Category: African American

Introduction

The term African American has evolved over the years but still sparks debate with regards to inclusion and categorization in the United States. The phrase refers to ethnic individuals of African continent descent whose relatives have resided in the U.S. for more than one generation. However, the term should not be confused with word Black that solely represents a race and includes people from different ethnic origins such as the Caribbean. Even though the terms are often used interchangeably they are completely different. Nonetheless, there has always been a conflict in distinguishing Black immigrants and the native-born ones because their association with the term African American are based on their historical experiences and not skin color.

Regardless of whether they are immigrants or native-born, African Americans have been part of the U.S. community since its conception. However, since the slavery period, this group has been discriminated from the white population and as a result experienced a myriad of challenges. These issues include poor health, limited access to health insurance covers, racism, and lack of employment opportunities. These groups of negative characteristics imply that they need more mental health counseling compared to their white counterparts (Cheng et al., 2019). Nonetheless, efforts to try and enroll African Americans in related therapies have been thwarted by challenges associated with modern oppression, discrimination, sexism, which have shaped their worldviews on counseling. Consequently, when developing a solution that will improve their accessibility to mental health counseling services, it is imperative to consider all African American characteristics from cultures to the problems they face.

Description and Background of the Topic

Living within a White Macro-culture

The USA community is full of controversies, particularly in fighting racism and escalating its practice at the same time. While it is expected that African Americans have to live together with non-Hispanic whites, the nature of their historical relationship presents several challenges to the former. African Americans comprise about 14% of the U.S. population compared to 60% belonging to the White community (Hasford, 2016). Consequently, statistics alone indicate that African Americans might not be at ease living among whites considering they are the minority. One issue that has made it impossible for blacks and whites to live peacefully as a people of the same nation is stereotyping.

This concept which was initiated in the slavery era has forced African Americans to adopt certain behaviors that are not original to mingle with the rest of the U.S. community. For instance, the stereotyping of black males as criminals, violent, and lazy continues to affect African Americans families. Such negative beliefs have denied blacks employment opportunities, influenced their socioeconomic status, and influenced their educational outcomes (Hasford, 2016). Moreover, members of the community cannot lead normal lives because their actions are always under scrutiny and have to work under more harsh conditions to succeed. There is a need of intervention approaches that will help the ethnic group gain access to mental health services.

Mental Health Accessibility among African Americans

Approximately 34 million in the United States identify themselves as African Americans and 22% of them live in abject poverty. Consequently, the group is at a higher risk of mental disorders because most of them are homeless, their children live in foster homes, and are often victims of brutal crime. Moreover statistics indicate that 40% of youths from black communities are in the criminal justice system and 45% of them in foster care (Noonan et al., 2016). Therefore, in need for psychologists to help eliminate behaviors of aggression and negativism affecting such children. Moreover, at least 25% of black youths are victims of violence and as a result, are at a higher risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Meints et al., 2016). This group requires services from mental health professionals to help the members deal with the symptoms and teach them negative repercussions of participating in violence to their social and physical health.

Moreover, blacks are twice more likely to be diagnosed with various forms of schizophrenia compared non-Hispanic whites. Therefore, it is necessary that this group receives the best mental healthcare services to deal with related symptoms. Additionally, diabetes and stroke are some of the diseases which affect blacks more than other communities. Psychologists play a crucial role in assisting the affected individuals develop recovery behaviors to help them cope with the chronic illnesses. There is a correlation between mental wellbeing and physical health and appropriate medical services are important to take care of the two.

Although it is evident from the above statistics that African Americans are as much affected by mental illnesses as whites, it is unfortunate that they receive less treatment. Reports by the U.S. Census Bureau indicate that blacks are 7 times more likely to reside in poverty-stricken neighborhoods with poor access to mental health services. Furthermore, the same exposition indicates that approximately 25% of blacks lack insurance covers but at the same time in need of primary care from specialists. There is a greater need for psychologists and not just clinicians and ordinary medics who are better trained in the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and mental disorders in African American communities.

Finally, there is need for mental health professionals who culturally competent enough to work on patients from black ethnic groups. It is quite unfortunate that the percentage of African American psychologists in America stands at 2%. This implies that the community lack professionals that can understand their social and mental challenges (Meints et al., 2016). It is quite important to have a significant number of African American mental health professionals because research indicates that there are chances of effective outcomes when minority medics attend to minority patients. Moreover, the presence of black psychologists will help in the minimization of stigma and motivate more people to seek behavioral and mental health services.

Cultural Values, Beliefs, and World Views of African Americans

Like any other ethnic group, African Americans have a cultural heritage that define their beliefs and world views of various things in life. It is important to note that most of the traditions and practices of black people are founded in their historical experiences from the slavery to the post-slavery eras. Since members of the community have no clear native land, it is quite difficult to establish popular beliefs among them based on their place of origin (Mtambuzi, 2016). However, there are certain aspect such s religion, family structure, and politics that unite their world views.

Christianity has been the most dominant subset of religion among African Americans and can be traced back to the slavery period. During the era blacks were forced to abandon their original beliefs and completely embrace the Christian faith. However, most of them still clang to elements of their traditions and as a result integrated them into their worship practices evident in how they conduct their services today. Unlike churches lead by whites, black places of worship are usually characterized with African rhythms, shouting and dancing (Mtambuzi, 2016). Consequently, one of the most common doctrines taught in African American churches is that all humans are equal before Gods eyes. This belief has been used for ages in the community as a symbol of hope that despite the oppressions they encounter there is an assurance of a better future.

As a result, blacks are always motivated to fight for their rights creating the worldview that they have to work extremely hard for whatever they need. Similarly, the Islamic religion is also part of the African American heritage owing to the fact that prominent black activists such as Malcom X used elements of the same to fight for the rights of African Americans. The underlying belief among African American Muslims is peace and that violence is not a solution to disagreements (Nguyen, 2020). However, they believe so much in God as the source of everything influencing the perspectives on healthcare and related intervention processes.

Politics is another component of the African American culture that the group has actively participated in for the longest time. This is because blacks believe that it is the only platform they can use to voice out their social challenges which include racial profiling, institutional discrimination, high poverty rates, and limited access to healthcare. Consequently, politics have shaped their worldview on survival within American borders (McDaniel et al., 2018). Therefore, providing an alternative of mental healthcare services might not be as effective because members of the community having a fighting attitude. They would rather take their issues to the streets through protests than visit psychologists and therapists.

Impacts of a Multicultural Society on an African Americans Perspective of Clinical Mental Health Treatment Services

Race and Ethnicity

Ever since the slavery era, African Americans have been subjects of racial and ethnic discrimination and the stigma that results from the two vices has influenced the communitys approach towards healthcare. Interactions between blacks and whites have always been characterized by violence, oppression, and dehumanization throughout the American history and this resulted into structural and institutional discrimination and negative ethnicity (Noonan et al., 2016). This attitude towards blacks is reflected in healthcare facilities where members of the community do not receive adequate services even when they pay for them. Moreover, certain medical care services such as mental healthcare treatment require insurance covers which is a great challenge to most African Americans who hail from poor backgrounds. Consequently, it is difficult to convince to enroll for related services even when they are free. African Americans have been treated as less humans and therefore see themselves as unworthy of receiving specialized mental health treatment services.

