Category: African American

“Generations of Americans considered the United States to be a land of opportunity,” says New York University sociology professor Michael Hout. If this is so, then why are Black and Latino people in the US still less likely to feel represented in politics and pop culture? Your circumstances at birth are the biggest factors in how far you get in life. With this in mind, many Americans are shifting how they view the American dream. Racial tensions, income inequality, and other issues have created roadblocks that make achieving the American Dream more difficult for some than for others.

Those who live in areas with higher economic growth and better schools have a greater chance to climb the economic ladder. Many studies have found that areas with large African-American populations, such as the South, have lower rates of mobility for all residents. Counties with disproportionately high shares of black Americans today are the same counties that had large black populations before the Civil War, suggesting that historical conditions have had extremely persistent impacts on the outcomes of African-Americans. Public schools in these areas often are underfunded, limiting skill and upward mobility for black Americans.

Despite the current prohibition of policies that outright discriminate by race, racial economic inequality continues to have a significant impact on Latinos as well. There is an ingrained perception among many white people that all Latinos are foreign no matter how long they’ve been in the United States. “Regarding wealth, the disparity is much worse. In 2016, Latinos had a median wealth of $6,400 compared to White median wealth of $140,500” (Prosperity now). The narrative that Latinos are choosing not to take their place in American society does not take into account the pushback they face when they try to do so. Gerrymandering, the drawing of electoral district lines to keep particular groups together, has packed growing Hispanic populations into fewer districts, diluting their voting strength. Latinos are still not fully integrated into American society.

The Declaration of Independence declares “All men are created equal.” Our nation has come a long way and has made tremendous progress as envisioned by our forefathers. Some believe, overall, the American Dream is available to everyone and anyone regardless of race or background. If this were true, we would no longer see gerrymandering or underfunded schools. We would see a higher percentage of college diplomas, wealth, and pop culture in all racial groups.

In conclusion, although the nation has advanced greatly, due to historical oppression of several races and groups, there are still those who feel that the American Dream is unattainable. Race has always been the most visible source of division in the United States and still is. Hopefully, in the near future, the American Dream will truly become achievable by all.

Rhetorical Essay

In the “This Is America” source video, Childish Gambino aka Donald Glover’s message is uncanny and loaded with shocking imagery and metaphors. The video has launched a storm of multiple conversations on social media. The music video touches on many layers of gun violence, the increasing state of Black bodies in the United States, and how entertainment has distracted society from cultural and political issues. Childish Gambino’s video “This Is America” displays many examples of ethos, pathos, and logos to analyze issues deeply rooted in black optimism, and gun violence in the African American community.

Ethos is “the apparent credibility of a source” (Savolainen, 2014). The credentials behind Donald Glover is that he is the creator of the television comedy series, “Atlanta”. He also serves as producer, director, and co-writer of the series as well. Outside of television, he released three albums such as “Camp (2011), Because of the Internet (2013), and Awaken My Love! (2016)” (Biography, 2018) all under his alter ego, Childish Gambino. In May of 2018, he released “This Is America”, a hip-hop and gospel track that demonstrates African Americans being the center of innocent killings for racial violence. According to Biography, the song made history in 2019 as the first hip-hop track to win “Song of the Year” and “Record of the Year” at the Grammys. Will Hodgkinson (2018) mentioned song became a phenomenon and accumulated more than 109 million YouTube views. This makes him credible because Donald Glover is an African American male who can speak on the recent droppings of Black bodies especially with him presenting some scenarios that happened recently.

Pathos is “putting the audience in the appropriate mood, by playing its feelings” (Savolainen, 2014). Various examples of pathos are displayed throughout the “This Is America” video. The music video was directed by Hiro Murai. Ladan Osman (2018) explains how Murai is “a master of scene-setting”. The video began in a warehouse with an empty red chair and an acoustic guitar. The scene feels gloomy and awkward. As seen in the video, Will Hodgkinson (2018) describes a shirtless Childish Gambino that appears to be barefoot with trousers and wearing two slim chains singing, “We just want to party, “with the song beginning with African chants in the background. The sounds of the African chants show the emotion of the transition from happy to more alarming verses. The video drastically shifts after a guitarist shows up and Gambino proceeds to dance toward a now black hooded and empty-handed guitarist and shoots him in the black of the head. The pose that he symbolizes resembles the illustration of Jim Crow. Jacob Shamsian (2018) notes that the term, “Jim Crow” is referred to “a series of racist segregation laws.” After he shoots the guitarist, Gambino hands his gun to someone to take it away in a cloth, while the body is being dragged. This represents how guns are being valued and prioritized over Black bodies. The emotion in the first scene gripped the reality of Black America and the ruthless killings during the past years. The next scene that triggered emotion is the four children in school uniforms accompanying him in a dance craze. He soon enters a room with a stage that references the massacre in a Charleston church of nine people by Dylann Roof. He guns down a gospel choir to echo the 2015 church killing while the church is chanting lyrics such as “Tell somebody / You gon’ tell somebody. Grandma told me / Get your money.” (Ladan, 2018). The emotion of the scene felt heartbreaking as he used an AK-47 gun to viciously shoot the choir in an execution-style without remorse. Toward the end of the video, Gambino is seen standing on top of a red car surrounding other cars. Many cars have their driver’s doors open. This could be a representation of how African Americans are pulled over often and stepped out of their vehicle by police officers for unknown reasons.

Logos is the “reasoned account” (Savolainen, 2014). The logos that appear during “This Is America” shows symbolism that represents past history of black oppression towards Blacks in America such as the reveal of the Jim Crow image, obsession with firearms over a trap, and dark beat that balances between joyful singing and manic that mirrors extreme violence with the false view on freedom. The idea of this song was to be an anthem for the Fourth of July due to the holiday honoring America and its morals. Gambino has resisted the temptation to explain the video because he feels as though it is not his place to explain what’s happening in the video and give it context. The message that he puts across is for his audience to walk away with whatever they feel the need to walk away with. He wants his art to speak for itself.

In conclusion, “This Is America” touches on layers of society such as gun violence, police brutality, entertainment used to distract from political problems, and the state of bodies in the United States towards African Americans. There is ethos because of Gambino’s major impact on the Industry and how his music creditability has won him Grammy. Pathos is present because the director, Hiro Murai, envisions the violence against black bodies in “This Is America” and has addressed the current ongoing issues with mass shootings layered with the music of weapons firing, screams, and ad-libs. The message Gambino wants to put out is to take whatever from the music video and put your own interpretation into the perspective of this song.

Annotated Bibliography

Biography. (2018, March 29). Donald Glover Biography. Retrieved July 19, 2019, from https://www.biography.com/actor/donald-glover

The following biography on, Donald Glover (Childish Gambino), gives a description of his life including factual details such as his occupation, education, and other things as well. The biography will demonstrate Donald Glover’s creditability in the industry for ethos.

Childish Gambino – This Is America (Official Video) [Video file]. (2018, May 5). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYOjWnS4cMY

The YouTube link for Childish Gambino’s, “This is America”. The video was directed by Hiro Murai. The producer is Jason Cole of Doomsday with Ibra Ake and Fam Rothstein of Wolf + Rothstein. The YouTube video will be used to correlate with ethos, logos, and pathos.

Hodgkinson, W. (2018, May 15). How Childish Gambino changed the race debate with a pop video; Will Hodgkinson reports on Donald Glover (Childish Gambino), the artist whose song and video This Is America has had 109m hits on YouTube in ten days. The Times [London, England]. Retrieved from https://bi-gale-com.proxy-bs.researchport.umd.edu/essentials/article/GALE%7CA538746601/494c32ff30470ec9c63f311d3e586310?u=umd_bowie

Will Hodgkinson describes how “This Is America” by Childish Gambino has become a phenomenon overnight. This video had reached 109 million YouTube views at the peak of its success. The song contains cheerful African chants while making light of a country that interprets internet popular dances and horrific violence by showing symbolism for gun violence, police brutality, and killings towards African Americans. This article will demonstrate the deeper meaning of how being black in America can be difficult in this music video for ethos and pathos.

Osman, L. (2018). Slaying New Black Notions Childish Gambino’s “This Is America.” World Literature Today, (4), 40. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-bs.researchport.umd.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsglr&AN=edsgcl.543779205&site=eds-live

The poet, Ladan Osman, considers how Childish Gambino annihilates a root in black music. He explains how Gambino aims to talk about black optimism in America by understanding Gambino’s persona as a site upon African lineages. This article will help provide examples of how some of the scenes demonstrate real-life situations with the Black community using ethos, pathos, and logos examples.

Savolainen, R. (2014, January 7). The use of rhetorical strategies in Q&A discussion. Journal of Documentation, 70(1), 93–118. https://doi-org.proxy-bs.researchport.umd.edu/10.1108/JD-11-2012-0152

Reijo Savolainen discusses the aim of the study is to specify how rhetorical strategies are incorporated in Q&A (question and answer). The study is based on the analysis of 914 questions about global warming. Twelve rhetorical strategies serving the ends of classic rhetorical appeals such as ethos, pathos, and logos are identified. This article will help identify the definitions of ethos, pathos, and logos.

Shamsian, J. (2018, May 9). 24 things you may have missed in Childish Gambino’s ‘This is America’ music video. Retrieved from https://www.insider.com/this-is-america-music-video-meaning-references-childish-gambino-donald-glover-2018-5

Jacob Shamsian discusses how the music video “This Is America” capped an important career move for Donald Glover. The video is loaded with multiple examples of imagery and metaphors. He explains how the video touches on many things such as gun violence, the rate of black bodies increasing in the United States, and political problems. This article will show 24 things that were presented in the video that has a deeper meaning.

