here, and the struggle for the better position and for the better future of the people that have been forced to live in the foreign country.

The recent polls held in this sphere suggest that the situation with the working places for the immigrants can improve; however, still a great amount of time is needed to support the immigrants that cannot survive in the environment that requires the necessary competitive skills.

It is clear that, historically, the people of the Hispanic origin did not need to struggle for the job and earn the money with such difficulties, and it must be taken into account that they need to accommodate to the changing environment. In contrast to the African Americans, who are used to conflict in cases when they do not agree with what have been suggested, the Hispanics would rather grin and bear it, which does not add to the life endurance of these people and the psychological health of their environment.

However, when speaking of the promotion and marketing sphere, one can suggest that the Latin Americans have got quite used to the idea of living in a foreign country and making business in it, for they have achieved a certain progress in building the marketing relationships within the country:

A direct result of the Spanish-language-centered infrastructure of the U.S. Hispanic marketing industry is an ethnic division of labour whereby the Latin American corporate intellectuals from middle- and upper-class background rather than U.S.-born. (Davila 34)

This might seem amazing, but such is the present state of affairs in the Hispanic employment sphere. As it can be seen, the rumors about the Latin Americans not getting enough working places have been a bit exaggerated. However, this does not mean that the problem of employment of the Latin Americans has been solved once and for all. There are still some reasons to think that the battle will go on.

The Aspect of Education: Can the Same Things Be Taught in Different Ways?

What the Schools for Latinos Are Aimed at.

Like most schools, the educational establishments on the territory of the Latin America are aimed at giving children the basis for their future higher education and career development. At this point the schools where the Latin American children learn do nit doffer from the rest of the schools in the United States. The difference comes when the role of the bilingual education comes to the forth.

Darder emphasizes the role of the two languages in the education of the Hispanic children, making it one of the core points that make them different from the American children:

Within the last two decades, the issue of the bilingual education has taken on a heated importance among educators. Unfortunately, the debate that has emerged tends to recycle old assumptions and values regarding the meaning and usefulness of the students native language in education. (274)

Because of the tension that arises as the two cultures collide, the issue of the languages becomes one of the most heated subjects to discuss. Although the privilege of mastering two native languages seems quiet a profit for the Hispanics, they still cling to their native roots, trying to make the emphasis on preserving the national culture.

Do the U. S. Schools Suit the African American Children?

In contrast to the Hispanics, African Americans do well in mastering English. Since many of them hardly know about the African ancestors of theirs, and are not aware of the language that was spoken in the culture of their native land, the African Americans have no linguistic problems in the schools. However, there are still the issues that make them equal to the Latin Americans in terms of the quality and the results of education.

In fact, the African Americans are almost in the same situation as the Latin Americans in terms of the national identity and the educational systems. Their national peculiarities are ignored in the same way, disregarding everything that makes them different from then Native Americans.

Many teachers and principals state that they have not reformed the curriculum to reflect ethnic diversity in their schools because they do not have ethnic minorities in their school populations and, consequently, no racial or ethnic problems. These educators believe ethnic content is needed only by ethnic minority students or to help reduce ethnic conflict within schools having racial problems. (Willie 137)

Thus, it becomes clear that in the system of education the Latin Americans and the African Americans are not the opponents, but the companions in misfortune.

Through the Social Aspect and What Researchers Found There

The African Americans: Reaching for the Stars

However hard the immigrants could try to reach for the highest position in the society, there will always be the native dwellers that will surpass them in some of the aspects. Thus, striving to climb higher is what the Latin Americans and the African Americans have been trying to do since the time when they settled in the new country, but there have been very few positive results of their attempts.

Again, trying to get into the upper classes of the society, the two nations arrange another battle to obtain the best positions. However much scorn the Hispanics could display towards the blessed life of the rich I the USA, they cannot resist trying to nip on the piece of the upper class life.

But the African Americans surpass them in the respect of arranging their lives. Being more accustomed to the traditions and customs of the modern business world, they manage to become the leading part of the society much more often than the Hispanics, who prefer to stay rebels.

There is no need to say that the African Americans are doing their best to gain the access to the higher class society, which is sometimes crowned with success, but in most cases both African Americans and Latinos remain on the same middle class level. However, the data that has been presented so far are too scanty to restore the whole picture:

Researchers may assume a social lass level among the participants such as classifying African Americans or Latinos as urban and therefore in poverty without collecting the necessary data to substantiate this characterization. (Liu 48)

With such characteristics of the state of the African Americans and Latinos in the United States, it is necessary to add that the current situation needs a thorough revision. The results of the latter can seem encouraging for these nations to continue their attempts to belong to the higher class of society. Although they must make hard efforts to achieve this goal, the results must be worthwhile. And, after all, there has always been the need for the people who will push the country towards the progress.

The Latinos: Home, Sweet Home

As Vazquez admits,

Although impressive and important, studies that equate income with social status are nevertheless misleading. Latinos are indeed becoming more socially mobile, but the income numbers also show that 75 percent of Latino households earn below the national median, a proportion that is just as significant if one is interested in understanding the size of a low-wage, low-skilled Latino working class. (394)

With regard to the above-mentioned information, it could be logical to suggest that the approximately equal score on the social position might level the rivalry between the Latin Americans and the African Americans, but this idea proves wrong. The constant battle for the better position and the competition that people are involved into, that is, the contest where the smartest wins, make peoples character harder and more difficult to approach.

What makes the situation not so complicated is the fact that the Latin Americans cannot be called ambitious people, and they are not longing for the top positions. Working in the sphere where their skills can be used and appreciated is what Latin Americans are aimed at, and that makes the conflict between the two nations living as the foreigners on the territory of the United States not so escalated.

Conclusion

Regarding everything that has been mentioned above, it is possible to suggest that the tension between the two neighboring nations, African Americans and Latin Americans, is bound to last fro quite long period of time.

Because of the fact that they are actually experiencing the same difficulties, Latin Americans and African Americans will remain rivals, although they have a lot in common which could allow them to be friends, not foes. Instead of competing with each other to prove the superiority, they could struggle to achieve success together, yet they prefer to stay apart from each other.

The reasons for these nations to treat each other in this way can be different. Perhaps, one of the most important and weighty ones is that both nations are afraid of their cultures merging the way they have merged with the American one.