Religion and Spiritual Belief Systems

Similarly, Christianity and Islam which are the main religions in the African American community shape the members view of enrolling for mental healthcare services. Since blacks do not have the privilege of affording comfortable lives, they have been forced to turn to their spiritual beliefs as the main source solutions to all their issues. For instance, the belief that Christianity and Islam promises them a better tomorrow boosts their optimism helping them believe that despite all their challenges God will make a way (Nguyen, 2020). As a result, less than half the African American population are likely to seek professional mental care compared to their White counterparts. Most of them believe that the consolation they find in religion is sufficient enough and that in case they need any form of therapy they can do so by opening up to the spiritual leaders. Elements of professional mental health care such as sharing problems with fellow humans are in conflict with sociocultural religious beliefs of African Americans.

Social Power and Privileges

An individuals socioeconomic status is a primary determinant to how they perceive social power and privileges in various facets of life. Consequently, African Americans who have been brought up in poor neighborhoods tend to believe that racial discrimination denies them some rights in comparison to non-Hispanic whites. For instance, education and well-paying jobs are considered as ordinary achievements but to majority of African Americans these are privileges that they only wish for (Noonan et al., 2016). The same applies to healthcare insurance covers that are necessary for mental healthcare treatment services. Consequently, since such successes are considered as privileges to blacks, members of the community who are educated and ability to pay for medical covers still face discrimination. African Americans who cannot afford such social statuses and privileges tend to forego mental healthcare treatment services.

Gender-related Beliefs

Gender as an entity contributes to the cultural beliefs and practices of a community. Whenever the subject is mentioned, people tend to think more about women and not men. However, touches on the relationship between males and females and how their roles and perspectives of life are influenced by various cultural elements. For instance, the concept of masculinity among African Americans expects men to be tough since they are leaders of their homes. Consequently, reaching out when they are stressed by vising mental healthcare facilities is not an option. Similarly, black women have taught to persevere harsh conditions and will always resort to coping behavior instead of seeking help from psychologists (Villatoro et al., 2017). Cultural beliefs are engraved in peoples lives and it takes a lot of time to undo such perceptions on mental healthcare treatment.

Theories, Interventions and Techniques Effective in Treating Mental Disorders Among African Americans

Cognitive Theory of Depression

This approach to treating African Americans who are victims of mental and emotional disorders is based on the idea that depressive-related illnesses are caused by adverse biases in the manner in which the patient processes dysfunctional beliefs. Consequently, the negative thoughts that have been created in the minds of black individuals since childhood often lead to cognitive distortion and subsequently depression symptoms (Breuer et al., 2018). These irrational thoughts as those of unworthiness attract negative experiences that hinder people from thinking soberly. The theory can be used therapeutically in helping African American clients understand the connection between their behaviors, emotions, and thoughts using well-formulated learning experiences.

Optimal Theory

Emotional and behavioral disorders result from emotional imbalances. Racism and discrimination trigger various emotions including anger and feelings of unworthiness. Consequently, when handling patients of the African American origin it is important to use intervention approaches that enhance the processes of self-awareness which are crucial in achieving self-acceptance and preservation. Optimal theory indicates that self-knowledge is extremely important in helping patients deal with external life pressures by equipping them with the right knowledge to handle such issues (Marquand et al., 2019). Consequently, this supposition will help black clients develop life skills instrumental in dealing with frustrations that result from racial segregation.

Solution Focused Therapy

This approach to treating emotional and behavioral disorders focuses on the clients capacity to solve problems by themselves rather than attempting to understand the origin of their condition. This intervention works well for depressed and stressed African Americans who are subjects of institutional discrimination and racism (Breuer et al., 2018). Negative ethnicity particularly towards the black community has been in the United States for the longest time and therefore very little can be done to change that. However, shifting the clients focus from the problem to a future-oriented direction helps them concentrate on the things they can do deal with the triggers of depression and not do away with them.

Behavioral Therapy

Behavioral therapy is one of the most effective interventions for individuals with mental disorders borrowed from the theories of conditioning. As discussed before, majority of the youth who are of African American descent are involved in violence. Consequently, this technique is preferred by psychologists attending to such clients because it is helps in behavior modification. The therapy is instrumental in identifying the self-destructive and unhealthy behavior among black youths and focus on changing these problems (Breuer et al., 2018). Aside from the younger generation, the intervention can also help deal with depression and anxiety among African American adults who struggle to meet their families needs.

Modification of Theories and Interventions

The discussed interventions and theories are generally to be applied in the counseling and psychology industry. However, they have to be modified in order to successfully meet the needs of the African American community. For instance, behavioral therapy might not work for black youths constantly involved in violence because they believe they are fighting for their rights or its the way out of poverty. The solution would be to understand the motives behind the aggressive behavior and reasons for rejecting behavioral theory. Consequently, in such cases, the counselor can opt for a solution focused intervention that will help them understand what works for the client. It is imperative that mental health professionals understand what approaches to select and how to apply them.

Advocacy Strategy for African American Female with Depressive Disorder

Consequently, it is necessary to have an advocacy strategy if African American clients with mental health disorders, particular those with major depressive disorder are to be helped. Below is an advocacy strategy that can be used to represent the needs a client with depression and used to inspire changes to help similar victims.

Background

The client has presented signs and symptoms of depression caused by the results of racial segregation. She cannot afford basic bills for her family and therefore needs more than mental healthcare. The advocacy strategy is supposed to help other African Americans like her who cannot afford mental health care.

Aim

The long-term goal is for the client and other African American women gain access to proper mental healthcare treatment services.

Objectives

The lady should be in a position to report to the clinic for therapy sessions thrice a month. Additionally, her peers should also start coming for treatment a month after the strategys implementation.

Targets

Mental Health America and Mental Health Advocacy Coalition can collaborate with charity organizations in facilitating the clients bills and other ladies from her community who need medical attention.

Allies

American Psychological Association and the Association of Black Psychologists will be crucial in supporting the project.

Activities

The main activity is to advocate for policies that will help consider African American women who are faced with poverty and need mental healthcare services.

Conclusion

Medical care is a basic need and yet not every American citizen enjoys the privilege of accessing mental healthcare services. Compared to other ethnic communities in the United States, African Americans are more severely affected with emotional and behavioral disorders. However, statistics indicate that very few of them access medical services due to racial segregation issues, poverty, and perceptions they have picked from their cultural beliefs and historical experiences. However, there are interventions, techniques and theories in psychology that can specifically address mental disorders in the community. Additionally, it is necessary to create an advocacy plan to help in sourcing for finances and pushing for policies that can help African American clients who cannot afford mental healthcare services.

References

Breuer, E., De Silva, M., & Lund, C. (2018). Theory of change for complex mental health interventions: 10 lessons from the programme for improving mental healthcare. Global Mental Health, 5(1), 23-58.

Cheng, Y., Smith, L., Ritzi, R., Wagner, T., & Pertuit, T. (2019). Counselor preparation in working with African American adolescents in group counseling. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 45(1), 3-21.

Hasford, J. (2016). Dominant cultural narratives, racism, and resistance in the workplace: A study of the experiences of young black Canadians. American Journal of Community Psychology, 57(1-2), 158-170.