In the two plays named Fences by August Wilson and Hamlet by William Shakespeare. They are plays that had so many meanings behind it, but the one that got a lot of my attention was the two main characters Hamlet and Troy Maxson, for some people they might be considered heroes but to me they are not close to be. The meaning of heroes has so many different definitions. The first definition that we think right away is the one saying “a person with a cape that has superpowers, strong and good looking and that is willing to defeat the bad guy”. To me the definition of a hero is someone that is brave, courageous, valiant, bold, gallant, fearless, and daring to do anything for any loved one and racism is involved in one of the story.

In the play Fences by August Wilson is about African American life and experiences and examines race relations. Racism in the 1950 was very strict,

“I ain’t worried about them firing me. They gonna fire me ’cause I asked a question? That’s all I did. I went to Mr. Rand and asked him “Why? Why you got the white mens driving and the colored lifting?” Told him, “What’s the matter, don’t I count? You think only white fellows got sense enough to drive the truck. That ain’t no paper job! Hell, anybody can drive a truck. How come you got all the whites driving and the colored lifting?” He told me, “ Take it to the union”, Well, hell, that’s what I done! Now they wanna come up with this pack of lies” ( Act one 1233).

In this part the character Troy and his friend Bono are African Americans that work in a pick up trash truck and they are being discriminated against by not letting them drive the truck. Troy has asked Mr. Rand, their boss, why the black employees are not allowed to drive the garbage truck, but only to lift the garbage. But the boss did not care and said to take this questionnaire to the union. Many African Americans in the 1950s were not treated as good still even after passing the Emancipation Proclamation that declared ‘that all persons held as slaves’ within the rebellious states ‘are, and henceforward shall be free.’ Many African Americans were relief, because they were finally free and not a slave for someone

“The Emancipation Proclamation was limited in many ways. It applied only to states that had seceded from the United States, leaving slavery untouched in the loyal border states. It also expressly exempted parts of the Confederacy (the Southern secessionist states) that had already come under Northern control. Most important, the freedom it promised depended upon Union (United States) military victory” (Franklin).

Every African American was expecting that by passing the Emancipation Proclamation was going to help them with their freedom that they deserved after so many years of mistreatment from the white people mainly or those in the high class with a lot of money. After that everyone learned that the Emancipation Proclamation had its good side and bad side of it. One of the bad part of it it was that the slavery was going to disapear in some part of the states that were seperared from the United States, but other states that were control by the Southern states were not following the Emancipation Proclamation. The good side that was good about passing the Emancipation Proclamation was that it help in some parts,

“Although the Emancipation Proclamation did not end slavery in the nation, it captured the hearts and imagination of millions of Americans and fundamentally transformed the character of the war. After January 1, 1863, every advance of federal troops expanded the domain of freedom. Moreover, the Proclamation announced the acceptance of black men into the Union Army and Navy, enabling the liberated to become liberators. By the end of the war, almost 200,000 black soldiers and sailors had fought for the Union and freedom” (Franklin).

Even that the Emancipation Proclamation did not end slavery right away, it gave people faith that one day slavery was going to be over and that gave them strength to keep fight for their freedom. After that African Americans were allowed to join the Union Army and Navy. It was a huge opportunity to have more soldiers and more bodies to fight other countries. The good reason why we want larger forces is, because our soldiers, sailors, Marines, and airmen are often fatigued and stressed from extended deployments so if we have more soldiers we can send the other ones that are not fatigues or stressed and the other ones that are can rest.

Any person of any race can get discriminated against, not just African Americans.

In Niambi Michele Carter’s book American While Black, she analyzes black responses to immigration, developing a term “conflicted nativism” that she uses to describe black views on immigration and citizenship. This term is developed throughout the book through historical analysis and a case study approach to understand why blacks feel both sympathetic towards immigrants, but also view their arrival as competition. Carter’s research and analysis uncovers the complexity of this term, specifically looking at whether blacks choose to organize for immigrant groups, as well as underlining a potential shared experience. Blacks’ views on immigration can be viewed through the lens of history, as black politics in the US have been shaped by oppression, the restriction of civil rights, and a collective memory of this past. As a result of historical experience, immigration is a topic deeply rooted in the history of black people in the US, and their prior mistreatment shapes their ideology today. Additionally, immigration initiates competition between blacks and new immigrant groups that are competing for similar job prospects. Combined with the historical evidence of non-black groups engaging in anti-black rhetoric to become closer to whiteness, blacks are skeptical about immigration. On the other hand, black people empathize with immigrants, as they have similar shared experiences, but there is no organizing among black people for immigrant causes. Carter’s construction of the term conflicted nativism is built upon the foundations of white supremacy that has influenced how blacks view both immigration and how blacks view their place in American society. Ultimately, when assessing Carter’s characterization of conflicted nativism, is seems unfeasible that blacks will resolve this feeling towards immigration, especially considering the strength of the overarching structure of white supremacy that would need to be overcome in order to change black perceptions of immigration.

The first dimension of collective nativism Carter explores in the novel is that despite blacks having some opposition to immigration, they have never been organized to oppose immigration (or support it). Blacks opposition towards immigrants comes from the reality that immigrants will take jobs from blacks because they are willing to work for a lower price. Combined with a stereotype that Latino immigrants (the immigrant group identified by Carter’s research as the biggest threat to black employment) are hardworking and will work for less, blacks often see immigrants (usually Latinos) as competition (p.15). Carter observed slightly suspicious attitudes towards Latino immigration in her interviews she conducted, with many of the respondents felt as though this stereotype of hard-working immigrant was true (p. 131). Despite these attitudes, black opposition to immigration has never had a commanding force in the political sphere. The reason for this might be what Carter explains as a “lack of social capital”, but the underlying reason is likely that their political power is negligible in a government that has uplifted and institutionalized white supremacy (p. 61). This lack of organization makes any anti-immigrant sentiment dissipate among the black political sphere.

As a result of this lack of organization, there seems to be a muted response towards the issue immigration among black voters, which fits Carter’s argument. However, resolving this this dimension of conflicted nativism is difficult, as their attitude towards immigrants is a result of American structures in place that are meant to keep black people down. While blacks are fearful of Latinos in terms of employment opportunities, this is due to Latino’s ability to appeal to white majority with their assumed hard work ethic, and unintentionally keep blacks from these jobs. Because the US operates on a racial binary between black and white, non-black immigrants are able to tread the line to achieve better opportunities than black folk due to appealing to whiteness through assumed stereotypes for example.

Another aspect of conflicted nativism that Carter identifies is that blacks seem to empathize with immigrants, due to their history of shared experiences in America. Carter’s historical analysis explains that minority groups recognize each other’s struggles that they have to face in a country that favors whites (p. 61). Historically, laws enacted in 1790 defined Northern and Western European people as the only group eligible for citizenship, all other immigrant groups were defaulted as unsuitable (p. 141). New immigrants face prejudice and discrimination when arriving to the US, similar to what blacks still experience to this day. Carter found that blacks do sympathize with immigrants, but there is little evidence about there being a specific coalition among minorities that is pro-immigration. Historically, Carter found that blacks fought against the Chinese Exclusion Act, but the reasoning for black support was because otherwise they were “supporting their own degradation” because of the shared link between segregationist and anti-immigrant groups (p. 55). Carter explains a theory that coalitions among minorities are less likely than competition between them, as cooperation is usually contextual and based entirely on circumstance. This sympathy for immigrants is meant to emphasize the “conflicted” nature of blacks’ view on immigration; however, Carter makes the point that competition among minorities is much more likely in practice. This partially undermines the idea of conflicted nativism being truly how blacks feel about immigration, because when competition takes precedence over coalition, as there is no benefit for blacks to join in a zero-sum game for them (p.30). Their empathy does not usually translate to coalition building, and cooperation when neither of them will really benefit makes it difficult for blacks to resolve this dimension of conflicted nativism.

Conflicted nativism also contains a historical aspect of blacks feeling insecure about their citizenship in the US; Carter looks at the history of black people in America since slavery as well as the development of Durham, NC in modern times to come to this conclusion. Historically, blacks have only received protection of their civil rights through federal law. Their freedom from slavery, citizenship, and right to vote in the US is due to the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments. W.E.B. DuBois explains this well in that there are “two warring ideals” to black citizenship, where the black identity is in tension with the American identity that is founded on whiteness (p. 23). Blacks struggle in forming black citizenship on a country where that was not allowed. In understanding conflicted nativism, blacks’ insecurity about their citizenship creates this fear about immigrants coming to potentially hurt the rights blacks fought so hard for. Carter uses various examples of this underlying root of conflicted nativism, in blacks being told to leave to Liberia, which made it seem as though their claim to this country was invalid (p. 77). Carter further explains this argument of insecure citizenship though the use of collective memory, which involves blacks’ memory of a history of slavery, oppression and lack of civil rights to feel as though they can never really truly belong in America (p. 113). Another example Carter uses to describe this dimension of conflicted nativism is Durham, a town with black growth and prosperity, but also many barriers to fair representation during segregation. Durham’s past involved practices used to diminish the power of black people, through voting restrictions, as well as battles for continued segregation (p. 102). As a result, these events have caused uneasiness over the stability of blacks’ political rights. This can be translated to feelings of anti-immigrant sentiment, since historically non-blacks have gained closer proximity to whiteness through distancing themselves from blacks (p. 168). For Carter, blacks seem unable to resolve this internal conflict, as much of this insecurity about citizenship becomes psychologically damaging over time. Since blacks have had to continuously fight for their rights, this creates political insecurity threatened by new immigrants that have previously been anti-black as a way to achieve whiteness while degrading blacks. As a result, anti-immigrant sentiment is created due to the ways in which white supremacy structures race in America. In thinking about conflicted nativism, the history black citizenship provides an example of why blacks may hold anti-immigrant sentiment. Additionally, this uneasiness is due to white superiority in the US, and how blacks’ political rights were only achieved after acts of protest. As a result, it seems impossible to resolve this conflicted nativism because white supremacy will continue to make blacks feel uneasy about citizenship and anxious about newcomers potentially harming their rights.