To keep their traditions untouched as long as possible, they prefer to maintain the relationships that allow them to coexist, but they are both reluctant to make friends and improve the situation within the sphere of education and employment. However, there is a link that might help these two peoples finally make friends. Called Caribbean Latinos, they are a mixture of the two. As Suarez puts it,

Certainly the shared Afro-Latino background that tends to distinguish them most within the pan-Latino composite, along with the attendant complementary relationship to blackness, promises to have unifying repercussions within the U.S. racial formation, where the significance of the color line seems to be in no way declining. (71)

In the light of the above-mentioned, there is still hope that the two great nations will find common language. Because of numerous factors the Latinos and the Afro-Americans have to get together to become stronger. In spite of all the obstacles that stand on the way to this union, there is hope that in the nearest future the Afro-Americans and the Latinos will build the relationships based on cooperation and mutual respect.

Works Cited

Bailey, Anne C. African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2005. Print.

Darder, Antonia, Rodolfo D. Torres, Henry Gutierre. Latinos and Education: A Critical Reader. New York, NY: Routledge, 1997. Print.

Davila, Arlene. Latinos, Inc.: The Marketing and Making of a People. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001. Print.

Liu, William M. Social Class and Classicism in the Helping Professions: Research, Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corvin Press, 2010. Print.

Shepard, Jon M. Sociology. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.

Suarez-Orozco, Marcelo, Mariela Parez. Latinos: Remaking America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2008. Print.

Vazquez, Francisco H., Rodolfo D. Torres. Latino Thought. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Print.

Willie, Charles W., Antonie M. Garibaldi, William Monroe. The Education of African Americans. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1991. Print.

Introduction

The main objective of this essay will be to look at the courtship practices between African Americans and Caucasian Americans. Courtship practices around the world have mostly been determined by the values and norms that exist in the society. Despite courtship being personal and intimate, each story of courtship usually has an enactment within a certain societal context.

Each society has an investment in the type of person one of their members marries or becomes involved in. Courtship has been practiced by the privileged and less privileged members of the society as well as the different races and classes that exist around the world. African American courtship practices differed from those of Caucasian Americans during the slave trade and over the course of American history.

African American immigrants brought with them practices that were different from those being practiced in America. Their experience with slavery and oppression had an impact on their perceptions of love and marriage as well as their courtship practices.

For several decades now, the society of African-American has expanded disjointedly from that of other American society due to the continued discrimination in race and also slavery. It is until recently that the African American culture became integrated into that of the American culture. Their general courtship practices differed considerably from those of Caucasian Americans as some of these practices had some element of ethnicity, religion and race incorporated into them (Cherlin, 2005).

History of Courtship Practices

Before humankind became more evolved and revolutionized, what passed as courtship was a raid on other tribes that saw the capture of women who were forced into marriage. True courtship practices did not exist during the early periods of man’s evolution and any feelings of affection or emotion did not exist during these courtship practices.

As human beings became more behaved and civilized, people of the opposite sex sought to make themselves more attractive and presentable to the opposite gender. Anthropologists and scientists involved in human history and social behavior studied the courtship practices that took place during the early periods of evolution and they noted that early courtship practices included ornamenting, painting and tattooing themselves so attract the opposite sex (Grouse, 2001).

While some cultures did not allow for people to choose their mates, other cultures permitted their young members to select their own spouses. In the event that two people selected one person, they had to duel it out which at times always led to the death of one person. Such duels were also seen as tests of endurance where the young men were required to demonstrate their agility and strength before they were granted any permission to marry.

“The underlying principle was that no man was allowed to marry until they proved that they were able to fend for the wife and children” (Strange customs and taboos, 2010). These duels were therefore seen to be tests in determining which males were ready for marriage within the community or tribal clan

As human beings became more evolved, courtship practices became more civilized and people were allowed to choose their spouses without having to go through endurance tests or duels. Mutual love was allowed in communities that otherwise frowned up love in starting up long term relationships. Members of the opposite sex were allowed to choose their marriage partner’s based on their emotional feelings.

Ever since the ancient times, the original belief of practices in courtship were that there will not be a relationship between a man and a woman until they could prove themselves to be worthy of marriage. Courtship later evolved from marriage by abduction to marriage that was founded on mutual love and relationships (Westermark, 2009).

Courtship Practices of African Americans

During the slavery period in America, slaves were not allowed by law to enter into any binding marriage contracts that would make it difficult for them to be sold to the white American masters. Laborers, immigrants and other lower class citizens in American societies were not included in the general courtship practices that took place within America.

Courtship during the slavery period was viewed to be a preserve of the civilized society. African American authors wrote about courtship practices during this period as being similar to the traditional languages of courtship (Brown, 2003).

African Americans who were slaves usually courted on Sundays during the church services and during walks after the church services were over. In the evening slave couples that were courting would join their family members for signing, dancing and poetry activities. Young African American couples attended parties and played kissing games such as fruit in the basket and fishing. The courting manners that were common during this period were mostly ritualistic and religion based.

Young girls who were being courted used cosmetics to attract the opposite sex. Courtship and marriage during this time was however difficult because the American masters at times sold the slaves, breaking the courtship or marriage. After the slave period ended, courting practices in the African American culture changed considerably (Brunell, 2001).

At the turn of the 20^th century, the working African American class residing in the urban areas spent most of their nights and weekends in commercial amusement venues with the sole aim of indulging with the opposite sex.

The working class courting culture during the 20^th century helped in shaping the middle class practices in the 1920s (Cherlin, 2005). The courtship practices of African American men who were mostly in their twenties and lacked any form of employment or respect in mainstream society were characterized to practice deceit, violence and disrespect against women.

This was mostly due to the general perceptions that the Caucasian society had towards them. African American men who ended up getting married tended to be respectful, truthful, and honest towards their spouses. They also brought into the marriage their conservative beliefs towards women when compared to their Caucasian counterparts. Their relationships were however characterized by work related conflicts especially in the event their wives started working (Peters & Dush, 2009).

According to Clements, the politics of respectability played a major part in the African American courtship practices in the 1920s. African American families exercised little or no control over their children’s courtship practices during this time which was also similar for white American families.

The politics of respectability came into play when race, religion or social class became a challenge when accepting their children’s spouses or partners (Cherlin, 2005). While the white working class families intervened when their children committed themselves to interfaith or interracial courtships, the African American parents opposed dating across social class lines (Clement, 2006).

Courtship Practices of Caucasian Americans

American culture has considered changed during the 20^th century and an area that has undergone significant changes is courtship or dating. Since arranged marriages were never a standard practice in America, courtship customs and practices were deemed to be the most important aspects of commitment and marriage in the country.

Traditionally Americans were allowed to choose their dating partners on the basis of a variety of factors that included religion, race, wealth, occupation and social classes. These criteria were usually applied in assessing and selecting prospective partners.