Marquand, A., Kia, S., Zabihi, M., Wolfers, T., Buitelaar, J., & Beckmann, C. (2019). Correction: Conceptualizing mental disorders as deviations from normative functioning. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(10), 1565-1565.

McDaniel, E., Dwidar, M., & Calderon, H. (2018). The faith of black politics: The relationship between black religious and political beliefs. Journal of Black Studies, 49(3), 256-283.

Meints, S., Miller, M., & Hirsh, A. (2016). Differences in pain coping between Black and White Americans: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Pain, 17(6), 642-653.

Mtambuzi, T. (2016). African American Culture. Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture, 6(4), 7-17.

Nguyen, A. (2020). Religion and mental health in racial and ethnic minority populations: A review of the literature. Innovation in Aging, 4(5).

Web.Noonan, A., Velasco-Mondragon, H., & Wagner, F. (2016). Improving the health of African Americans in the USA: An overdue opportunity for social justice. Public Health Reviews, 37(1), 45-79. Web.

Villatoro, A., Mays, V., Ponce, N., & Aneshensel, C. (2017). Perceived need for mental health care: The intersection of race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. Society and Mental Health, 8(1), 1-24.

Abstract

Nowadays, people are affected by many health risks which deprive them of the possibility to lead a lifestyle free from apprehension and complications from the diseases. However, such risks can be eliminated with the help of thoroughly designed and successfully implemented health advocacy campaigns. There are various types of such projects: awareness, prevention, educational, assessment, and other campaigns. Despite the variety of forms, all of them pursue the same purpose: to increase peoples awareness of particular health risks and to eliminate these dangers and provide favorable conditions for the citizens.

Hypertension in African Americans as One of the Crucial Health Population Issues

Being a comparatively new concept, population health draws the attention of many researchers and raises discussions about it being synonymous to or divergent from public health (Kindig, 2007). Population health is defined as the health outcomes of a group of individuals, including the distribution of such outcomes within the group (as cited in Kindig, 2007, p. 143). Particular attention is paid to health issues since the principal aim of population health is the enhancement of peoples health by providing for the health motivations via interventions and projects impacting these motivations (Kindig, 2007).

Apart from covering the overall health of the people, population health also incorporates a significant issue of health distribution (University of Wisconsin Department of Population Health Sciences [UWDPHS], n. d.). The overall health level is high on the condition that the greater part of people is healthy, even if the smaller part is less healthy (UWDPHS, n. d.).

According to Healthy People 2020, high blood pressure or hypertension is one of the most serious health population problems (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2012). Evidence-based resources demonstrate the frequent cases of hypertension among the US people, especially among the African American population (Scisney-Matlock et al., 2009). To eliminate the danger of this disease, screening for high blood pressure is advised (USDHHS, 2012). Additionally, health advocacy campaigns are implemented to increase peoples awareness about health issues and help them overcome their difficulties.

Description of Health Advocacy Campaigns

The first campaign under consideration is the dietary campaign proposed by Appel et al. (2006). The authors emphasize the impact of dietary factors on blood pressure and suggest dietary adjustments which can eliminate the adverse outcomes of hypertension. These suggestions include the reduction of alcohol consumption and intake of salt and loss of weight (Appel et al., 2006). The results of the campaign show that implementing the dietary adjustments has a powerful positive impact on the people with high blood pressure (BP), especially on African Americans. The authors notice that in the current situation of rapidly growing numbers of people with high BP, the measures aimed at decreasing BP are justified both for hypertensive and non-hypertensive people (Appel et al., 2006). For hypertensive African American population, dietary modifications can lower BP substantially and allow the people to return to the normal life cycle.

The second effective campaign is the project involving therapeutic life changes proposed by Scisney-Matlock et al. (2009). As well as the previous campaign, this one suggests diet changes. Additionally, it proposes physical activity and self-management strategies to overcome the complications presented by high BP (Scisney-Matlock et al., 2009). The authors suggest a combination of efforts of many people instead of just the patient and a medical worker. Thus, they recommend that the patients family, providers, and the community should all take part in helping the person to overcome the disease. Scisney-Matlock et al. notice that therapeutic lifestyle changes positively influence the African American populations hypertension problem (Scisney-Matlock et al., 2009).

A Proposal of an Advocacy Campaign for Hypertension in African American Population

The proposed advocacy campaign is the Educational Media Campaign. The peculiarity of this project is the use of media for informing the population about the health issues. Media is a powerful tool for informing and encouraging people to take care of their health. Many African Americans suffering from hypertension do not know which outcomes may appear if their problem is not addressed and treated properly.

Having combined the results of the successful campaigns and have come up with a few new ideas, the objectives of this campaign are:

• To raise peoples awareness of the health issue;
• To instruct the population about the specifications and complications of hypertension;
• To inform the population about the serious diseases that may be caused by hypertension;
• To teach people how to check blood pressure and identify the deviations from the norm;
• To encourage the population to address the health advocates when they have difficulty receiving proper assistance;
• To make the population feel more secure and hopeful about the situation.

The data of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey indicates that only 29% of African Americans with hypertension managed to achieve BP control in recent years (Scisney-Matlock et al., 2009). Taking into consideration this statistics, as well as the fact that hypertension is a major reason for health disparity in African Americans, the need for health advocacy campaign is evident. With the successful implementation of the Educational Media Campaign, the risks of hypertension in African American population may decrease substantially.

References

Appel, J. L., Brands, M. W., Daniels, S. R., Karanja, N., Elmer, P. J., & Sacks, F. M. (2006). Dietary approaches to prevent and treat hypertension: A scientific statement from the American heart association. Hypertension, 47(2), 296-308.

Kindig, D. (2007). Understanding population health terminology. The Milbank Quarterly, 85(1), 139-161.

Scisney-Matlock, M., Bosworth, H. B., Newman-Giger, J., Strickland, O. L., Van Harrison, R., Coverson, D.,& Jamerson, K. A. (2009). Strategies for implementing and sustaining therapeutic lifestyle changes as part of hypertension management in African Americans. Postgraduate Medicine, 121(3), 147-159.

University of Wisconsin Department of Population Health Sciences. (n. d.). What is population health? Web.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Healthy People 2020  Improving the health of Americans. Web.

Abstract

African American women often experience problems and face challenges in the sphere of higher education that has different origins. Therefore, it is possible to speak about the problem of discussing African American women and higher learning barriers. The action research needs to be conducted in this sphere, and it requires concrete actions to be proposed to improve the situation.

The importance of the current action research is associated with the opportunity to identify not only barriers but also factors connected with the higher learning and concentrate on the target audiences perceptions of the problem in order to choose the most effective strategies to address the issue. In this context, the theoretical base for this action research is Critical Race Theory, Social Learning Theory, and the Phenomenological approach.

Introducing Education Paradigms: African American Women and Higher Learning Barriers

Although the situation of African American womens underrepresentation in higher education has changed positively during recent years, African American females still face significant higher education barriers. In this context, it is important to focus on the education paradigms as the lens through which it is possible to discuss the barriers experienced by the African American females regarding their learning and socialization in the higher educational environment.