In assessing Carter’s argument about conflicted nativism, there seems to be the underlying idea that black opinions on immigration come from their oppression under white supremacy. Anti-immigrant sentiment among blacks is due to the historical betrayal of blacks by immigrant groups to try and achieve closer standing to whiteness. Blacks are wary of immigrants because they fear that their access to employment will be diminished. The reason there has not been any organization among black anti-immigrant sentiment is the lack of political power compared to whites. Even though blacks empathize with immigrants, competition for resources makes it difficult to support them. Black insecurity about citizenship and skepticism about immigration comes from the structure of white supremacy in the US. As this country was founded on these motives, Carter does not believe that conflicted nativism can be resolved anytime soon, as these structures would need to change significantly. For black opinion to shift, there would need to be a fundamental shift in the underlying ideology of American government.

Work Cited

1. Carter, Niambi. 2019. American While Black: African Americans, Immigration and the Limits of Citizenship. New York: Oxford University Press.

The African-American experience in this country has long been a source of controversy. From the pre-slavery days in Africa to the current racial climate. While racism seemed to take a backseat, and was only thought to be a belief held by “backwoods rednecks,” we see that is not the case. Many of us have known that racism was around but in a more covert fashion, such as unfair lending practices, unfair hiring practices, and encounters with the police, just to name a few. This current presidential administration has fostered a resurgence of overt racism with their dog whistle statement “Make America Great Again.” I will be covering four time periods of the African-American experience; the pre-slavery era, the slavery era, Civil War and Reconstruction, and from Reconstruction to the present.

The life of Africans prior to slavery was very much like their European counterparts that captured them. There were Africans that lived in great cities, on the countryside, that were rich and poor. Some lived in peace and others waged war. Life as an African was what you would expect from any human beings at the time. Africa is not one big country, but it is a large continent made up of different countries and cultures. Africans before captivity enjoyed many freedoms and Africa’s riches is what brought Europeans to Africa. The gold, diamond and oil was a huge reason that many showed up on the shores of the motherland. Africans were separated from their loved ones, often without the ability to say goodbye and placed into the bottoms of ships for a journey known as The Middle Passage, on a journey to the unknown.

African-Americans during slavery was a very dark period for the African-American. All of our rights and dignities were stripped, and we were nothing more than property. The first slave colony was established in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. Thus, beginning the African-American experience. Slaves were used as free labor on tobacco, and cotton farms in the southern colonies. A fledgling nation that did not have much money for industry built its wealth on the back of slave labor. The African experience in America was not much better than the middle passage. Families were split, and treatment for minor “infractions” was harsh and severe. Africans basic instinct to start families and build communities was not allowed. Often male children would be sold when they came of age and female slaves would become concubines to white slave masters, some even as young as 13 years of age. Even though slaves outnumbered their masters, the psychological damage done by the bullwhip had rendered many docile. Slave masters also used house slaves versus field slaves. There was division sewn so that there could not be a planned uprising, or even escape. The slave masters would take light skinned blacks to work in the house. This would give them more access to the family and therefore they felt more empowered. They would use this dynamic to have the lighter house slaves to give them information regarding the field slaves. This dynamic still exists today, as light skinned blacks are thought to be more docile and weaker than dark skinned blacks. The terrors and scars of slavery are still prevalent in current mind sets in America.

The Civil War and Reconstruction era was seen by blacks as an opportunity to be considered human. There was even an all-black regiment out of Massachusetts that fought valiantly at Fort Sumter, and had an Academy Award winning movie made about it. There was a mass exodus of blacks from the south. Many seeking the opportunities and freedoms of the North. They thought that they would be leaving the racism in the south as they migrated north of the Mason-Dixon. This hope proved to be short lived, as the slaves freed by the Emancipation Proclamation and solidified by the 13th Amendment found that living free amongst hostile whites was not an ideal situation either. Although blacks were given the right to vote and to participate in the American experience, there soon grew a fierce opposition. Many local and state laws were enacted that prevented African-Americans from exercising that freedom. The Ku Klux Klan arose from the ashes of the burned and defeated south to wreak havoc upon the black population. This created a new nightmare. While technically free, our ancestors could not exercise said freedom without fear of repercussions.

This led directly into the Jim Crow era. This era was marked by overt racism and laws enacted that kept blacks from exercising freedom. Lynching, murder, and beatings were tools used to keep the black population subservient. After many years of second class treatment the civil rights movement arose. Leaders such as Garvey, Malcolm, Martin, Huey P. Newton, Medgar Evers, and Eldridge Cleaver lent voice to our plight. They publicly stated that racism will not be tolerated and we will band together to show our strength in numbers. We will not eat your food, shop in your stores, ride your buses, and we will defend ourselves and our property from your violence. This marked a change in America. Our voices were starting to be heard. After many high-profile marches and even some televised clashes where the American people got to see how African-Americans were treated the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was enacted, which made it illegal to discriminate based on color, gender, race, religion or country of origin. Even though this law was enacted there is still a long way to go in this country. The election of our first black president in 2008 was a step forward, but the election of Donald Trump this past November shows that most of white America is not ready for change. Race related incidents are on the rise and again shows us that we as a people must remain vigilant to ensure that the freedoms that we have are not infringed upon. The freedoms that African-Americans have only enjoyed for 53 years of this country’s long history.

References

1. America’s Black Holocaust Museum. (2012). Retrieved from http://abhmuseum.org/category/galleries/african-peoples-before-captivity/
2. African American Odyssey. (2017). Retrieved from https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/aopart5b.html
3. Slavery in America. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/slavery

Why are you acting white?

This may be a phrase commonly heard by someone who is African American or biracial, to express that the immediate behavior is not the common norm associated with their skin color or ‘race’. ‘Not only does race still objectively suppress African American life chances, but most African Americans still instrumentally use it to build ethnic communities of purpose, meaning solidarity, and group aims.’ (Gregory,1998; Gwaltney, 1993). This statement gives example and justification of just how impactful and prevalent racial identity is even in the present day. For Black people, there is a constant divide between being American and being Black. This duality is what creates the premise for the idea of double consciousness. W.E.B. Du Bois defined double consciousness in The Souls of Black Folk as someone who always has to view themselves through the eyes of others, others being mainstream society. This person will forever feel a sense of ‘twoness’; ‘two souls, two thoughts, two un-reconciled strivings, two warring ideals…’ (p.3). Black people have to have a constant double identity at play because they cannot simply turn off or leave at home a part of who they are. These two sides unfortunately often conflict with one another and this constant disunity within can take a toll on a person, but the tension is further increased by the unreasonable expectation for the divided persons to ‘pick a side.

Society in America is set up in a way that makes ethnicity, skin color, race, and culture a vital and central part of life. Although some may like to believe we live in a post-race society a majority of us know that is certainly not the case. Although it may not be as obvious as it once was racism is certainly still alive and well. Racism is one of the main reasons People of Color have this sense of duality between being American and being Black. The phrase used at the beginning of the paper is an example of how it can be difficult to mix the two sides because Black people are perceived to behave, speak, and even believe a certain way and if you dare to fall outside of the thin lines those presumptions have drawn you are ‘not black enough or ‘trying to act white’ either way you are in the wrong according to social norms. Although this is a difficult balance to maintain it is done every day all day by African Americans because they cannot escape who they are. To have to live life through a double-sided lens constantly monitoring and correcting yourself to match the expectations of the outside world is an exhausting task. It’s more than simply changing the manner in which you speak depending on your audience, it goes deeper, into body language, clothing, the way interaction is perceived, what topics of discussion are off the table, and which morals or values override that of the other side? Because I am Black, I can’t avoid it, and because I am American, I must confront it.’ (Bodnar,1996; Baker &O’Neal, 2001.p.5.) There is little to no place in the daily life of a Black person that is not affected by double consciousness.

For most people in America, it is difficult enough to get your point across correctly in any given circumstance, but this would become even more so difficult if you didn’t know what side you were on. This is the issue with dual identity because although a Black person can be born in America and feel pride or protectiveness or other types of patriotism or solidarity of some sort with this country, they will still always feel the resentment, the bitterness, or the anger towards this country as well for the way they have been and continue to be treated. For some people, this can be an issue that arises at work or any formal setting really where it may seem as though a situation or an action is offensive or triggering and the person has to decide whether or not to speak on it or take action against it. They must consider all the variables; am I overreacting? Did they mean to say it that way? Will this affect my position? Etc.… Sometimes it is a traumatizing experience to have to hold your tongue on an injustice or even to have to be the one to speak out on it. You must always be aware of your position in the room, in the conversation, in the building and act accordingly to maintain your well-being, but then also in a way that does not let down or betray your other half. ‘Identity is often fractured by numerous social identities and social roles within one being but also that these social identities and roles can sometimes be at odds with one another.’ (Lewis, 1993. p.8)

Unfortunately, American society seems to be obsessed with picking sides and in this instance, it is a painful and impossible choice to make. A person’s behaviors or words can be dissected and used against them to force them into choosing aside. To accidentally lean too much in one way or another is to unknowingly state that you are deciding to establish yourself as only that part of who you are. Many times, other Black people will accuse someone of try to assimilate into the white culture if they start to exhibit certain mannerisms or characteristics or speak on a topic that goes against the general culture’s opinion. On the other hand if one leans too far into their Black side, then they are stereotyped and labeled as if to be black means to be against being American. In some communities or social groups, people must pick sides. People who are biracial ae often polarized and the side is often assumed for them based on their physical characteristics and whether or not they look more ‘black’. In some cases, you are not ‘enough’ of either side to blend in or assimilate easily with the communities of either race. Therefore, in this position, one can be left in limbo or forced to prove themselves to be only one side or the other to win the trust of their community and to belong in a sense.