In early America, dating was considered to be a step towards marriage where the parents granted their consent on whether the marriage would take place. The 19^th century was mostly characterized by formal courtship where gentleman callers paid visits to family homes that had marriageable women (Watts, 2007).

The traditional courtship practices of Caucasian Americans differed between the northern and southern states of America during the 1920s and 1930s. In the northern states, the parents had control over the type of spouse or mate their children decided to have. The suitor’s father usually had control over the marriage and the timing of the marriage which was usually related to the release of an adequate amount of the family’s land.

In the southern states, the courtship practices differed from those in the north where parental consent was required during the beginning of courtship. Marriage was considered to be a civil ceremony in the south because Anglican ministers were required to officiate during the marriage ceremony (Burnell, 2001)

In these societies the acceptable age for courtship was usually sixteen. Young couples in the Victorian societies attended social functions with chaperones who were usually married. The common courtship practices included playing piano duets with other young couples, or enjoying leisurely strolls/walks within the neighborhood and also sitting in porch swings during the evenings.

The concept of dating emerged in college campuses where couples could be in a relationship without necessarily being committed to marriage. The invention of automobiles changed the dating scene from that of taking long walks and sitting on porch swings to that of taking long drives and out of town vacations (Hicks, 2010).

The courtship practices during the 1970s and 1980s changed considerably as the traditional dating practices became more obsolete. These changes came about as more women became more economically and socially independent.

The wide availability of birth control measures and the legalization of abortion in 1973 saw more American women postponing marriage and commitments so that they could pursue their careers and single lifestyles. Urbanization during this time also saw many young people relocating from their homes to go to the city in pursuit if employment or higher education (Watts, 2007).

Young people during this time attended disco and night clubs in pursuit of relationships. Drugs and alcohols were a common feature in these discos as the young people interacted with each other. This trend saw the traditional courtship manners being disregarded completely as both sexes became more confident in terms of exploring new relationship frontiers. The courtship period of the 70s and 80s marked the beginning of Caucasian courtship practices in America (Brunell, 2001).

The current courtship practices between the African Americans and Caucasian Americans involves the use of verbal and nonverbal cues that are used to signal the interest of one person. People also flirt with each other to show that they interested and available for commitment.

In both cultures, dating is not considered to be a long term commitment or a step to marriage. The practice of courtship between the African American and Caucasian cultures has changed over time where people are now more free to explore relationships without any fear of commitment or reprisals from their parents, the society and other social institutions (Watts, 2007).

Conclusion

The African American and Caucasian courtship practices have undergone various practices over the years as the course of American history underwent through various changes. The slave period saw courtship practices amongst the African Americans being confined and limited by the American slave masters while those of the Caucasians were limited by their parents and the Victorian society.

Young people were not allowed to go out by themselves with members of the opposite sex which is a different trend today. Urbanization led to women and young people in both the African American and Caucasian cultures becoming more liberalized and independent when it came to courtship and dating.

References

Brown, W.W. (2003). The President’s Daughter: A Narrative of Slave Life in the United States. New York: Penguin Publishers.

Brunell, M.F. (2001). Girlhood in America: an encyclopedia, Volume 1. California: ABC-CLIO Inc.

Cherlin, A.J. (2005). Public and private families, 6^th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Clement, E.A. (2006). Love for sale: courting, treating and prostitution in New York City, 1900-1945. North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.

Grouse, L. (2001). Native American courtship and marriage traditions. New York: Hippocrene Books Inc.

Hicks, C.D. (2010). Talk with you like a woman: African American women, justice and reform in New York, 1890-1935. North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.

Peters, E., & Dush, M.K. (2009). Marriage and family: perspectives and complexities. New York: Columbia University Press.

Strange Customs and taboos (2010). Courtship and marriage. Web.

Watts, L.S. (2007). Encyclopedia of American folklore. New York: Infobase Publishing.

Westermark, E.A. (2009). The history of human marriage. New Jersey: BiblioBazaar LLC Publishing.

Introduction

Brown (1995) states that gender, culture, and diversity area goals tend to develop a good and sophisticated understanding of race and racism as unique concepts that are dynamic. This helps to clearly point out how race intersects with other group identifications such as sexual orientation, religion, age, ethnicity, class, gender, or disability as is further stated by Berberoglu (1994).

Gender, culture and diversity in another perspective are intended to teach people a lot of things they don’t understand such as: Teach people how to recognize the different ways in which race intersects with other group identifications, that is, gender, class, ethnicity, age, disability, religion and sexual orientation; Teaching people on how to understand the various kinds of relationships among diversity, justice, and power. Bringing a wider meaning to people and different institutions on how to live and cope in a multi-racial and multicultural world. Investigating the types or forms of race and racism and the way they exist in different places and times as well as teaching individuals on how to relate personal experiences with matters concerning race and racism.

According to Marx (1978) the different ideas brought about by different courses help us learn about the experience of African Americans through the legal system that has been set up in the United States, which initially considered African Americans as less than human but with time it was declared as illegal discrimination in the US. These remains as an expression or call for change at the intersection of race and equality and also reflects important current events thus exploring responses to the various encounters that always arise in our society.

This paper will discuss many issues in a broad social and personal response such as race that have been used as a factor in institutions, during dating, marriage, and adoption. It will analyze debates about race and social justice as well as the best practice and research in racism, inequality, and social injustice in various cases, which include politics. The paper will bring out the meaning of interlocking nature of oppression in relation to African American identity and how racial identity intersect with other aspects of identity such as gender and sexuality.

The identity woman is represented differently for people of different race mostly the African American woman. This paper will give a detailed outline on the African American woman according to Patricia Hill Collins.

The Identity Woman

Interlocking nature of oppression is structured via a system of interlocking race, class, and gender oppression thus drawing much focus on how the systems interconnect (Mann & Huffman 2005). The various intersections of social inequality are described as the matrix of domination meaning that many differences among people such as sexual orientation, class, age and race serve as oppressive measures towards many, in this context, the African Americans thus a positive impact on their individual life(Eisenberg & Jeff 2005).

Patricia Hill Collins mostly touches on the empowerment, self-definition, and knowledge of the African American woman. She challenges us with a significant view of oppression and identity politics that have the potential to introduce a great change in African Americans and this change needs to be continuous. Collins emphasizes on black feminist epistemology with the aim of placing the experiences of African Americans, mostly women, in the centre of analysis without a single privilege to those experiences (Collins 2000).