In their qualitative study based on the use of focus group sessions, Charleston and the other researchers found that the percentage of African American women receiving the higher education increased proportionally to the number of barriers discussed by these women as influencing their higher learning and work at educational institutions (Charleston, George, Jackson, Berhanu, & Amechi, 2014, p. 169).

Such barriers as the challenges of inclusion; bias associated with affirmative action; isolation; lack of support; stereotyping; and victimization were discussed by Museums in the qualitative study based on interviews in 2011 and by Charleston in the qualitative study in 2012 (Charleston, 2012, p. 223; Museus, 2011, p. 148).

The problems are experienced by both female African American students and administrators in predominately white educational organizations, as it is concluded from the interviews conducted by Lutz with the group of researchers in 2013 and from qualitative study conducted by Gardner, Barrett, and Pearson in 2014 (Gardner, Barrett, & Pearson, 2014, p. 239; Lutz, Hassouneh, Akeroyd, & Beckett, 2013, p. 128). Similar barriers are also noted by Pittman in his case study of 2012 (Pittman, 2012).

The additional research needs to be conducted in this field because these identified challenges are often discussed as causes for quitting the higher school and for the further underrepresentation of African American women in academic positions, as it is noted by Wallace, Moore, and Curtis depending on the conducted interviews and analyzed African American womens narratives (Wallace, Moore, & Curtis, 2014, p. 45).

In this context, it is important to research what barriers can be discussed as prioritized for the African American women in their higher learning today, what factors are associated with identified barriers, and what actions can be effective to address the problems and change the situation. The current action research project is based on the qualitative research study that is developed to identify the main barriers faced by African American women in the sphere of higher learning.

Importance of the Action Research Project

The Role of the Project for Improve a Current Practice

As a result of the action research project, a series of steps or strategies can be proposed to improve current practice in the sphere of higher education. It is important to determine strategies and steps depending on the results of the research, in which the attitudes and opinions of individual African American women play a crucial role.

In this context, while using the data received as a result of the action research, it is possible to generate solutions that can be efficient to address the identified barriers and challenges as well as to respond to the causes and factors important to influence the appearance of significant social, psychological, ethical, and legal barriers.

In order to improve the conditions in the sphere of higher learning for African American women, it is significant to focus on creating groups of support in educational institutions, to promote collaboration, to support the individuals inner culture, to prevent the discriminating practices, and to discuss the practice of mentoring as a possible way to improve the current situation in the sphere.

The Projects Impact on the Field of Interest

The successful results of the project need to be achieved because of the necessity to attract the public and educational authorities attention to the problem of race and gender discrimination in the sphere of higher education while discussing the barriers to higher learning for African American females.

In this context, the completion of the project is important to determine the paths for further work in the area in order to propose concrete programs and strategies necessary to overcome the problem of discrimination in the educational environment.

The successful results of the action research project will help the public focus attention on several perspectives associated with the problem that are the underrepresentation of the African American women in educational institutions as students and specialists and the problem of discrimination and prevention of females from using the equal opportunities in higher education institutions.

Practical Implications of the Project

The research of higher learning barriers associated with African American women is expected to result in formulating strategies important to change the current situation in the sphere. The practical implications of implementing these steps in educational institutions will lead to creating more comfortable environments for African American women with a focus on the provision of support for discriminated females.

Furthermore, it is possible to expect much focus on the practical role of mentoring in educational institutions to support the representatives of the minority groups. In addition, more attention will be paid to African American womens culture and gender in the context of promoting equality and support. African American women are expected to feel safe in the higher education environment while referring to the problems of discrimination and victimization (Gardner et al., 2014, p. 239).

Needs Assessment and the Cost-Benefit Analysis

The goal of the current action research project is to study the problem of the African American womens challenges and barriers associated with higher learning and to bring about change in this sphere while proposing a series of effective actions. Therefore, one of the first steps in the process of developing action research is the assessment of the determined needs in the sphere.

It is important to state that the target population of the research are African American women who are directly involved in the sphere of higher learning in the United States. In this context, the attention can be paid by different groups of African American women in this area, including students and employees in educational institutions.

The needs assessment intended to reflect the African American womens experiences in higher education is divided into examining such aspects as the nature of African American womens relations and interactions in the higher educational setting; the barriers identified by African American women as preventing them from performing successfully as learners and professionals; and the attitudes of the African American women toward the experienced challenges and observed situation in the sphere of higher education.

Following the preliminary results on the assessment of African American womens needs as the target population, it is possible to determine such barriers and challenges as victimization; the isolation because of ignorance and prejudice; the impossibility to ask for help in problematic situations; and the unwillingness to accept the presence of the problem (Charleston et al. 2014, p. 173; Gardner et al., 2014, p. 241). These challenges need to be prioritized in order to determine the focus for further action research in the area.

The action research is based on the qualitative research study on barriers to the field of higher education for African American women. The phenomenological methodology should be applied to this research, and the main instruments used to collect the necessary data are the focus groups, interviews, and observations.

Referring to the cost-benefit analysis, it is important to state that the costs of such method and design are time and accuracy of the collected data when the benefits of the research are the opportunity to compare the subjective and objective data, the opportunity to focus on the individuals perception of barriers and prioritized challenges; the opportunity to identify relationships between barriers and the individuals attitudes.

The necessity to conduct the qualitative study based on the time-consuming phenomenological approach can be discussed as a cost, but the benefits of receiving the concrete individuals data are more significant in this case.

Theoretical Background for the Project

To introduce the education paradigms associated with the higher learning barriers for African American women, it is important to support the paradigms with such theories as Critical Race Theory and Social Learning Theory, and with the Phenomenological approach as a theoretical perspective and a practical approach.

Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory formulated by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic in 2001 studies the relationship between the concept of race and its discussion in the social and legal environments (Heilig, Brown, & Brown, 2012, p. 408-409).

In this context, the use of Critical Race Theory is appropriate to explain why the racial discrimination is observed in the education sphere today, what role civil rights legislation can have to influence the situation from the legal perspective, and how the racial differentiation can impact the experiences of persons having different ethnic and cultural backgrounds (Ledesma & Calderon, 2015, p. 208).

The barriers faced by the African American women in the sphere of higher education can be studied with references to Critical Race Theory because it is effective to explain why certain races can experience different types of problems in various social and legal spheres (Heilig et al., 2012, p. 408-409). In the institutional setting, Critical Race Theory can explain the factors associated with barriers faced by African American women in educational organizations because of their race.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory was formulated by Albert Bandura in the 1970s, and it discusses learning as the interactive process that is highly affected by the social relations, and models made perceived and followed as a result of observation (Hinshaw, Burden, & Shriner, 2012 p. 875). Thus, modeling is essential to learning in the Social Learning Theory and is described as a process that occurs on four levels: Attention, Retention, Reproduction and Motivation (Hinshaw et al., 2012, p. 875).

This theory is effective in explaining the aspects of the persons socialization in different settings (Dinther, Dochy, & Segers, 2011, p. 97). While applying this theory to the problem of the African American womens higher learning, it is important to state that the theory provides a range of perspectives from which it is possible to explain the barriers experienced by the women.

The individual perception of observed barriers depends on the previous learning of models typical for the educational institutions. In this context, the behavior of persons who choose to discriminate African American women depends on the previously learned models and patterns of behavior.