In-class readings such as Kindred by Octavia Butler, I found an abundance of connections between this topic of duality in this story although I thought it to be unlikely. It brings to light that the struggle of double consciousness started long before it was given a name in more recent times. When the main character Dana is continuously sent back into the times of slavery and plantations, she develops a bond with her ancestor Rufus. It seems unthinkable honestly that a Black person from any time period would have a soft spot for a slave owner. ‘I could recall walking along the narrow dirt road that ran past the Weylin house and seeing the house, shadowy in the twilight, boxy and familiar . . . I could recall feeling relief at seeing the house, feeling that I had come home. And having to stop and correct me, remind myself that I was in an alien, dangerous place’ (p.190). Oddly enough she states on more than one occasion that the plantation feels like home. Some might say this is because of all the time she is spending there, but I think it is like a form of Stockholm syndrome that developed in times of slavery but has been passed down for generations.

It could be argued that this is where the double consciousness stems from, since Black people have been in this country, they have had to develop two sides of themselves. One side that is tame and understanding to be able to play along with the white man’s agenda and make it in his world. The other side is angry, but can see clearly through the falsities to remind themselves that no matter what small niceties that maybe given this is not really home. Even in the present-day Black Americans, of course, feel as though this is their home because it is, but despite that ‘at home’ feeling they must always remind themselves that it is not an entirely free environment. They must check to see how many other black people are at the party, what is the noise level of the group of white males in the bar, and what is the diversity rate of the people in the place they plan to visit. Fellow members of the black community provide in their way a certain reality check to those who stray too far to the side of assimilation. Although this is not an enjoyable experience usually and it often causes conflict in the community it does serve a purpose. Although we fight for unity and equality, it is not yet achieved and to think otherwise and act as if it is can be dangerous to a Black American.

The idea that double consciousness stems from the past is also theorized in Parable of the Sower by Octavia Butler. In the story, the main character has a hyper-empathy syndrome which causes her to be able to feel another person’s pain. This disease is similar in ways to how double-consciousness works. For as long as history can go back dominant cultures project their anger and fear onto the minority culture and they suffer for the pain others are feeling. ‘But if everyone could feel everyone else’s pain, who would torture? Who would cause anyone unnecessary pain?’ (p.115). If white people in America could live a life in the skin of a minority even for a few days it would change the way they see the world. It would put a crack in that lens of white privilege that they cannot seem to look past. The fear of being powerless or less than is an intense feeling, that most people in the dominant culture, who inflict or ignore the pain put on People of Color in this country, have. They think that somehow their insecurities will dissipate or their problems will suddenly relieve themselves if they just put it all on those too oppressed to fight back.

In conclusion, double consciousness is a very real and difficult concept that People of Color have to endure on top of the various other struggles that already come with the color of their skin in our society. This is a condition that has been created by oppression, passed down for generations, and still carries on strong due to the consistent racism, prejudice, and bigotry from the dominant culture. So, if you are a person who believes we live in a post-race society, maybe take into account how many times you’ve witnessed or been involved in a microaggression in the workplace and the Black person in the scenario had to turn the other cheek. Or perhaps ask yourself if race doesn’t matter then why is it that the Black lives matter group exists in the present day? Why would people create a counter group, ‘All Lives Matter to discredit or take away from the severity of the other group if, in fact, we are all equal? These are the tiniest fragments of the true racially oppressive culture Black people must navigate through. Maybe on the surface, we as a country are growing to be more progressive, but the racism still lies beneath. That racism creates a need for the duality in identity for Black people and that is just yet another burden that is put upon them by this society.

Hair plays an important part in an individual’s life. For the African American culture, hair allowed them to express themselves and the roles within their community. There are many hairstyles and with those styles, many messages are conveyed. Braiding had purposes of functionality and communication. Cultures around the world share common aspects with specific hairstyles. The hair of African American culture and how it has developed into many styles that now many cultures wear and adorn themselves.

In the late 1700s to the 1800s during plantation life, slaves would spend their Sunday morning looking acceptable, White says “ In every cabin men are shaving and dressing- the women, arrayed in their gay muslins, are arranging their frizzy hair, in wich they take no little pride, or investigating the condition of their children’s heads…” (White,1). For the way enslaved workers were treated, hair played a role. They would receive better treatment if the texture of one’s hair more closely resembled European hair.

Styles such as braiding, cutting, and shaving reflected tribal affiliation, sex, age, status, and occupation .Within West African communities, braids were used to signify marital status, age, religion, wealth, and rank. Nigerian housewives in polygamous relationships created the style known as kohin-sorogun, meaning “turn your back to the jealous rival wife,” that had a pattern that when seen from behind was meant to taunt their husbands’ other wives. If a young girl of Senegal’s Wolof people was not of marrying age, she would have to shave her head a certain way, while men of this same group would braid their hair a particular way to show preparation for war and therefore the preparation for death. (Horne)

The different mixtures of plaits, shaved areas, and braids make patterns that adorn the heads of people, which create an impressive effect. Hair is a medium through which social messages can be relayed. Styles encoded statements of protest and alienation such as unevenly cropped and lurid colored hair and shaven crown on the head of a punk. Hippies long hair signified liberation and nonconformity. A black nationalist movement was started by Marcus Garvey in the 1920s to spread his belief that all black people should return to Africa, their homeland. In the 1960s and 70s dreadlocks were legible statements of black pride. Dreadlocks and Afro styles spoke of pride and political empowerment. The style celebrated the texture of black hair and the association with the black power movement.

Women chose simple braiding styles for more fuctionality when going through the severtiy of slavery and they did not have time for complex styles. Braids became a secret messaging system for slaves to communicate with one another. Braids were used as a map to freedom. For instance, the number of plaits worn could indicate how many roads people needed to walk or where to meet someone to escape bondage. For Africans, cornrows represented agriculture, order, and a civilized way of life. These types of braids have served many purposes, from an everyday convenience to a more elaborate adornment meant for special occasions. Slaves wore cornrows as a homage to where they had come from, but a practical way to wear one’s hair during long labored hours. The hair on one’s head is never biological because it is always “worked upon” by one’s hands. Doing so socializes hair and makes it a remarkable statement about society and self (White, 53).

The perception of black hair began to shift until the black power movement in the 1960’s. The movement asserted blacks and rejected the Eurocentric framework of beauty. Whether in African or New World societies, and in whatever period they are studied, blacks must have been engaged in this kind of cultural activity. The problem lies not so much in showing that enslaved Africans and African Americans were involved in this form of visual communication, but in understanding what their hair arrangements signified. (White, 53)

Black Americans were developing a deep desire to honor our African roots. Styling of hair is a universal cultural practice. Combining with shaving and bunching of the hair among Africans, American Indians, and Euramerican. American Indians practiced head shaving for a variety of purposes. “… between 1735 and 1768, recorded that in times of war the various tribes trimmed their hair in distinctive ways to facilitate the identification of their enemies” (White,60).

There was a growing concept that European textured hair was “good” and African textured hair was “bad,” foreign and unprofessional. Wigs and chemical treatments achieved smoother, straighter hair. In the 18th century European men wore wigs, which became more elaborate. Toupee and bob wigs are relevant to African American hairstyles such as being frizzed, curled tightly and combed to create a bushy effect. The variation of these styles were relevant to the style of African American hairstyles.

The art of hair braiding has evolved beyond the original cultural ideas. regarding today’s braided styles, messier and freer styles of braids are seen and they don’t have to be tight or perfect. People accept braids to look less perfect, chic, and more relaxed. Expressions and styles have changed, but braiding patterns have remained the same. Braids are adorned, worn, and praised in many different ways and are used as a way to protect Afro-textured hair against split ends and damage from heat and humidity. Getting your hair braided in the salon environment builds unity and embraces a historical culture. Braids are an inseparable part of Black culture. African Americans have carried these styles with them throughout history. From Africa to southern plantations to northern inner-city salons and beyond. Even when the natural beauty was not acknowledged and with the plethora of hairstyle choices available.

During the early years of freedom African American hair for elaborate innovation was largely denied, though black hairstyling were still there it wouldn’t be until the black power movement that the hair of African Americans would become a visual medium for exuberant display. Braids became an outward expression of self-acceptance and self-love. The people who represent a culture that for centuries has imposed its ideal of beauty on us, whites, began to wear the styles of black ancestors. These hairstyles were subjected to harsh criticism, it didn’t stop non-black groups from adopting them as their own. Also, often showing a lack of understanding for the history of locs, curls, and braids. “At the dawn of the twenty-first century, the image makers and power brokers in American culture are finally recognizing the influence Black hair has had in shaping American culture” (Byrd & Tharps, 161).

For centuries, black communities around the world have created hairstyles that are uniquely their own. These hairstyles span all the way back to the ancient world and continue to weave their way through the social, political and cultural conversations surrounding black identity today. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and ‘70s, came the rise of the natural hair movement that encouraged black communities to accept their hair and turn away from damaging products. The notion of conforming to European standards did not fit with their message of black power. Displaying these natural styles was its own form of activism and seen as a statement in reclaiming their roots.