Without the interlocking nature of oppression, we can learn so many things from the African Americans. Collins stipulates that African Americans are unique in their own way as they bridge the gap between two powerful systems of oppression that are race and gender. For interlocking oppression in terms of gender and race among African Americans to seize, it is important to understand clearly the social position that African Americans desire for us to see. This social reform compelled by African Americans has been hindered greatly by the constant emphasis on social and scientific knowledge (Siltanen & Doucet 2008).

Racial identity tends to intersect with the other aspects of identity such as gender, age, and sexuality, which is referred to as intersectionality (is a broad method of learning diverse kinds of relationships) (Ritzer 2007). It describes how systems such as gender, race, class, and disability or other systems of identity interact on various levels to enhance social inequality. Gorelick (1996) argues that cultural distinctiveness interconnects with other aspects in the general public but do not act autonomously of one another when forms of tyranny (such as bigotry and homophobia) are implicated unless these forms of repression correlate with each other. The artistic patterns of repression are bound jointly strongly by the intersectional system of the social order and the close interconnection (Di Stefano 1991; Merriam-Webster 2002).

Different races have their own principles on how they intersect with gender and sexuality (Bureau of labour statistics 2005). For example, Cante (2009) describes that the kind of intersectionality among black women is more powerful than the sum of their race and sex and black women issues cannot be properly addressed if intersectionality is not accurately addressed. It is argued that thoughts of colour, gender, among others can be perplexing and not well implicit unless the many sways of racialization are cautiously considered and revised. This will eventually help in gaining both political and social equality thus improving our systems.

All the forms of oppression imply a lot to the oppressed individual and have a great impact (Belkhir 1994). Therefore, it is important to resist the oppression by participating in certain methods such as self-evaluation and self-definition thus helping to preserve the self-esteem of the oppressed. The oppressed has to self-evaluate and self-define themselves in order to avoid any kind of dehumanizing influences and eventually the oppressed will gain courage to overcome most of this societal methods of domination as stated by Collins (1986).

The identity woman is represented differently for people of different races, for example, Patricia Hill Collins talks about black feminist’s knowledge and argues that the constant issues of gender and race influence the black woman’s knowledge. She helps us understand how different forms of inequality work together and continues to argue that the way we think may change the way we behave and the way we behave may change the way we think. Thus due to these, many Americans (black) contemplations have surfaced within the milieu of black community enlargement to conquer racial isolation among them (Mann & Kelley 1997). Black feminist thought has enriched due to the efforts by African American women to adhere to the thoughts that black women must be substantiated by proper sense of their own experiences.

Black women who are feminists tend to be very critical on the way the culture of the blacks and their traditions oppress black women (Collins 1998). They work hard towards overcoming race and gender oppression so as to enhance the tension that exists for black women as agents of knowledge. Black feminists are on the rise with most African American women scholars striving hard to ground their work in black women’s experiences thus making creative use of their status and producing innovative feminist thoughts (Connolly 2002).

Identity politics is also an important aspect of identity as it signifies a wide range of activities that arise from political experiences of injustices of individuals who belong to certain social groups (Deveax 2000). Their main aim is to secure the political freedom of a certain area that is marginalized within its larger context characterized by dominant oppressions. The main reason why identity politics is significant is the fact that there is strong demand for recognition on the basis of the same grounds where there was denial for recognition of women, blacks, and lesbians. These demands generally include pleads to a time before repression, or a certain way of life or style of living that was smashed by either colonialism or mass killings (De La Torre 2009).

Conclusion

In conclusion, gender, culture and identity all interrelate in one way or another. As discussed above the oppressed individuals are fighting hard to overcome the interlocking nature of oppression and in relation to African American identity, most African Americans are putting efforts to regain their lost freedom and release themselves from age, gender, disability, sexuality and political oppressions (Brown 1995).

Reference List

Belkhir, J., 1994. The ‘Failure’ and Revival of Marxism on Race, Gender & Class Issues. Race, Sex & Class. 2 1, 79-107.

Berberoglu, B., 1994. Class, Race & Gender: The Triangle of Oppression. Race, Sex & Class, 2, 1, 69-77.

Brown, W., 1995. States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity. New Jersey, Princeton University Press.

Bureau of labour statistics. 2005. Usual Weekly Earnings Summary. Web.

Cante, R.C., 2009. Gay Men And The Forms Of Contemporary US Culture. London, Ashgate Publishing.

Collins, P.H., 2000 Gender, Black Feminism, and Black Political Economy. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 568. 41–53.

Collins, P.H., 1998. The Tie That Binds: Race, Gender, And US Violence. Ethnic And Racial Studies, 21 (5).

Collins, P.H., 1986. Learning from the Outsider within: The Sociological Significance of Black feminist thought (2^nd edition).New York, Routledge.

Connolly, W., 2002. Identity Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press

De La Torre, M. A., 2009. Out Of The Shadows, Into The Light: Christianity And Homosexuality. St. Louis, Missouri, Chalice Press.

Deveax, M., 2000. Cultural Pluralism and Dilemmas of Justice. Ithaca, Cornell University Press.

Di Stefano, C., 1991. Configurations of Masculinity: A Feminist Perspective on Modern Political Theory. Ithaca, Cornell University Press.

Eisenberg, A., & Jeff, S., 2005. Minorities Within Minorities: Equality, Rights, and Diversity. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Gorelick, S., 1996. Contradictions of feminist methodology, in Esther Ngan-Ling Chow, D. Wilkinson and M. Baca Zinn, eds., Race, Class & Gender. Common bonds, Different Voices. Thousand Oaks/London/Dehli, Sage Publications.

Mann, S.A & Huffman, D.J., 2005. The Decentering of Second Wave Feminism and the Rise of the Third Wave. Science and Society, 69 (1). 56–91.

Mann, S.A. & Kelley, L.R., 1997. Standing at the Crossroads of Modernist Thought: Collins, Smith, and the New Feminist Epistemologies. Gender and Society, 11(4). 391–408.

Merriam-webster (Ed)., 2002. Websters Collegiate Encyclopedia, Unabridged. Web.

Marx, k. 1978. A Contribution To The Critique Of Political Enemy. In R.C. Tucker (ed.). New York, W. W. Norton.

Ritzer, G., 2007. Contemporary Sociological Theory and Its Classical Roots: The Basics. Boston, McGraw-Hill.

Siltanen, J. & Doucet, A., 2008. Gender Relations in Canada: Intersectionality and Beyond. Toronto: Oxford University Pressack Feminist Thought. Social Problems, 33 (6). S14–S32.

The minority groups in the United States still face a lot challenges that are yet to be solved. African Americans and Hispanics are the most affected minority groups when it comes to inequality and discrimination (Free, 2003).