Phenomenological Approach

The phenomenological approach is actively used by sociologists, psychologists, and other specialists who intend to conduct the qualitative research study and to examine the perceptions and opinions of individuals on concrete social situations or phenomena (McCoy, 2014, p. 157).

In the context of studying the barriers faced by African American women in higher education, it is important to focus on the individuals opinions and life experiences that can serve as the basis to understand what important problems exist in the sphere (McCoy, 2014, p. 157). The phenomenological research assumes the use of interviews and focuses groups in order to examine the required subjective information (Felder & Barker, 2013, p. 4). Therefore, this approach is important to be utilized in current action research.

Conclusion

African American women usually face challenges in the sphere of higher education that need to be addressed with references to the action research project. It is important to identify barriers and factors that are associated with the higher learning area and to choose the most effective steps to overcome the problem.

References

Charleston, L. J. (2012). A qualitative investigation of African Americans decision to pursue computing science degrees: Implications for cultivating career choice and aspiration. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 5(1), 222243.

Charleston, L. J., George, P. L., Jackson, J. F., Berhanu, J., & Amechi, M. (2014). Navigating underrepresented STEM spaces: Experiences of black women in U.S. computing science higher education programs who actualize success. Journal of Diversity in Higher, 7(3), 166176.

Dinther, M., Dochy, F., & Segers, M. (2011). Factors affecting students self-efficacy in higher education. Educational Research Review, 6(1), 95108.

Felder, P., & Barker, M. (2013). Extending bells concept of interest convergence: a framework for understanding the African American doctoral student experience. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 8(1), 2-20.

Gardner, L., Barrett, G., & Pearson, C. (2014). African American administrators at PWIs: Enablers of and barriers to career success. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7(4), 235-251.

Heilig, J., Brown, K., & Brown, A. (2012). The illusion of inclusion: A critical race theory textual analysis of race and standards. Harvard Educational Review, 82(3), 403-439.

Hinshaw, R., Burden, R., & Shriner, M. (2012). Supporting post-graduates skill acquisition using components of constructivism and social learning theory. Creative Education, 3(1), 874-877.

Ledesma, M., & Calderon, D. (2015). Critical Race Theory in education: A review of past literature and a look to the future. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3), 206-222.

Lutz, K. F., Hassouneh, D., Akeroyd, J., & Beckett, A. K. (2013). Balancing survival and resistance: Experiences of faculty of color in predominantly Euro American schools of nursing. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 6(1), 127146.

McCoy, D. (2014). A phenomenological approach to understanding first-generation college students of color transitions to one extreme predominantly white institution. College Student Affairs Journal, 32(1), 155-169.

Museus, S. D. (2011). Generating ethnic minority student success (GEMS): A qualitative analysis of high-performing institutions. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4(1), 147162.

Pittman, C. T. (2012). Racial microagressions: The narratives of African American faculty at a predominantly White university. Journal of Negro Education, 81(1), 8292.

Wallace, S., Moore, S., & Curtis, C. (2014). Black women as scholars and social agents: Standing in the gap. Negro Educational Review, 65(1), 44-62.

Abstract

The mixed-methods approach is effective to be used to conduct the evaluation of the social or education program. The data analysis stage referred to the research on the role of higher education for African American women consists of such steps as the analysis of the secondary data, the analysis of the qualitative data, and the analysis of the quantitative data. The result of the secondary data analysis is the literature review. The result of the qualitative data analysis is the table with the classified case study information. The result of the pre-experimental research and data analysis is the table with the compared quantitative data answering the research question in numbers.

Data Analysis and Report Writing

The data analysis is one of the most important parts of the research process, and the stages of the analysis are determined by a type of the research question and by types of the used data. The research question for the evaluation is the following: If African American women are provided with higher education, will they be more economically productive on an individual basis? The question is rather general, and it is necessary to focus on both the qualitative and quantitative data in order to explain the expected changes in the African American womens status and financial state.

Referring to the mixed methods approach used in the evaluation process, it is important to focus on analyzing qualitative and quantitative data. In order to determine strictly presented types of the data, it is necessary to state that the used mixed methods approach is based on combining elements of the case study approach with the focus on collecting the qualitative data and elements of such a pre-experimental research design as the posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups (Royse, Thyer, & Padgett, 2009, p. 244).

The used pre-experimental research design will provide the necessary quantitative information to evaluate a certain program. Furthermore, to state the need for the research, it is also important to refer to the literature review as secondary research. Thus, it is necessary to discuss different types of analysis and various forms of presentation and comparison for such collected data as the secondary research data, qualitative data, and quantitative data.

Analysis of the Secondary Research Data

The secondary data on outcomes of higher education for African American women are important in order to observe and discuss the tendency in the area. It is important to conduct the literature review while paying much attention to the analysis of the information and materials presented in the reports, peer-reviewed journals, and scholarly books. It is also relevant to focus on the data presented in the statistics databases and review the researchers analysis of the statistical information.

The information provided in newspapers and magazines is important to explain the context and the necessity for the evaluation of affirmative action and other similar programs with references to the current social tendencies. The first stage of the analysis is the organization of the secondary data into the qualitative and quantitative information and the comparison of the researchers conclusions on the outcomes of education programs for the African American women with the actual numbers and statistics presented in the reports (Fitzpatrick, Sanders, & Worthen, 2011, p. 112). These data will be presented in the form of the literature review, and it will become the basis for the further evaluation of the program.

Analysis of the Qualitative Data

Referring to the research question, it is important to analyze the role of higher education for African American womens productivity and improvement of the financial state. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to collect the qualitative data associated with African American womens thoughts and attitudes. The rationale for conducting the case study research is the necessity to focus on the African American womens individual perception of the role of higher education in their life.

Following the case study approach, it is important to collect the data referred to the individual perception of the African American women participating in the evaluation process. The first stage of the data analysis is the organization of the details collected with the help of the questionnaire (Babbie, 2011, p. 54). African American women are expected to answer the questions about their attitudes to the higher education program and about their evaluation of the role of higher education in influencing productivity and individual economic factors.

The data will be classified into such categories as (1) Negative Attitudes to the Higher Education Program (with the focus on affirmative action strategies), (2) Positive Attitudes to the Higher Education Program; (a) Significant Role of Higher Education in Influencing Productivity and (b) Absence of the Impact of Higher Education Related to Productivity and Economic Factors.

The data should be presented in tables. After interpreting the categorized instances of the individual data, it is necessary to identify the patterns in the African American womens individual perception of the higher educations role and programs effectiveness. It is important to focus on both positive and negative patterns in order to evaluate the program effectively (Babbie, 2001, p. 34). After determining the patterns, it is necessary to generalize the findings and present them in the form of a list explaining the individual attitudes to the program and issue.

Analysis of the Quantitative Data

The followed research question asks about such an important issue as a comparison of the African American womens economic productivity, referred to as the factor of higher education. Will African American women with higher education be more economically productive on an individual basis? In order to collect the important quantitative data to compare the outcomes, it is necessary to use the elements of such a pre-experimental research design as the posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups.