I. Introduction

Mass incarceration in the African American community is suppressing the economic growth and population of the African American people. This problem analysis will look at the issues at stake, why the issue is critical, discuss policy goals and constraints, as well as go over solution method. This analysis will also explore the incarceration rate of other countries.

II. Model of the Problem

The epidemic of mass incarceration within the African American community provides the strenuous challenge of improving economic prosperity within the population as well as sustaining the ethnic group. Several minorities across the nation share the same hardship, which is mass incarceration.

However, once the issue of mass incarceration of African Americans receives adequate attention, establishing economic success for all minorities will be mended. African Americans have been in languish for several years with mass incarceration. High prison sentences for petty crime, lack of adequate representation, and lack of resources for ex-convicts contribute to the problem of mass incarceration. Included in the issues mentioned above, mass incarceration means cheap labor for prominent business owners. Since the pro-mass incarceration side has a large financial stake in this dilemma and possesses multiple resources, the resistance against ending mass incarceration is indomitable.

July 4th, 1776 was the date the United States of America received its independence from Great Britain, founded as a capitalist society. (“The Declaration of Independence, 1776,” n.d.) In 1619, what was known as the colonial period starting with Jamestown, is now known as the United States of America. During that same year Africans were brought to the colonial period to be slaves for the settlers to produce free labor in order to make maximum profits from produced goods they were selling. Fast forwarding history to December 1865, Africans now have generations of African Americans claiming their freedom and are no longer slaves to the English Settlers. (“History of Slavery in America,” n.d.)

However, this freedom to African Americans came at the stake of a major blow to capitalism for the Southern states, who were still profiting off the labor from slaves. European Americans tried to recover the free labor that was lost in December 1865, through Jim Crow. Nevertheless, Jim Crow was removed due to racial injustice, but a new system took its place, which is mass incarceration. (Alexander, 2012, p. 191).

Following Alexander (2012), “The Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution had abolished slavery but allowed one major exception: slavery remained appropriate as punishment for a crime.” (p. 31)

The author Alexander (2012) stated that, “More than 2 million people found themselves behind bars at the turn of the twenty-first century, and millions more were relegated to the margins of mainstream society, banished to a political and social space not unlike Jim Crow, where discrimination in employment, housing, and access to education was perfectly legal, and where they could be denied the right to vote. The system functioned relatively automatically, and the prevailing system of racial meanings, identities, and ideologies already seemed natural. Ninety percent of those admitted to prison for drug offenses in many states were black or Latino.” (p. 58)

There are many scholars who have different reasons to what exactly cause the inflation of the prison population, however most can agree that the high sentencing on petty crimes, that were created out of the result of the drug war had influenced it. Beginning in the 80’s under the president Regan administration, mandatory sentencing for certain crimes were in forced. According to Hattery and Smith (2010) “These laws required long mandatory minimum sentences for simply possessing a small amount of sun stances such as crack, cocaine, heroin and even marijuana.” (p. 389). However, sentencing gotten more intense as time went on. Under the Rockefeller Drug Laws, two polices were in forced, which were: (1) “The Three Strikes and You’re Out”, which meant that if you were receiving your third felony then the judge would automatically sentence you to live in prison. (2) The differential sentencing between crack cocaine and powder cocaine. This policy was created under the impression that crack was more robust than cocaine, so the possession of 5 grams of crack will give you a felony automatically whereas the possession of 500 grams of cocaine was needed to get a felony. (Hattery and Smith, 2010, p. 390)

Many scholars believe that these polices are an attack on the African American community because crack is prominent in the African American community, whereas cocaine is more prominent in the Caucasian community. (Hattery and Smith, 2010, p. 390) Not only do the mandatory sentencing send African Americans at an alarming rate to prison but it also strips judges from doing what they are supposed to do, which is supposed to determine what is fair. Many federal judges spoke out about mandatory sentencing being unjust, as well as Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy. (Alexander, 2012, p. 191).

Another problem with mandatory sentencing is that is found to be racially discriminatory towards minorities. Following Hattery and Smith (2010) “Additionally, a report by the U.S Department of Justice on sentencing in state courts found that 33% of convicted White defendants received a prison sentence whereas 51% of African American defendants received a prison sentence.” (p. 391)

In addition to the mandatory sentencing, there is also an issue with lack of adequate representation. Most poor African Americans cannot afford a poor attorney and must believe and trust that what the prosecutor says is factual. So most African Americans will pled guilty even if they are innocent. Contrary to the African Americans that do not pled guilty and decide to go to trial, often wait years before their case goes to trial. For the ones who make it to trial will see a public defender who is bombarded with various of other cases and cannot give undivided attention to their cases going to trial. (Alexander, 2012, p. 84).

In the fashion, prison labor is another reason mass incarceration is an issue. As mention earlier prison labor is known to start with slavery. After the Civil War from 1861-1865, there was a system of hiring out inmates; this was known to continue slavery. Some freed African Americans were accused of not finishing their sharecropping obligations or minor stealing. It is noted that these accusations were never proven, however they became convicts doing free labor. “From 1870 until 1910 in the state of Georgia, 88% of hired-out convicts were Black. In Alabama, 93% of “hired-out” miners were Black. In Mississippi, a huge prison farm like the old slave plantations replaced the system of hiring out convicts.” This “hiring out” system is now known as the Prison Industry Complex. (Peláez, 2019, p. 3)

It is acclaimed that at minimum 37 states have constitute negations of prison labor with private corporations. Some of these corporations include: Target, Macy’s, IBM, TWA, Hewlett-Packard, Nordstrom’s, Revlon, Nortel, AT&T, Dell, Pierre Cardin, Motorola, Boeing, Intel, Wireless, Honeywell, Compaq, Northern Telecom, Microsoft, Texas Instrument, Lucent Technologies, and 3Com. The corporations listed had an economic increase because of prison labor. During the years of 1980 to 1994, their profits risen from 392 million to 1.31 billion. Most prisoners receive minimum wage for their work, except in Colorado where they receive $2 an hour. (Peláez, 2019, p. 3) However, in private- prison prisoners are less than $2, it is .17 cent an hour. Tennessee is known to be the highest paying private prison, where the prisoners are paid .50 cent an hour. (Peláez, 2019, p. 3)

Profits were doing so well that a new business merge, importing inmates with lengthy sentences. After a federal judge ruled that overcrowding in Texas prisons was cruel and unusual punishment, the CCA signed contracts with sheriffs in impoverished counties to construct and run new jails and split the earnings. (Peláez, 2019, p. 4) 97 percent of 125,000 federal prisoners were sentenced of non-violent crimes. It is hypothesize that over half of the 623,000 prisoners in metropolitan or county jails are innocent of the crimes they are under indictment of. Most of those people are awaiting trial. (Peláez, 2019, p. 4)

The lack of resources has had a tremendous effect on the mass incarceration rates. Many African Americans leave prison only to return right back to the system because of the lack of resources available to them. According to (Alexander, 2012, p. 142) the offender could be sentence to probation, community service and may have to pay court cost. Typically, offenders are not eligible for government healthcare or welfare benefits, or educational assistance. They will lose the right to vote, they could lose their license. Offenders will not be allowed to join the military, obtain a firearm, or federal security clearance. If the offender is not a citizen of the United States, then they will be immediately deportable.

Like most systems of oppressions, they affect the community. The consequences of incarceration go past the individual being incarcerated and can be seen as a present-day expansion of slave labor and Jim Crow oppression that correspondingly uproot resources from African Americans which generated multi-generational detriment that is still occurring today. (Hattery and Smith, 2010, p. 3) Previous incarcerated mothers have a hard time proving a safe housing for the children because they are denied public housing. (Hattery and Smith, 2010, p. 8) Likewise, “the incarceration of million African American men has decimated African American families and entire communities as they are systematically bled of capital.” (Hattery and Smith, 2010, p. 6)

Through the lens of history, we have seen the change in the U.S from a racial caste system stationed utterly on exploitation (slavery), to another one based predominately on servitude (Jim Crow) following the system of mass incarceration to be defined by marginalization. Other scholars have noted marginalization to be the most dangerous. Intense marginalization, examined throughout world history, suggest the possibility of extermination. Catastrophes like the Holocaust in Germany or ethnic cleansing in Bosnia are detectable to the severe marginalization and stigmatization of racial and ethnic groups. Legal scholar John A. Powell once commented, “It’s actually better to be exploited than marginalized, in some respects, because if you’re exploited presumably, you’re still needed.’ (Alexander, 2012, p. 219)

Moreover, the US, has incarcerated more people than any other country. “A half million more than China, which has a population five times greater than the U.S. Statistics reveal that the United States holds 25% of the world’s population, but only 5% of the world’s people.” (Peláez, 2019, p. 1)

In Germany instead of locking up most of their offenders they issue of fines. Only 5 % percent serve a prison sentence and 12 % get a delayed prison sentence. (Weigend, 2016, p. 1) They give more power to the judges by giving them a sentence range to choose from depending on the crime. On petty crimes they will typical have one judge, however on more serious crimes they will have four to five judges on that case, with either a unanimous or majority vote deciding the outcome of the case. (Weigend, 2016, p. 5). According to (Alexander, 2012, p. 89) The possession of heroin will atomically get you 10 years in the US contrast to England six months.