The African American community still encounters racial and economic discrimination within the American society. The past governments have not been keen on addressing the issues of minorities and this is the reason why African Americans and Hispanics feel neglected. Racial injustice is very prevalent in the United States and this is a major concern for minority groups such as African Americans and Hispanics (Free, 2003).

All the challenges facing African Americans and Hispanics have been there for a very long time and the authorities do not seem to care the plight of these groups. African Americans have been fighting for their right to be treated equally like other citizens but things are yet to change (Harris, 2007). This paper will highlight some of the challenges that African Americans and Hispanics in the United States face.

African Americans are normally discriminated when it comes to employment opportunities (Free, 2003). The United States government has often come up with policies that favor Whites. The majority of the policies do not promote equal distribution of employment opportunities.

The U.S government does very little in controlling crime in the Northern cities which are dominated by African Americans. African Americans live in very unsafe neigbourshoods that pose a threat to their security (Free, 2003).

Crime control in cities and neighborhoods dominated by Blacks is not a priority for the local authorities. Most of the industries in Northern cities have been closed down leading to the loss of industrial jobs for African Americans (Harris, 2007). This has been the trend for the last 40 years and there are no signs of change.

Many young and talented Blacks have not been able to advance academically due to institutional barriers (Free, 2003). African Americans spend a lot of resources in trying to fight for affirmative action in the education sector.

Black anti-intellectualism is a very false notion that has been created among the Whites. It is very difficult for African Americans to be admitted in some of the elite universities in the United States. There are some institutions that do not admit African Americans (Harris, 2007). The value of African Americans has been reduced by welfare programs.

The majority of welfare programs are designed for single mothers and children and this contributes significantly in the breakdown of many black families (Harris, 2007). These types of welfare programs reduce the value of a husband because black children and women end up depending on the government for most of their needs. Politicians and policymakers still insist on welfare programs without considering the effect it has on black families (Free, 2003).

The rate at which African Americans are incarcerated in the United States is very alarming (Harris, 2007). The jail terms that are normally imposed on African Americans are long compared to Whites. The U.S government targets neighborhoods dominated by African Americans in its fight against drugs.

African Americans have been loyal supporters of the Democratic Party but the party does not do enough to improve their welfare (Free, 2003). African Americans face a lot of discrimination when it comes to licensing requirements. African Americans can not access entrepreneurial opportunities because of the many barriers that are meant to protect union jobs.

Many companies prefer to invest in capital equipment instead of hiring African Americans because of the high minimum wage (Harris, 2007). Many African Americans are unemployed because of non-inclusive labor policies. The U.S government is very reluctant in addressing the issue of unemployment among African Americans and other minority groups (Free, 2003).

The challenges faced by minority groups in the U.S are very similar except for small differences (Urias, 2012). African Americans and Hispanics are the largest minority groups in the U.S whose challenges are alike. Despite the similarities, Hispanics have some unique challenges compared to African Americans.

Hispanics face a lot of discrimination when it comes to language (Chavez, 2011). The majority of Hispanics can not communicate in English and this makes it difficult for them to get employed. Hispanics find it difficult to access public services because they can not communicate in English (Chavez, 2011).

The Hispanic children can not attend school because the only language used to teach is English. Hispanic children have to first of all learn English before being admitted in American schools. Most Hispanics have fewer years of schooling and this makes it difficult for them to access employment opportunities (Urias, 2012). African Americans have no language problems and therefore have less challenges compared to Hispanics.

In conclusion, the challenges faced by minority groups in the United Sates are almost similar. African Americans and Hispanics face similar challenges such as racism, unemployment, entrepreneurial barriers and poor healthcare (Chavez, 2011). African Americans and Hispanics have always been ignored by the U.S government when it comes to policy making.

Most Hispanics and African Americans do not have a health insurance and always receive poor treatment in healthcare facilities (Urias, 2012). Access to higher education is challenge for the two groups. The situation is worse for the Hispanics because of language problems. The challenges facing African Americans and Hispanics are more similar that than they are different.

References

Chavez, M. (2011). Everyday injustice: Latino professionals and racism. London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Free, M. (2003). Racial issues in criminal justice: The case of African Americans. London: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Harris, Y. (2007). The African American child: Development and challenges. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

Urias, D. (2012). Immigration and education nexus. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

Belonging to an ethnic group is always a challenge because it becomes the source of isolation either discretionary or forced in response to various oppressive forces such as discrimination, prejudice, sexism, homophobia, ageism, etc. as well as differing prejudices and biases. This paper will focus on evaluating oppression of African Americans. It will investigate the stereotypes and biases they face as well as the steps they have taken to challenge oppressive forces. Moreover, the paper will provide insight into the role of social workers in the process of handling these challenges and determine the benefits of this experience for the further professional activities.

African Americans face a great variety of stereotypes and biases, which make their lives complicated and sophisticate their socialization with other ethnic minorities, especially dominant groups (Diller, 2010). First of all, they are believed to be less educated than white people.

This stereotype is true for both adults and children. It can be easily explained by historical consciousness, i.e. remembering the epoch of enslavement when the black people were illiterate and had no opportunity to obtain education, and insufficient supply of educational resources such as books, study materials, and qualified teachers at segregated schools for black kids. Even though the times have changed and, nowadays, African American children, for the most part, have equal access to education, the stereotype remains and has become a source of obstacles in their lives.

Another source of bias against African Americans is their gender. It is the area of intersection of racism, ageism, and sexism. That said, black men are often seen as the source of danger to white society while black women are less threatening.

Because of it, however, there is the difference in the level of oppression against African American males and females. Because maleness is believed to be a source of power and physical strength, these are black women, who more frequently than men fall victims to discrimination and assault (Diller, 2010). The same can be said about age. Children, who attend schools where they belong to a racial minority, often prefer not to go to classes because they are afraid of being prejudiced. If it were not for their personal experience, they would not have been afraid.

One more way to oppress African Americans is to isolate them by adopting corresponding legislation. This phenomenon is known as racial segregation. However, it can be aggravated by prohibiting interracial marriages or transracial adoptions (Schaefer, 2012). Taking similar steps aims at making it impossible for the representatives of racial minorities to disclose from their ethnic group and integrated into the dominant one. Finally, black people are believed to be poor not because they lack knowledge or skills but do not have the entrepreneurial drive and spend most of their time and energy on sex, gangs, and drugs instead of developing and achieving goals (Pinder, 2010).