The dependent variable is productivity, and there are two groups of individuals participating in the research (Mertler, 2012, p. 24). Thus, 35 African American women with higher education received as a result of the special program intervention are selected as the main group. A control group should include 45 African American women without higher education. Referring to the received results, it is possible to assess differences in womens productivity.

To measure possible differences in the African American womens results, it is necessary to use a questionnaire to state the participants productivity and economic status and a scale to focus on differences in the numbers. The first stage of the data analysis includes the organization of the numbers associated with the participants productivity and economic status in a table. The second stage is the calculation of the highest, lowest, and average measures according to the scale.

The measures are fixed in relation to the main group and in relation to the control group in order to receive the opportunity to compare the data (Rossi, 2003, p. 124). Thus, the next stage of the data analysis is the comparison of the control groups numbers with the main groups measures. The numerical data should be presented in tables and graphs.

It is expected that the African American women with higher education will demonstrate the higher rates in relation to the factors of productivity and general economic state. Furthermore, it is possible to expect that the African American women without the higher education received with the help of the program will be discussed as less economically productive in comparison with the participants from the main group (Stringer, 2013, p. 58). In spite of the fact that the pre-experimental research design cannot provide the complex data on differences and relations regarding variables, the information received after analyzing the quantitative data will add to the analysis of all the information referred to the research.

Conclusion

The effective evaluation of the program should be based on the mixed methods approach to conducting the research process. The important stage of the research is the analysis of the secondary data, qualitative and quantitative data. The analysis of the secondary data should be associated with conducting the literature review. The analysis of the qualitative data should be based on the analysis of the case study information. The pre-experimental research design can be discussed as the source of the quantitative data. The final stage of the data analysis includes the interpretation of all the collected details according to the aspects of the research question.

References

Babbie, E. (2011). The basics of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning.

Babbie, E. (2001). The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Fitzpatrick, J. L., Sanders, J. R., & Worthen, B. R. (2011). Program evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Mertler, C. A. (2012). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Rossi, P. (2003). Evaluation: A systematic approach. New York, NY: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Royse, D., Thyer, B., & Padgett, D. (2009). Program evaluation: An introduction. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Stringer, E. (2013). Action research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Abstract

A significant dropout rate among African American female students and the subsequent reduction in the quality of their life has recently grown out of proportions. Therefore, the specified demographics requires an impressive boost in order to reevaluate their opinion regarding academic progress and the significance of building a career, so that African American women could get an opportunity to become valuable specialists and, therefore, receive better chances for employment.

In order to help African American women reconsider the role of education in their lives, the Breaking Barriers Program has been designed. It is supposed that, by launching a program, which will help change not only the educational, but also the societal stereotypes regarding African American people, not only will the dropout rates among African American female students be reduced to a considerable extent, but also the attitude towards African American women as scholars will be reinvented completely (Hanson, 2007).

Aiming at both changing the current educational principles and eliminating the existing prejudices against women of color in the realm of the U.S. education, the project in question targets the social and the cultural prejudices that the society has created regarding African American women in education, and, thus, create the premises for the specified demographics to excel in their learning process, career and academic endeavors, as well as contribute to science to an impressive extent.

Introduction: Education for African American Women and the Role of the Breaking Barriers Program in It

Promoting education and the significance of science among African Americas has been an issue for an impressive amount of time. According to the official statistics, the lack of qualified specialists among African Americans contributes to the increase in unemployment rates among the specified tier of the U.S. society greatly (African American employment, 2014).

The issue is especially topical for African American women: without proper education, they have an extremely restricted amount of employment options and, thus, are especially vulnerable to a variety of economic factors triggering poverty (Levenstein, 2012). The Breaking Barriers program, which is aimed at promoting education among African American women, as well as enhancing the role of African American women in science, is bound to lead to major improvements in terms of educational opportunities for the specified demographics.

It should also be born in mind that the educational program may also have to address the cultural specifics of the target audience. Indeed, according to the existing evidence, the traditional image of a woman in the African American culture presupposes little to no social activity; as a result, the young women, who may excel in their academic life and career, are discouraged from making significant progress in the specified areas and, instead, are suggested the role of a housewife (Fouquier, 2011). Therefore, the Breaking Barriers Program will also have to develop the approach, which will help reinforce the positive image of an African American woman as an active student and, at the same time, help the participants of the project get rid of the above-mentioned stereotype.

Goals: Breaking Barriers as a Tool for Improving the Wellbeing of African American Women

Because of extremely scarce education options, African American women are prone to not only poverty but also dependence on outside support, primarily the support of the family members and the spouse. Speaking of the former, one must admit that the encouragement of family members is obviously a positive factor. Researches, however, show that in most cases, the family members discourage African American women from continuing their education and, instead, nourish the negative perception of an African American woman of herself as a learner, making her dependable on her spouse or partner (Booth & Myers, 2011).

The goal of the project is, therefore, to prove that the Breaking Barriers program will help African American women get rid of a negative image of themselves as learners and promote education as the key to their personal and professional evolution. In other words, the project is aimed at testing whether it is possible to correct not only the flaws of the current education system but also the societal injustice, particularly race and gender-related stereotypes that are traditionally attributed to education.

On a wider scale, the project is targeted at checking whether the wellbeing of African American women can be improved through the promotion of education and the encouragement of studying endeavors among the aforementioned demographics. Indeed, better education options and the opportunity for attaining academic success open a plethora of chances for African American women in terms of employment.

True, one must take the possible discrimination factor, including both gender and racial profiling in the field of science (Landivar, 2013), into account as the factors that will prevent African American women from building a career; however, it should be kept in mind that today, in the rise of globalization, a lot of modern companies adopt the HR strategies that are quite politically correct. To be more exact, in the modern world of science and especially employment, the emphasis is on the skills of a candidate and not on their ethnicity. Hence, it can be assumed that the success of the Breaking Barriers Project is quite feasible.

Mission: The Paths to Introducing Diversity into the Current Education System

The project in question has several goals to accomplish. First and most obvious, the quality of education for African American women is going to be improved considerably. Seeing that the research was started as a response to the current deplorable economic and financial state of a range of African American women and that poor education options were identified as the key reason for it, the improvement of living standards for African American women in the United States can be seen as another and a much broader goal of the research.

In addition, the project will also address the cultural concerns in general and the diversity issues in particular with regard to the present-day American education system. There is no secret that racial profiling persists in some of the U.S. educational establishments; hence, the method for fighting the inequality and promoting diversity within the U.S. education system must commence (Ford, Scott & Trotman, 2011).

The Breaking Barriers Project will assist in encouraging the principles of equity and diversity within the current American education setting; thus, the existing remnants of racial profiling will finally be eliminated. Naturally, it would be wrong to assume that a single project will defeat ethnic and national discrimination as a phenomenon; hoverer, Breaking Barriers will launch the chain reaction, which will inevitably lead to the elimination of racial profiling in the U.S. education establishments.

Organizational Structure: Breaking Barriers and the Foundations That It Stands on

When it comes to defining the structure of the program, one must mention that Breaking Barriers represents an entirely new way of looking at the education process and incorporates the latest innovations in teaching. As a result, the program features a unique structure, which was molded in accordance with the needs of the target audience and the goals that the project was going to accomplish. For instance, the class structure has been shaped considerably in order to encourage a better communication process between the teacher and the students.