Below is a chart displaying how the US incarcerations rates compare to other countries: (Wagner and Sawyer, 2018)

This leads me to conclude that this issue is both a market failure and government failure because the prison industry is a Quasi public good which means, that the prison industry show characteristics of a pure public and private good. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 247). Public prisons can be non-excludable and non-rival. However private prisons can be excludable and rival. Due the War on Drugs started by Nixon and continued by the Regan presidency, public prisons were becoming crowed and expensive. (Alexander, 2012, p. 48) With that being said, major corporations began to build private prisons. (Alexander, 2012, p. 230) Private prisons have the luxury of being built at an expediential rate without taxpayer approval. (Luan, 2018)

They commonly refused to take the most violent and most expensive prisoners. (Yates, 2018) Those prisoners go to a government facility. (Yates, 2018) Private prison is excludable by choosing the prisoners that come to the prison. (Yates, 2018) They are also rival once the prison has reached it capacity. Following Peláez (2019) “Ann Richards, followed the example of Mario Cuomo in New York and built so many state prisons that the market became flooded, cutting into private prison profits.” (p. 4)

Prisons it the U.S create a market failure by producing negative externalities and creating de-merit goods through asymmetric information. Asymmetric information is where information does exist, but it is not equally shared between the two parties. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 184).

Within the prison industry this occurs when people are told to take a deal or plea guilty. Most people in custody do not know their rights or are completely aware how hard their life will be when they are release as a convicted felon. The prosecutor will tell the person in custody that taking the deal being offered is the best thing to do or that pleading guilty will work better in your case. They leave out the information regarding the repercussions of what will happen if they take the deal or plead guilty. (Alexander, 2012, p. 142). However, every citizen in the United States of America has a right to an attorney to receive the information that is being left out by the prosecutor but most African Americans cannot afford an attorney and is left with the information the prosecutor gives them. (Alexander, 2012, p. 84).

As mention above mass incarceration affects more than just the prisoner. It has in impact on the family of the prisoner and the society or community the prisoner as well. Since the impact is negative, these impacts would be the negative externalities. Negative externalities are destructive effects placed on a third party by an economic transaction of someone consuming or producing something. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 93). With mass incarceration creating a hardship on African American families which are the few negative externalities of mass incarceration.

Mass incarceration being a de-merit good is another reason why prisons are a market failure. De-merit goods are goods that are more harmful to consumers than they realize due to lack of information. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 229). Most people would support the “War on Drugs Movement” or the “Get tough on Crime Movement”, not knowing that it is aiding mass incarceration. (Alexander, 2012, p. 5). Most people are not aware of the mantory sentences or the racial profiling taking place. Most people also not aware of prison labor being the one of the secret agendas for mass incarnation. With all that being said prisons are a market failure because the allocation of goods and services are not being efficient and is leading to net social welfare loss. (Alexander, 2012, p. 5).

Moreover, mass incarceration violates civil rights given to citizens under the constitution. For the public to have access to the public goods, we need the government to provide the public goods. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 185). When there are negative externalities, such as pollution, the citizens need the government to decrease it. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 186). When there are positive externalities, such as universities, same as before, the citizens need the government to subsidize it. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 176. However not all government intervention is best for the market. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 187). The goal of government is to distend welfare, if that does not occur or if the government goes against it, then a government failure has taken place. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 190).

Government failure emerge from government intervention to alleviate a market failure but creates more problems in doing so. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 24). The problems such as information failure, unintended consequences and regulatory consequences are the reasons why government failure occurred within mass incarceration. Unintended consequences cause an impact on multiple groups of people, such as poor white people. Following Alexander (2012) “Black and brown people are the principal targets in this war; white people are collateral damage.” (p. 204) Lastly, mass incarceration originally wanted to reinvent cheap labor to support capitalism, although it has accomplished that goal for capitalism, it has created numerous problems for brown people resulting in a regulatory capture. Regulatory capture is happening when the welfare of the society is overlooked for the well-being of CEO’s and mangers in certain industries. Information failure, unintended consequences and regulatory capture are the reasons why mass incarceration is also a government failure. (Weimer D.L, 2017, p. 241).

In summary, problems were intrinsic in bureaucratic supply. There were “bureaucratic failure through organizational market failures.” (Taylor & Frances, 2017, slide 21) Due to the bureaucratic failure tied with asymmetrical information within the prison market, both government and market failure occurred within this issue. (Taylor & Frances, 2017, slide 28)

III. Policy Goals and Constraints

Ending mass incarceration is the substantive policy goal. In order to start achieving that goal some instrumental goals need to be put in place such as, getting rid of all financial incentives giving to the law enforcement to arrest African Americans and other minorities people for drug offenses, along with federal grant money. Drug laws need to be re-evaluated; racial profiling must be extinguished; the federal government needs to rid the focus of drug bust in underserved African Americans communities. The federal government also needs to end the transfer of military equipment to local law enforcement in regard to the drug war. (Alexander, 2012, p. 232).

In order to help reduce selective enforcement, data collection for police and prosecutors must be required throughout the entire nation; in combination, mandatory sentencing for drug-related crimes should be rescinded. (Alexander, 2012, p. 233).

When a defendant’s representation, public defenders, are greatly outmatched in financial resources compared to their opposition, the prosecution, the engine of mass incarceration receives an unfair advantage. As a result, two things must be adopted, first, public funding for prosecutors and defense attorneys should be equal, and two, racial impact statements that assess the racial and ethnic impact of criminal justice legislation must be adopted. (Alexander, 2012, p. 233).

The devastating effect of criminalizing marijuana possession and use must be eliminated through means of legalizing the drug. Because use or possession of marijuana is illegal, it can result in citizens being incarcerated and caged as if they were animals, which should not be society’s goals and intentions of reform. However, if legalization cannot occur, viable re-entry programs need to exist for former inmates that help build a foundation of training and education so those labeled as criminals can reform themselves as productive citizens and working in jobs that carry a purpose. (Alexander, 2012, p. 233).

IV. Solution Methods

The best solution method for this problem analysis would be a multi-goal analysis. As mentioned above I have listed three or more goals needed to solve this problem analysis. Since this issue resulted in as both a government and market failure there are numerous of goals in place repair the issue and simply one to two goals will not take care of the problem.

References

1. Alexander, M. (2012). The New Jim Crow [Kindle Android version]. Retrieved from Amazon. Com
2. Weimer, D. L. (2017). Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practice [Kindle Android version]
3. Taylor & Francis. (2017). Limits to Public Intervention: Government Failures [PowerPoint]. Retrieved from https://bbcsulb.desire2learn.com/d2l/le/content/489326/viewContent/5462537/View
4. Taylor & Francis. (2017). Rationales for Public Policy: Market Failure [PowerPoint]. Retrieved from https://bbcsulb.desire2learn.com/d2l/le/content/489326/viewContent/5441169/View
5. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/declaration
6. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~arihuang/academic/abg/slavery/history.html
7. Peláez, V. (2019, February 24). The Prison Industry in the United States: Big Business or a New Form of Slavery? Retrieved from https://www.globalresearch.ca/the-prison-industry-in-the-united-states-big-business-or-a-new-form-of-slavery/8289
8. SMITH, E., & HATTERY, A. J. (2010). African American Men and the Prison Industrial Complex. Western Journal of Black Studies, 34(4), 387–398. Retrieved from http://csulb.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=57315512&site=ehost-live
9. Weigend, T. (2016). No News Is Good News: Criminal Sentencing in Germany since 2000. Crime & Justice, 45(1), 83–106. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1086/686041
10. Initiative, P. P. (n.d.). States of Incarceration: The Global Context 2018. Retrieved from https://www.prisonpolicy.org/global/2018.html
11. Luan, L. (2018, May 16). Profiting from Enforcement: The Role of Private Prisons in U.S. Immigration Detention. Retrieved April 10, 2019, from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/profiting-enforcement-role-private-prisons-us-immigration-detention
12. Yates, S. Q. (n.d.). Reducing our Use of Private Prisons [Letter written August 18, 2018 to Acting Director Federal Bureau of Prisons]. In The Deputy Attorney General. Washington D.C.

Why should black history be taught extensively in schools?

Did you know that police killed more than 1000 black lives in the UK in 2020? Did you know that black people are currently 3x more likely to be killed by the police? Did you know that 99% of killings by police between 2013 to 2020 don’t result in criminal charges? Well, as a matter of fact this is coordinated activity developing across the country, and so we have declared an emergency! Black people are dying, in this state of calamity. So tell me, why is it that white crime is seen as an isolated incident but black crime is a representation of the entire black community? This cannot be seen as an isolated incident. This is why I believe that black history should be taught more extensively in schools.

To begin with, days like today are very important. We need to have more opportunities to talk openly and honestly about race. When we do this more people will learn to stop making assumptions. Educating children in schools on black history will not only benefit them and have a huge impact on their lives but, it will also result in a decrease in the amount of racial violence happening around the world right now. A department for education spokesperson said, black history is an important topic which schools can teach to children of all ages as part of the history curriculum. I agree with this statement as in my opinion I believe that racism in all its forms is unacceptable and has no place in society. I don’t understand why we should commemorate world-renowned art museums and technologically advanced science museums, when educational courses are claimed to be progressive and inclusive. So, just what is the deal with black history being forgotten? Or do we want to forget about it?