Even though being an African American meant being a subject of oppression, for the most part, they managed to overcome this problem. Of course, the challenge of discrimination and prejudice remains, but its level is individual instead of overall established by the law. African Americans took several steps to handle this problem. Fundamentally, all of them included mass activities because only demonstrating unity could contribute to amending legislation.

Primary tools for challenging various oppressive forces, especially discrimination, included fighting for civil rights, racial equality, social justice, and desegregation of public places such as schools, restaurants, theaters, cinemas, hospitals, and even churches. It includes numerous strategies for reaching the set objective from civil rights marches to sit-ins and kneel-ins, which suggest that black people refused to leave the public places where they would not be serviced or permitted to pray in the same church with white people (Haynes, 2012; Landsberg, 2014). These steps not only contributed to establishing relative social equality but also helped develop tolerance towards people of the black minority.

Another response to oppression was creating African Americans’ own music and religion. By doing so, African Americans prompted that they are not interested in popular culture; all they need is having equal rights and access to primary needs such as healthcare, education, housing, employment, etc. (Pinder, 2010). The accent is made on preserving uniqueness but having the right to decent living and self-determination, i.e. the right to decide which social group to stick to – black or white.

Because discrimination and prejudice are issues of personal choice, this problem can be handled with the help of social workers. Social workers responded to this challenge by developing the framework for dealing with it, which aims at totally integrating African Americans into society and making white people see the blacks and treat them as equals not because they are obliged to by the legislation, but because they are willing to do so.

Their framework consists of four frames and rests on the postulates of color-blind racism. The first one is referred to as abstract liberalism. It implies transmitting economics to social affairs and creating the society of equal opportunities and individualism where everyone would be free to choose what is best for them and face no limitations in making these choices. The second frame is known as naturalization, i.e. promoting the idea that race is a natural occurrence.

That is why it cannot serve as a criterion for disintegration and oppression. The third one is introducing the concept of cultural racism. Social workers believe that racism has nothing to do with race as such. Instead, it derives from the cultural background and upbringing. This frame aims at stopping the inertial belief that blacks are worse than whites and can be treated in a different way. Finally, the fourth frame is minimization of racism. The idea behind this frame is to make white people understand that everyone has a place in the sun whether it is education or employment. Moreover, social workers promote the idea that race is not a determinant of success anymore because there are enough opportunities for everyone to succeed in life (Bonilla-Silva, 2013).

In addition to it, social workers aim at achieving a set of objectives, which would eradicate the problem of racism from social consciousness. These goals are as follows: to motivate leaders to promote the idea of focusing on competence and qualification instead of race; develop culturally competent workspace; to engage community to solving the challenge of racial inequality; to foster cooperation between institutions located at different levels of social system to handle the issue; to organize trainings for the better understanding of the history or racism and its negative impact on the quality of life of those belonging to ethnic groups (Social Work Policy Institute, 2014).

However, it should be noted that the framework and objectives mentioned above are general and should be adapted with regard to peculiarities of the place of social worker’s practice.

In the conclusion, it should be said that working with culturally diverse groups is positive not only for those belonging to these groups but also social workers. Learning from the life experience of those oppressed is beneficial for designing new programs of fighting for racial equality and social justice because social workers obtain an opportunity to find out the details of oppression and, thus, focus on eradicating similar problems. Moreover, it can help social workers become better people and members of society and bring up their children as decent people, who treat others equally without regard to their gender, race, and cultural or socioeconomic background. All in all, such experience would help realize that the issue of racial inequality is a real matter of concern, which should be paid attention to and handled.

References

Bonilla-Silva, E. (2013). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America (4th ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Diller, J. V. (2014). Cultural diversity: A primer for the human services (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Brooks Cole.

Haynes, S. R. (2012). The last segregated hour: The Memphis kneel-ins and the campaign for Southern Church desegregation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Landsberg, B. K. (2014). Enforcing desegregation: A case study of federal district court power and social change in Macon County, Alabama. Law & Society Review, 48(4), 867-891.

Pinder, S. O. (2010). The politics of race and ethnicity in the United States: Americanization, de-americanization, and racialized ethnic groups. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Social Work Policy Institute. (2014). Achieving racial equality: Calling the social work profession to action. Web.

Introduction

Despite decades of addressing the issue of equity in general and the impropriety of racial profiling, in particular, the misrepresentation of African Americans in media still remains a topical issue. The specified phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the factors, which stereotypes regarding Black people thrive on, persist in the modern society, particularly, in the form of media images and literary representations of African Americans.

Seeing that the current image of African Americans is filled with the prejudices that used to be around for several decades running, it can be assumed that the specified image is shaped by the dominant part of the U.S. population and, therefore, that it blocks the actual African American culture from being manifested in the modern society.

Methods

The study of the subject of interpretation of the image of African Americans in media was carried out as a qualitative research, as there was no need to quantify the relations between the key variables.

Ethnography was chosen as a research method, whereas the analysis of the existing studies of the representation of African Americans in modern and traditional media was used as the means of retrieving the data. The information was chosen with the help of the opportunistic sampling technique and processed with the help of coding based on a deductive approach.

Findings

The study has shown that the current representations of African American people in media not only incorporate a variety of stereotypes but also are mostly based on how the representatives of the dominant culture want to see African Americans. On the one hand, some of the early writings show African Americans as fighters for freedom and, therefore, the promoters of equality in relationships.

Particularly, the creation of the National Social Equality League deserves to be mentioned (Cook 277); in fact, Cook specified that “a black man once headed” (Cook 277) the society in question, which serves as a graphic proof of determination and passion of African Americans. On the other hand, the current concept of Black culture seems to be shifting towards the image that can be defined as a rather laid-back, careless, and undetermined one (Franklin and Carlson 112).

As the study of the existing literature shows, the specified difference in the actual identity of African American people and their image in media is linked directly to the tradition of portraying the specified denizens of the American population in media (Martinez 28).

Herein the root of the problem lies; although the modern standards of societal interaction, including the principles of equity, promote the idea of subverting biased ideas and prejudices related to African Americans and other cultures, the very basis of modern representation of Black people and the African American community is rooted in the stereotypes created by European Americans, whereas the voice of the former can hardly be hard.

Additionally, the study has revealed that the current image of an African American, much like the representation thereof several decades earlier, still thrives on reinforcing the idea of African American people being inactive, goofy and, therefore, harmless to the rest of the communities (Leiter 3).

Discussion

The study results show clearly that there are significant biases in the current representation of African American people in media, especially in the traditional one. The current portrait of an African American person is obviously dictated by the way, in which the African American identity perceived by European Americans. Therefore, when viewed through the prism of the above-mentioned perception, the media representation thereof is altered significantly (Drysdale et al. 78).