This change is essential, as it creates the premises for a stronger bond between the educator and the learners and, thus, contributes to enhancing the learners motivation. Motivation is a crucial part of a successful education process; researches show that the lack thereof is the key reason for African American female students to drop out of school early and abandon the idea of getting a higher education (Jones, Wilder & Osborn-Lampkin, 2013). Therefore, by raising the students motivation, one will be able to make the retention rates among African American female students higher (Jones, Wilder & Osborn-Lampkin, 2013), which an elaborate class structure will facilitate.

As far as the structure of the program is concerned, the organization represents a functional structure, with a combination of the vertical and horizontal responsibilities delegation principle. As one can see, every single element of the program is aimed at perpetuating the idea of educational opportunities as positive among female African American students.

Research Question: The Viability of Breaking Barriers and Its Validity as an Educational Program

As it has been stressed above, the research in question is primarily targeted at the evaluation of the Breaking Barriers system as the method of promoting education and the related values among African American women. Consequently, the key research question can be put in the following way:

In what way can the Breaking Barriers Program reinforce the positive image of a female African American student among the target audience and encourage the specified demographics for excelling in their academic life so that they could have better career opportunities and, therefore, improve their living standards, consequently, altering the living standards for African American women in general?

Apart from the question specified above, the issue concerning the effects of the Breaking Barriers program on the academic success of African American women will be researched. More to the point, the results that the program will supposedly have on the target demographics will be linked to the subsequent changes in the unemployment rates (Loubert, 2012). It is supposed that the project in question is going to lead to a major drop in the rates of unemployment among African American women, as well as a rapid increase in the competitiveness of the latter as professionals in the realm of the global labor market. Hence, the second research question can be put in the following way:

What approaches does the Breaking Barriers Program need to adopt in order to change not only the academic performance of African American female students but also their career prospects, as well as their chances of forgetting promoted?

By answering these questions, one will be able to identify the potential for the project and, thus, evaluate the effort that its implementation will take, comparing it to the expected outcomes and, therefore, analyzing its value as a means to reinforce the education process among African American women.

Cost Analysis: Defining the Feasibility of the Project

Though the project may seem rather costly, it, in fact, must turn out rather profitable, with most of the expenses being covered within a comparatively short amount of time. It should be born in mind, though, that, to cover all the costs fast, one will have to come up with an efficient promotion campaign; thus, the chances for attracting both clients and potential investors will rise instantly.

It is also worth mentioning that the expenses related to renting will make most of the indirect costs, which means that a strategy for reducing them should be designed. In order to bring the renting costs down, the project must incorporate the strategy of split liability (Rejda & McNamara, 2014); in other words, it will be required that a merger with another company should be carried out. Thus, a part of the costs will be covered by the business partners. As far as the cost-benefit analysis is concerned, the table below provides a general overview of the expected costs and the supposed profit:

Table 1. Annual Operating Costs: Cost Analysis

The CBA table above shows that the project is going to be rather costly. However, as it has been stressed above, there are ways to reduce the number of liabilities that the organization is bound to face; once the principle of split liabilities is introduced into the project and the organization finds a partner to team up with, the expenses will be reduced quite a few notches.

In addition, assigning a risk manager for handling the specified issue can be a good idea. Thus, the amount of the deductible, which is traditionally defined as a provision by which a specified amount is subtracted from the loss payment otherwise payable to the insured (Rejda & McNamara, 2014, p. 52), can be calculated. The use of excess insurance, i.e., the plan, which does not presuppose the participation of the insurer in the loss up until the costs exceed the sum of money, which the organization was expected to retain (Rejda & McNamara, 2014, p. 52), can also be considered a feasible element of the general financial strategy.

Research Methodology: Combining Two Major Approaches. Interviews and Basic Research

Because of the complexity of the study and the necessity to incorporate the economic, social, and cultural aspects into it, it is necessary to integrate two types of research approaches into its methodology. Combining the qualitative and the quantitative approaches will lead to retrieving not only more accurate and diverse data, but also the opportunity to view the problem from different aspects, addressing both the effects that the program is going to have on the dropout and unemployment rates among female African American students and the current image of an African American woman, updating it so that the idea of the latter being a scholar could sound credible and receive support from the members of the American society.

Herein the necessity to carry out both the qualitative and the quantitative study lies. More to the point, the specifics of the research demands that the information concerning the current stage of education among the target demographics, as well as the future changes, should be retrieved directly from the African American women, which calls for conducting several interviews (a research design for a quantitative study) and carrying out general research based on the analysis of the existing literature, recent statistics, other researches related to the topic, etc.).

As a result, the premises for using both research methods are created. More to the point, it is necessary that both African American women, who have reached success in their scholarly career, and those, who have not managed to find their niche in the realm of academic life, must be carried out. Thus, the necessity for the launch of the project will be justified at the earliest stages of the research, and the credible information concerning the current state of education for African American women.

Human Subjects Protection: Personal Data Safety, Participants Consent, and the Related Issues

There is no need to stress that the wellbeing of the research participants remains one of the top priorities of the study. In order to make sure that the people partaking in the surveys are fully protected and that their rights are not infringed, it will be required to obtain informed consent from each person who is going to be interviewed. Indeed, according to the existing principles of research ethics, retrieving informed consent from the participants is an essential part of any study and a fundamental tenet of research:

(Quick, 2010). It should be born in mind, though, that in a range of cases, getting informed consent from the survey participants will be quite problematic. Indeed, the study is going to be conducted among both young African American women and those that belong to the older generation. While there seem to be no obvious issues with the latter, in the former, the researcher is most likely to come across a range of women under age, who are incapable of giving their informed consent due to the age restriction.

To be able to sample the data from both sources, it will be required that either the parents or the caregivers of the participants, who are under age, should agree to the experiment and sign the consent form. Speaking of which, in order to make sure that the rule of informed consent has been followed precisely and that all participants are fully aware of the goals of the experiment, their role in it and the consequences of their participation, it will be required that free consent forms should be provided to all those involved into the experiment.

In addition, the results of the interviews will also be provided with the names of the participants replaced by nicknames (e.g., Mrs. A./Participant A instead of the womans real name, etc.). It could be argued that using first names only can also be considered a reasonable policy; however, with the disclosure of the first names of the participants, who live in comparatively small areas, the leakage of information and the following reveal of the participants personal data may be quite a tangible threat. Therefore, nicknames seem to be the best option.

Research Rationale: Addressing the Wellbeing of the Female Members of the African American Community

As it has been stressed above, the necessity for the research to be conducted was predisposed by the recent troubling tendency among the African American population in general and women in particular to dismiss the idea of contributing to science by engaging in their academic life and working on their career as researchers. To be more specific, the study was designed in order to promote science as one of the possible fields of interest for African American women to become a part of. Engaging in scientific projects is an impressive way of contributing to the society, and, therefore, get better chances for fighting the common stereotype of an African American woman being alien to the field of science and business.

Hypothetical Findings: Concerning the Expected Outcomes and the Supposed Results

Judging by the deplorable state of dropout rates among African American female students, and reinforcement of a more responsible approach towards studying will be a major step in the right direction. Therefore, it is expected that the research will help identify the key strategies for promoting education and especially science-related values to female African American students and reinforce the idea of science as one of the most significant areas in which they can excel (Smith, 2000).