In my opinion, I believe that black culture is without a doubt powerful. For years, it has helped structure the shape of many countries by modifying their art, language and politics. But, I remember when I was taking history lessons, none of this was taught to me, especially not during Black History Month. Judging from my history classes, some people would believe Martin Luther King Jr, Malcolm X and Rosa Parks changed history all by themselves. That information was normally rushed through within 5 lessons and included a movie at some point. However, as much as I respect and appreciate the work of these three people, black history is bigger than them and began long before their time. Students at all levels of education in the UK should be well cultured on the key aspects of black history because it is our country’s history. It’s time to be at ease with the uncomfortable and address the truth. Yes, the Atlantic slave trade and Civil Rights movements took place, and whilst they are an initial part of our country’s history, there is so much more to impart in. When GLC, Greater London Council, officially announced October to be known as Black History Month in 1987, it was meant to seize the opportunity to honor the too often neglected accomplishments of black people in every area of attempt throughout our history. These neglected accomplishments are continuing to happen because there is an exclusion in what is being remembered. Our country was established off of slaves, our culture was established by black people, and our society continues to be unjust to black people by failing to acknowledge their accomplishments. Darcus Howe, a civil rights campaigner, believed that without the full truth, there is no truth, and there is no denying that black history is only partially being investigated in classrooms. He said, If a race has no history, it has no worthwhile tradition, it becomes an irrelevant factor in the thought of the world, and it stands in danger of being wiped out. I’m sure Darcus would probably be rolling in his grave if he could see how little black history is actually taught! From the British Black Panthers to the Bristol Bus Boycott, Black History and Black History Month is an opportunity to bring neglected historical incidents into the classrooms. We have a responsibility, as British citizens, to educate people on the entire history of our nation. Not just the hints and pieces that glitter nicely!

I am sure many people will agree that racism is learned and taught rather than inherited, so by educating people on black history, hopefully, society will learn to recognize and appreciate the contributions black people have made to our country’s advancement, rather than be ignorant or ignore it. As we can see, due to this ignorance and lack of knowledge of the education surrounding it, black history continues to be in the absence of young people, especially individuals from minority ethnic backgrounds who are not being taught about their history within Britain. Therefore results in them taking away their sense of identity and belonging. Kendra Gerald, a part of teen empowerment youth organizer, thinks that people’s perceptions of black people are that black people are expected to be gang involved, incarcerated, and or uneducated. Because of those perceptions that are ingrained in the history of our country sometimes, black people have the same perceptions of themselves. I agree with this and think that this can impact who they are, what they can be, and what they think they can achieve. Part of the challenge black people face is to change those perceptions and contradictions of themselves and to learn to take pride in who they are and where they come from rather than having a loss of personality and uniqueness.

What do I mean by taking away their sense of identity and belonging? Well, the assassination of George Floyd and the following global Black Lives Matter Protest have seen a renewed demand for curriculums to be decolonized, targeting the whitewashing that occurs at all levels of education. In my opinion, I believe that we should let George Floyd’s death be a flashpoint in modern history as a time when as a society, we decided to promote diversity and inclusion, rather than expecting history to elude us, we should teach children about how their past is casting their present. How would you feel if you were segregated and judged by your skin color? Not great, perhaps even offended or guilty. A friend of mine said that the black community is being attacked in so many nuanced ways from racial profiling to police brutality. She said that she couldn’t be friends with someone she was close to because she was black and the person’s mum forbade her to be friends with her daughter. After hearing this I felt very emotional and guilty as this type of behavior is just intolerable and disgusting. Black people have encountered some challenging situations regarding race. Remarks and contradicting things such as my dad saying that black people aren’t allowed over the house because they steal, or my parents would disown me if I ever dated a black guy. Is this really what some people believe? Just because there is a difference in skin tone, all of a sudden they are now belittling and having other innocent people have their character being slandered by false and unjustifiable statements. As a teenager and hearing these, things really start to make me think, is this what the general white population thinks about black people and other people of color? Does this in the end, all go down to identity and how since slavery, racism has impacted how people feel about themselves and about others? I cannot accept the fact that this kind of behavior is still going on, even when it’s 2021!

This is why I believe that black history should be taught more extensively in schools, educating both the new and old generations. All children benefit from learning about black history. It aids in the fight against racism and helps both students and parents as it gives a full and honest view of Black people who are segregated. Students now more than ever have an opportunity to educate their parents or guardians who have not had the same experiences and knowledge as them in school through no fault of their own. Therefore, a greater chance for everyone with no excuses to be aware of the current affairs and situations we are currently in as a society and community. It has a significant impact on racist attitudes, and these factors benefit all students by ensuring that schools are a place where all children feel respected, appreciated, and protected. This is critical because educators know, and have known for a long time, that children find it difficult to learn when they feel devalued, insignificant, or unsafe. Students benefit from learning about black history all year, not just during Black History Month. However, instead of just focusing on black history I think personally schools should extend the curriculum of educating students on black history across all the subjects in schools. There is a new law in the UK put into place which is that black history lessons are to be made compulsory in schools. I think that the best way of achieving this is to educate children not only in history but in all the other subjects. For example, by studying literature we can look at not just people’s lives but be looking at examples of stories. We can use that to empathize with the different situations that people would have been in and develop our knowledge and understanding of them so that we include learning about all different races and cultures not being unfair and having inequalities around the world globally.

Is Black History Month Necessary: an examination of the Origin, Culture, and Politics of Black History Month

Four hundred years ago, after being trafficked several times by human traffickers, 19 black slaves arrived on the American continent for the first time. Today in 2019, people commemorate them by celebrating Black History Month. Is Black History Month necessary? I think the answer is yes, Black History Month is necessary.

The father of the Black History

For decades, it is widely considered that black people did not have much history except Slavery, till now, much of the growing recognition of the true place of black people in history can be attributed to one man, Carter G. Woodson.

Carter Godwin Woodson (Dec. 19, 1875 – Apr. 3 1950) was a historian and the co-founder of the “Association for the Study of Negro Life and History”. He grew up in a rural family in Virginia, his parents James Woodson and Eliza Riddle Woodson were slaves released after the American Civil War. In order to attend a new high school for black students than was under construction, the Woodson family moved to Huntington, West Virginia. However, Carter’s application for admission was rejected.

Although his family cannot afford his tuition, deep down in the young Woodson’s mind, he knew how important it was to receive proper education in his efforts to secure and make the best use of his sacred freedoms. He started to teach himself English, Math, and chemistry. He didn’t start formal education until he was 20, thought his own intelligence and efforts, He received a bachelor of arts degree from Berea College in Kentucky and an honorary degree from the University of Chicago. In 1912, he earned his Ph.D. in history at Harvard University 1912, where he was the second African-American to receive a Ph.D. From the bottom of Woodson’s heart, he truly believed that the role of our own people in American and other cultural history is ignored or misrepresented by scholars, so in 1915, inspired by his time in Chicago, he founded the African American Life and History Research Association, which aims to formalize the past education of adults and their country. In 1926, Woodson launched a celebration of ‘Negro History Week’, which corresponds to the birthdays of Frederick Douglas and Abraham Lincoln. US president Gerald Ford has designated February as Black History Month since 1976.

Black History Month promotes cultural diversity

For a long time, white people dominated the art world. Black artists often go unnoticed and even get isolated by racists. In the eyes of those racists, we black people should work on someone’s farmland, in someone’s kitchen, or someone’s flowerbeds, rather than painting, writing poems, songs, and scripts at our own house. At that time, no talented black musician could be as famous as Elvis Presley, no talented actress could play the leading role in a movie as Marilyn Monroe do, and no talented painter could hang their artworks in the Wadsworth Atheneum as Stuart Davis do. With the start of the Black History Week celebration, the works of black artists begin to get wide attention, they make art of our own race in an era full of white man’s art. The success of Jacob Lawrence, James Brown, Sidney Poitiers, and others injected a different color into the art world at that time.

Black History Month promotes racial harmony

As a black woman, I represent a group of people that has been repeatedly robbed of expression. Most history books are written by white people, and the efforts of our fellow citizens are often not valued. Except for slavery and apartheid, our children know nothing about the history of black people. Through Black History Month, the voice of our race is getting louder and louder, more and more brothers and sisters are proud of their skin color, and more and more people who are not white are willing to talk about their ethnic experience. People will peak up for oppressed people of all colors, they have the guts to complain about the phenomenon of racial discrimination.

In a jungle society where egoism prevails, in those Social Darwinists’ minds, they are born strong, they can easily succeed, and other races are destined to fail. Those Social Darwinists ignore the fact that other races can only succeed if they overcome layers of obstacles. When vulnerable groups speak up or get attention, they will use ‘political correctness to blame the weak. Maybe some of them will think that Black History Month is too “politically correct”. I strongly disagree, I think the abuse and over-vigilance of ‘political correctness have made us blind to the substantive discrimination faced by vulnerable groups. We have talked enough about the topic of ‘Political Discrimination’, but the issues of equality and pluralism are not summarized by the term ‘political correctness.

Black History Month can be an opportunity to educate all people, no matter what race they are. You and I together, we must stand up to expose and criticize systematic discrimination relentlessly.

In the end, let me quote what Japanese writer Haruki Murakami said at the Jerusalem Literature Awards 2009:

“Each of us is, more or less, an egg. Each of us is a unique, irreplaceable soul enclosed in a fragile shell. This is true of me, and it is true of each of you. And each of us, to a greater or lesser degree, is confronting a high, solid wall. The wall has a name: it is “The System.” The System is supposed to protect us, but sometimes it takes on a life of its own, and then it begins to kill us and cause us to kill others–coldly, efficiently, systematically.”

“We are all human beings, individuals transcending nationality and race and religion, and we are all fragile eggs faced with a solid wall called The System. To all appearances, we have no hope of winning. The wall is too high, too strong–and too cold. If we have any hope of victory at all, it will have to come from our believing in the utter uniqueness and irreplaceability of our own and others’ souls and from our believing in the warmth we gain by joining souls together.”