Despite the fact that the current concept of the African American culture and its representatives does not demonize the specified denizens of the American population, it still represents them in the light that is far from being favorable.

Particularly, the above-mentioned inactiveness, which can be traced in a range of past and modern interpretations of an image of an African American, can be interpreted as the way, in which European Americans would like to see the aforementioned population. In fact, a similar problem used to occur at the very beginning of the integration of the image of African Americans in art, as the lack of success of The telephone among the specified denizens of the U.S. population shows:

Such poorly made movies as Jumpin’ Jack Flash, Burglar (both 1987) and The Telephone (1988) wasted Goldberg’s talents. African-American audiences particularly found little to like in these films because they depicted Goldberg as an oddball with no identity as a Black woman. (Otfinoski 85)

Thus, the way, in which African American people used to be portrayed in media and the manner, in which they are depicted nowadays, do not differ much. The same prejudices that used to define the course of representing African American people in media still have a significant effect on the image of Black people in art.

Particularly, the findings of the research show that unique characteristics of the African American culture used to be kept in the shadow as the European Americans decided, which representation of the specified denizens of the population aligned with the idea of African American people being lazy and inactive.

As it has been stressed above, the concept of harmlessness, which can be attributed to the current representation of Black people and the Black culture in general in the contemporary media cannot be deemed as negative; however, it makes the very concept of the African American culture bland and deprived of any elements that could challenge people to think and discuss.

Indeed, the contemporary art pieces and literature that are supposed to represent African American population are remarkably bland, as the overview provided above shows. The samples selected for the study indicate that members of the Black community are portrayed in contemporary art and literature, as well as modern media in general, in the way that does not provoke thinking and further discussion for the most part, with several rare exceptions.

Based on the comparison of the current representation of African Americans in art and literature with the ones that were introduced into the specified area several decades ago, one must admit that some of the stereotypes, such as the alienation of the Balck culture, the alleged simplicity thereof, etc., as well as several other erroneous concepts of Black people and their culture, still define the way, in which media portrays the aforementioned denizens of the American population. Therefore, the stereotypes that used to dominate the society years ago, though swept under the rug with the introduction of the principles of equity into the modern society, still define the attitude of the U.S. population to the specified segment.

The specified tendency for the Black culture to be discriminated against in the contemporary art and literature is very disturbing; moreover, it shows that the current image of a black person portrayed in modern media is still powered by the stereotypes that have been in existence for years. The specified stereotypes, once trickling into modern media, define the specifics of relationships between African and the European American population of the United States; moreover, these stereotypes prevent the latter from understanding the very concept of the African American identity. As a result, the image in question gets misinterpreted to the point, where it can no longer be associated with the culture in question, thus, leading to more misunderstandings.

Conclusion

Because of the persistence and the staying power of stereotypes, which emerged due to the lack of equality at the primary stages of intercultural relations, the present-day image of African American people is still influenced considerably by the European American culture.

Moreover, the influence, which the specified stereotypes have on the development of the image of Black people in media, may subvert a range of progressive ideas and representations of the above-mentioned culture and people in media. As a result, the outcomes of the specified stereotypical portrayal of Black people in art and literature may be dire.

The portrayal of African American people in traditional media has been enhanced by prejudice and stereotypical concepts, which were reinforced by the principles of racial profiling that were viewed as a standard of societal interactions a century ago. Nevertheless, contemporary art and media still incorporates some of the ideas that were typical for racial profiling several decades ago.

Although the above-mentioned components are rather subtle, they, nevertheless, affect the way, in which people of other races see African Americans; as a result, intercultural interactions are altered by the way, in which modern media portrays the Black culture.

Works Cited

Cook, William W. African American Writers and Classical Tradition. 2010.

Drysdale, Jessica Renee, Jay Lutz, James E. Gober, and Thomas Allan Scott. Interview with James E. Gober. 2009.

Franklin, Bob and Matt Carlson. Journalists, Sources, and Credibility: New Perspectives. New York City, New York: Routledge, 2010. Print.

Leiter, Andrew B. African American Masculinity in the Harlem and Southern Renaissances. 2010.

Martinez, Jonathan. Art and Humanities. New York, NY: Jonathan Martinez Publishing, 2009. Print.

Otfinoski, Steven. African Americans in the Performing Arts. 2010.

Introduction

The notion that race is inextricably linked to privilege has been proven time and again throughout history. The race has some serious socioeconomic and other implications. Racial differences serve as one of the most prevalent factors for the systematic discrimination of individuals throughout the United States and within the United Kingdom. As a direct result of a focus on racial differences, conflicts have arisen and the notion of bringing an end to white dominance has been dealt with on an ongoing basis. Doane (2003) examined the notion that whiteness studies focus on race relations within the traditional sense and there is a dire need to refocus our discussion on the ramifications of race. Whiteness studies according to focuses on race, ethnicity, and sociological relations and aims at understanding race within a social and historical context.

Doane’s literature review

Doane conducted a comprehensive literature review in his examination of the privilege afforded to individuals by their race. His hypothesis dealt with the notion that race within the United States was a social construct that has transcended history and has existed as a direct result of diverse groups of individuals living near each other. This served as a means of establishing stratification. This stratification was based on race. There were privileges attached to being white and restrictions attached to being any other race. He chronicled the etiology of racism as one which began when virtually with the advent of America and can be traced back to when the population was such that there was some diversity but whites represented an overwhelming majority. As such, whites reaped the benefits which included wealth and power. In addition to this, they were afforded basic human rights which others were precluded from having. This served to make the notion of white supremacy a reality. As time went on, the need for inclusion of African Americans became a pressing need and as a direct result of the freedom fighter, African Americans were technically afforded equal rights by the passage of the 1866 Civil Rights Act. This act did serve to make the climate a bit better for African Americans, however, the great racial divide still exists today.

Mills’ philosophical construct

Mills (2003) examined the notion of white supremacy as a philosophical construct. In so doing he was able to present strong empirical proof by framing the discussion within the context of social and systematic change occurring within a historical context and transgressing all boundaries. Mills purports that to truly examine the concept of white supremacy one should view it as an independent entity and compare it to the global social system as it exists today. In his philosophical view, he focuses more on the current state of affairs instead of looking at it within its historical context. He is adamant about the fact that we should “challenge the everyday assumptions of normalcy, undermine the taken for granted and upend the conventional wisdom” (Mills, 2003, p1). One thing is clear from his discussion—he truly believed that history has served to proliferate a system wherein whites enjoy privilege and power and are supported in their quest to dominate over others. This according to Mills is the downfall of the system. What needs to be done is that racial harmony needs to be established and whites need to take an active role in ending racism instead of propagating a system of increased disparity.

The vein of socioeconomic status

Brown et. al., on the other hand, examined the whiteness in the vein of socioeconomic status as afforded by race. They establish a correlation between race and socioeconomic status and present a picture of a paradoxical situation. The paradox existing among African Americans deals with the great disparity evident within African American communities throughout the United States. On one end of the spectrum, we see an unprecedented number of indigent African Americans while simultaneously there is an increase in the number of African Americans who have climbed and continue to climb the socioeconomic ladder. For the first time, middle-class African Americans are bridging the economic gap between themselves and their white counterparts. To understand the dynamics of this paradox, one needs to take a closer look at the dynamics of socioeconomic status and race.

First and foremost, the contemporary African American middle class emerged with the advent of the Civil Rights movement (Walker & Wilson, 2002). This was a direct result of wide-scale social and political changes which in effect removed the lion’s share of the restrictions placed on African Americans and were strategically impacted to restrict social mobility and access to educational services and the like. In addition to the increased access to services and the ability to climb the ladder of success, the removal of restrictions served to assure that African Americans can live in the more “desirable” neighborhoods. This effectively and efficiently facilitated an unprecedented increase in the number of middle-class African Americans. As sweeping social and political changes placed fewer restrictions on social mobility, educational access, and residential patterns of African Americans, this expanded opportunity structure permitted more people of African descent to improve their socioeconomic status and enter the ranks of the middle class. According to the most recent U.S. census, the poverty threshold was $13,738 for a family of three and $17,603 for a family of four (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Anyone with income over the poverty threshold and below what is considered wealthy is considered to be within the middle class. Utilizing those guidelines to define class, a great many African Americans are defined as middle class. Sue and Sue (2003) remarked that the population of middle-class African Americans within the United States exceeded one-third of the entire population of African Americans.

A sociological standpoint

Ford (1997) described the African American middle class as a very diverse population comprised of individuals who are very close to the poverty line (the working poor) to individuals in the upper-middle and elite social classes. Essentially, the range here is from the poor to the affluent. These individuals are variable in their level of employment and employment status, their lifestyles as well as their material possessions. Despite this diversity, however, they all share one common thread. They embody the qualities of a strong work ethic, and orientation to achievement, racial pride, and adherence to societal norms (Sue & Sue, 2003). One element that has become apparent to the middle-class African American is a strong desire for social mobility and an action plan to achieve that mobility.

From a sociological standpoint, middle-class African Americans are seriously underrepresented in academia and through professional literature. There remains the stereotypical image of the African American population as a very uniform entity with the lion’s share of its constituents being poor and ignorant (uneducated). These stereotypical images serve to mitigate the efforts of the contemporary Civil Rights Movement. It is prudent that when examining issues related to race, culture, and socioeconomic status one realizes the complexity of these issues and treats them with sensitivity.

The paradoxical situation as described by Brown et al. paints a picture that proves to be somewhat limited when compared to the body of research present. It illustrates a condition of African Americans wherein the middle class is ever-expanding. If one takes the time to examine this claim one can see that the number of African Americans within the middle class is increasing and the racial socioeconomic gap is indeed decreasing when one simply looks at class but when one looks at the stratification within the middle class a different picture emerges. One can see that the majority of African American middle-class individuals fall within the lower third of the middle class. As one goes up the social ladder, the disparity in incomes between African Americans and their white counterparts remains wide (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Brown et. al. asserts that there is a dramatic change in the disparity of income as it relates to race. They asserted that African American income is closer to that of their white counterparts and attributes this to the increase in education among African-Americans. When one examines the statistics are they are one can see that the facts are more complicated than they seem. According to the most recent census, approximately 83.6% of all whites possess a minimum of a High school diploma as compared to 72.3% of their African American counterparts. 54.1% of all whites have attended college but did not graduate while 42.5% of all African Americans did also. 26.1% of all whites obtained a bachelor’s degree while 14.3% of their African American counterparts did. Finally, 9.5% of all whites obtained an advanced degree while 4.8% of their African-American counterparts did (U.S. Census Bureau–Educational Attainment Census Brief, 2000).

In examining this picture more closely, we can see that the gap between educational levels among African Americans and whites is quite narrow when one examines educational levels less than a Bachelor’s degree. However, when one examines the education of a Bachelor’s degree or higher a different picture emerges. The percentage of whites with a Bachelor’s degree or higher is almost twice that of their African-American counterparts. Is the gap closing? Once again we are faced with a paradox. It is accurate to say that it is indeed closing but it is also accurate to say that it is not. The current status of the gap needs to be explained in light of what the most accurate measure has to say. The gap is closing for individuals who have a level of education up until some college. For college graduates, the gap is still large and proves to be consistent throughout the years.

Conclusion

Finally, when one examines the two paradoxes presented in this paper, it is clear to see that on the surface the picture appears to be clear. It appears the African American middle class is larger than ever, however, when one examines the stratification of the middle-class one can see that the socioeconomic gap has not been a bridge to the degree that is reported. There has been some change in the socioeconomic status of African Americans but the lion’s share occurred between the indigent population and the lower middle class. A family of three with an income of as little as $15,000 can be considered middle class utilizing the guidelines of the United States Census Bureau. This fact effectively and efficiently served to skew the picture and contributed to the findings that there is a great paradox about the socioeconomic status of African Americans. Another claim made by Brown et. al. was that African-Americans are bridging the educational gap. This claim is a very optimistic one but it is very premature. I do see African Americans bridging the educational gap but it will some time. The Civil Rights movement indeed served to increase the opportunities afforded to African Americans but many African Americans fail to take advantage of this. Unfortunately, the majority of those individuals are indigent. This poses an interesting possibility are those individuals poor because they did not take advantage of the increased opportunities or did they fail to take advantage of the new opportunities because they are poor? This is a question that will be debated for some time to come.

References

1. Conley, D. (1999). Being Black, living in the red: Race, wealth and social policy in America. Berkeley, University of California Press.
2. Ford, D. (1997). Counseling middle-class African Americans. In C. Lee (Ed.), Multicultural issues in counseling: New approaches to diversity (2nd ed., pp. 81-107). Alexandria, VA, American Counseling Association.
3. Sue, D., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally different:. Theory and practice (4th ed.). New York, John Wiley.
4. U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Poverty in the United States: 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
5. U.S. Census Bureau. “Educational Attainment Census Brief.” U.S. Census Bureau. 2000. Web.