In conclusion, I believe that black history and the curriculum should be taught more extensively in schools. Picture this, a world where black people are up to 37x more likely to be stopped and searched than white people. A world where black people are 87% more likely to be arrested than white people. A world where black people are 4x more likely to be unemployed than white people. I think that we need to begin to have honest conversations about people’s cultures and learn that the negative assumptions that are made about others are not true. We need these conversations to take place in schools and within different communities and see that they engage people of all ages in the process. We need to find a way to have these conversations and to educate people who live in the city and people who live in the suburbs, between rich and poor and between the young and old. We will never break down these stereotypes unless we bring people together so that they can get to know each other and appreciate the challenges that people of color face in this country on a day-to-day basis. So I ask all of us to understand that we come from different cultures but we are all part of one race, we are the human race. The sooner we understand that as a county the better off we will be. Hopefully, by doing this there will be a decrease in the number of racist and violent experiences around the world. Of course, we all need to play our part and contribute to helping make a difference and a better place to live in. We need to have Black, White, Asain, and Hispanic to step forward and say we are not going to accept that kind of behavior anymore and with that, I say thank you for listening.

Abstract

The chapter describes working with African American clients. The term African Americans subsumes a diverse array of people, including African Americans born in this country, Africans, and individual from west indies and Central and south America. The African American population is growing drastically each year. African Americans make up about 15% of the population which is about 40,000,000 people. Slavery has played such a major factor into the lives of African American people. From slavery has brought African American family values and different cultural activities. Slavery has passed on many different traditions that the African American culture follows. Black people are labeled as being hard and strong. From generation to generation that strongness has been passed on. From the way you are treated within the family or how society proceed you. Having kinship bonds and religion in the African culture is major also. By slavery and racism African Americans has been very private within their lives. Looking at one another for help is the way black people coupe because of past history. Slavery has truly shaped the African American culture. Not having anyone to protect them, instead they look towards one another for help. Churches in the African American community also play a major role in the lives of African American people. When someone is going through something in life they tend to turn towards the church. People say if you don’t have some type of religion in your life you don’t have anything. African American churches understand what the average African American person goes through. In the chapter it has an interview with Veronique Thompson and she discuss pre-enslavement, middle passage and post-enslavement. She touches on how African Americans wasn’t always slaves and how African Americans became slaves. She also discusses people not knowing our culture and not being to treat them properly. She discussed that African Americans doesn’t like to seek professional help because of a trust issue. She further explains why providers need to know the African American community to be able to treat them properly and for them to start trusting in outside professional help.

African Americans

Who are African Americans? African Americans are people that are born in this country with descendants of enslaved black people, Africans, West Indians and people from Central and South America also known as (Black folks). The 2000 Census numbered African Americans in the United States at 34,658,190, or 12.3 percent of the population. Since The time of slavery, they have been this country largest minority-until 2000 census when they were passed by Latinos at 12,5 percent. African Americans has increased to 38,929,319, or 12.6 percent of the population. By 2010 it will increase to 13 percent by mid-century. Diller, J (2013). Cultural Diversity. A Primer for the Human Services. African Americans as of today the population has grown to 14.1 percent as of 2017. African Americans are the most Ethnic group because of the life they have experience due to slavery and segregation. Throughout the years African Americans population has grown also with mixture races beside the African descent. From African and British colonies bring a mixture and also with Spanish and the French. African Americans has been the main population for years and has experience the hardest living in life due to the color of our skin and the ignorance of this country we live in. From slavery to segregation African Americans has had to fight for survival as living as African American. Growing up as a child I’ve always wonder why my people was picked out to be slaves or to be look down towards due to our color. In the bible God says to love everyone like your sister or brother. Such diversity with the culture has led to assuming being “typical” is being a negative thing as being a black a person. African Americans are misunderstood and not learning the culture or the way we think can lead to someone not knowing how to treat or care for that person.

Family and cultural values are factors in the African American culture that has shaped “black people”. Black (1996) points out four factors that have shaped African American experience and culture. 1. African American legacy which is rich in the culture, customs and achievements. 2. History of slavery and deliberate attempt to destroy the core and the soul of the people. 3. Racism and discrimination and ongoing efforts to continue the psychological and economic subjugation started during slavery and 4. A victim system and process by which the individual and communities are denied access to the instruments of development and advancement. Due to slavery it has taught black people a deep religious and spiritually independence to the cultural from surviving. Pointing out these four major factors in African American will help a non- African American understand their thinking and behavior. According to Marshall (2002) “enslavement added a complex of core values and attitudes- emphases on resistance, freedom, self-determination and education. African culture also contributed a tradition of strong family structure, in which extended families and close-knit kinship system were basis for larger tribal groupings.”

Throughout the years it has been difficult to understand the black home. Slavery has played the biggest part in African American culture. Having limited resources black people has taught themselves the everyday survival. From teaching themselves to read, write, cook or even raising their own children. Before working with an African American it is best to understand the culture. It would give you a sense of understanding, also understanding the adaptive mechanisms and strength within the culture and to learn the dynamic style. Black and white families have different family values. In the African American community, we have built relationships within our own culture due to slavery. Most African American families build factors to understand one another. Most African Americans families build on kinship relationships. The person can be a relative or friend. Going through slavery that is how they survived. The basic of survival with the African American family comes generation to generation. White (1980) points out a series of “uncles, aunts, big mamas, boyfriends, older brothers and sisters, deacons, preachers and others who operate in and out of the black home”. Naming all of these different people play such major roles in the African American community. Once again this takes you back to slavery. Having to survive without getting caught by your slave masters having to trust in one another. Having such a title as being an aunt or uncle gives you some type of authority in the African American household. Having to hear what is being said by that individual will hold a factor to your decision making. It has the same respect as obeying your mother or father.

Having a family tree of generations of family members shows the pattern of authority within the black family. Black families also have a wall around authority within the communities. If an African American doesn’t trust you it will be very hard to understand that individual. Knowing our history African Americans tend to stay private. The community has a negative outlook on professionalism. We are a very private race when it comes to family situations and once again that to comes from our family history slavery. By us staying private it can be hard to understand the race with some professionalism help from the outside. The African American race has many different roles in the race. Society has a perception that all families are unstable due to the lack of presence from a Male figure which is usually the father. For many years African American women has played the role as mother and father. Role flexibility plays a major factor. When an African American household only has one parent which 90% of the time is the Mother playing both roles. Society feels the children will grow up to be dysfunctional. I the African American community role playing comes from different form of the absence of the father role. Many black families have uncles which usually play the role as the father to either their niece or nephew. Reading n article stated that many health care providers don’t know how to treat African Americans families due to the lack of education. Reading an article and it explained that African Americans are not being cared for properly due to the fast food chains being built within the communities. Due to the restaurant it is causing high diabetes, high blood pressure and many more other diseases found within the African American culture. I believe the lack of education is the reason why providers don’t have a clear since of treating African Americans properly. Sometimes you can’t blame the provider of lack of education. Religion plays a very major part in the African American culture. In the “black church” deacons, deaconess and preachers can play a role as a provider to that person. When someone in the community is not doing well in health. The church is a sanction for healing. Religion can play the role of healing or as a therapy session. Religion started with African Americans enslavement. When the slaves would get beat or raped prayer was a healing mechanism for them. As we call it “calling on the lord” as healing our body and soul. Reading an article, it stated that an African American person who is not connected to a religion has more problems than the average African American who do has some religion background. The person without the religion background tends to speak to health care providers. By religion playing such a role in our lives, we tend to keep our problems within our community instead of seeking professional help due to lack of education of the culture and of the community. The church is a safe mechanism to the African culture. We look to prayer for everything. Prayer within our community we feel will help us with any problem within our lives. That’s including, Health, financial status, School and parenting. Without religion I feel the African American community would be lost. If the average black person didn’t have religion belief, I believe they will have a hard time exception the “African American life” which includes racism, due to the color of the skin instead of the person mental state. African American can be tough to help due to lack of trust we have in people. That is the reason why health care providers don’t really know how to treat the community.

Conclusion

In today society African Americans are the number one race that has it on dealing with society due to the color of their skin. I’ve read many articles stating the society including providers don’t know how to treat African Americans even in the health care system. African Americans have survived during racism. In today world black people still have challenge’s with society accepting them. 70% of African Americans households does have one responsible parent. Even with one parent a black person can survive and became something successful in life. They say African Americans are treated equally to any general race. I believe that isn’t a true statement. African Americans have to work ten times harder than the average person due to how society look at us. From slavery to now African Americans has had it hard. When president Barack Obama came in office. The African race had hope. It showed that with education and prayer anything is possible. Throughout so many years we have never seen a “black face “in office. Seeing that a black person can become president of the United States gives us even bigger hope and dreams of being successful in this world. The saying is it takes a village to raise a family is so true. People in the African American culture has a lack of a full household meaning having two parents might have some difficulties in life. Aunts, unless, friends, preachers etc. plays a major role in the community. Having religion in the household and kinship bonds with other African Americans is very important. African Americans really doesn’t trust to many people due to the history we have experience and even in today times the racism that the culture is experiencing due to the color of their skin. If I had to raise a child in today worlds, I believe it would be a challenge because of all the negative outlook black people have to go through just to survive in this world. Without prayer, family and education it would be very hard to survive in this world.

References

1. https://books.google.com/books/about/Cultural_Diversity_A_Primer_for_the_Huma.html?id=2ISpAwAAQBAJ
2. Marshall, P.L. (2002). Cultural diversity in our schools. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth
3. White, J. (1980). “Towards a black psychology.” In Jones (ED), Black psychology. New York: Harper & Row
4. https://www.euromedinfo.eu/how-culture-influences-health-beliefs.html/
5. http://www.cibhs.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/how_do_mh_concerns_impact_af_am_community.pdf
6. http://www.dimensionsofculture.com/2011/05/health-care-for-african-american-patientsfamilieS