On a more global level, it is also anticipated that the study results will suggest the ways for changing the image of an African American woman from an unemployed person, whose dependency on her family and husband is a result of them being her only salvation. The study will help both enhance the idea of exploring science and changing the image of an African American woman among the target audience. More to the point, the entire issue regarding education options for the African American community will be revisited. Thus, both unemployment and dropout rates among the target population are expected to be reduced greatly.

Conclusion: Giving African American Women the Chance to Work in the Realm of Science

Judging by the current statistics regarding African American women in science and education, the situation leaves much to be desired. The unwillingness of African American women to engage in scientific research and receiving the education required for it can be explained in a variety of ways, starting from the cultural viewpoint and up to the financial issues typical for the African American community. However, the existing problems can be handled with the introduction of the Breaking Barriers Program, which will reinforce the image of an African American woman as an active learner and a successful scientist.

Thus, it will be possible to introduce more stability into the African American community and fight with the increasing unemployment rates, as well as promote innovations in science and improve the image of African American women, updating it so that it could incorporate both the traditional values of the African American community and the ones that are associated with the current image of a woman as an active participant of the state political, social and economic life. The promotion of the role of science among African American women, therefore, will signify a new step in the development of the community and the society in general.

Reference List

African American employment. (2014). Web.

Booth, C. S. & Myers, J. E. (2011). Differences in career and life planning between African American and Caucasian undergraduate women. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 39(1), 1423.

Ford, D. Y., Scott, J. L., & Trotman, M. T. (2011). Key theories and frameworks for improving the recruitment and retention of African American students in gifted education. The Journal of Negro Education, 80(3), 239438.

Fouquier, K. F. (2011). The concept of motherhood among three generations of African American women. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 43(2), 145153.

Hanson, S. L. (2007). Success in science among young African American women. Journal of Family Issues, 28(1), 333.

Jones, T. B., Wilder, J. A. & Osborn-Lampkin, LaT. (2013). Employing a Black feminist approach to doctoral advising: Preparing Black women for the professoriate. The Journal of Negro Education, 82(3), 326338.

Landivar, L. C. (2013). Disparities in STEM employment by sex, race, and Hispanic origin. American Community Survey Reports. Web.

Levenstein, L. (2012). African American women and the politics of poverty in the postwar Philadelphia. Magazine of History, 26(1), 3135.

Loubert, L. (2012). The plight of African American women: Employed and unemployed. The Review of Black Political Economy, 39(4), 373380.

Quick, J. (2010). Developing communication in informed consent. The Journal of Perioperative Practice, 20(3), 108112.

Rejda, G. E. & McNamara, M. J. (2014). Risk management and insurance. 12^th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Smith, N. C. (2000). African American womens sexuality. Frontiers, 35(1), 410.

Phenomenological Research

The goal of this phenomenological qualitative study is to examine the lived experiences of African American women participants seeking higher education. The study examines, identifies, and analyzes specific barriers and challenges faced by African American women when they plan to obtain a higher education. The secondary objective of the research is to understand how African American women can overcome barriers and obstacles to higher education. The study will explore what strategies helped the women achieve entry and success, as these participants have had firsthand experience in this area, enabling a better understanding of the identified impediments, challenges, and personal solutions.

The key objective of the study design is arriving at the description explaining a specific phenomenon. Phenomenological studies are associated with qualitative research focused on the commonality of a certain experience within a group of people (Padilla-Díaz, 2015). Because of this, the type of current study is the best use for the research as it will demonstrate the nature of experiences of a population, both positive and negative.

Phenomenological research is suitable due to the fact at the stage of data collection, the researcher will interview individuals who have first-hand knowledge of the subject. Also, other data forms can be used for supporting the research; for instance, observations, and reviews of documents.

It is important to have a clear understanding of the different approaches available for collecting information and data. The method chosen will affect the results and how the findings are reported. The researcher decided to use qualitative research instead of a quantitative research study. Qualitative modes of data analysis provide ways of discerning, examining, comparing and contrasting, and interpreting meaningful patterns or themes. Qualitative researchers are concerned with an individuals perceptions of the world, and these researchers interact with those that they are researching (Castella, 2010).

Quantitative research refers to a structured way of collecting and analyzing data that has been obtained from various sources. Quantitative research aims at quantifying the problem through generating numerical data which can be applied via statistical means. Quantitative research is normally applied to quantify opinions, behaviors, attitudes, and other definable variables, which are then used to generalize results about a larger population. Quantitative research, therefore, uses measurable data which is used to make inferences about the larger population (Muijs, 2010).

Discussion of Literature Review

Literature is the first important brick for building a solid base for good research. All literature is written from a particular perspective or viewpoint. Various research studies have shown that institutional processes in many community colleges tolerate and excuse various types of negative behavior, shaming, biases, and prejudice in campus life. These factors, including a lack of support from mentors, college administrators, and faculty in the colleges, have played a huge role in augmenting discrimination against minorities, specifically African American women (Lutz et al., 2013; Maton et al., 2011).

According to McCoy (2014), the phenomenological approach is actively used by sociologists, psychologists, and other specialists who conduct qualitative research to examine the perceptions and opinions of individuals regarding concrete social situations, experiences, or phenomena. In the context of studying the barriers faced by African American women in higher education, McCoy suggests that it is essential to start exploring individuals real-life experiences. This aids in gathering data from real-life occurrences as they are lived and understood by the participant. It aids in obtaining an authentic and unfiltered picture of challenges that impact peoples lives (McCoy, 2014, p. 157). This helps to obtain preconceptions, judgments, and set biases from the feeling expressed in the issue.

The Gap of Research

It is imperative to figure out techniques women in the current society are using, especially with the increasing number of women obtaining degrees in higher education. The need to recognize and address obstacles to higher education for African American women at all stages of the research process is widely recognized and has been extensively discussed. In summary, the opinion polls results revealed that little attention has been given to studies on overcoming barriers and obstacles to higher education for African American women (Baber, 2012; Charleston, 2012; Felder & Barker, 2013).

The identified gap in research points to the need to pay more attention to the perspectives of African American women in study literature. The lack of empirical studies that explored the barriers to higher education for the identified population can be addressed through offering a comprehensive look at the perspectives of African American women regarding their higher education opportunities (Whittaker, Montgomery, & Martinez Acosta, 2015). Comparisons can be drawn through considering educational disparities that other populations face, especially with those who have been studied the most in the research literature.

Research Questions

To come up with research questions, it was necessary to consider individual perspectives of real people as well as experiences they could have encountered in their everyday life. As the key focus of research is associated with comparing the opportunities and barriers to accessing high education, the two research questions aimed to address this objective.

After reading some available literature regarding the limitations associated with the high education of African American women, it has become evident that scholars did not pay much attention to the perspectives of real people but mentioned existing challenges from a generalized perspective (Shields, Newman, & Satz, 2017). Therefore, research questions 1 and 2 (RQ1 and RQ2) aim at offering a researcher an ability to compare and contrast opportunities and gaps in education.

The researcher explored the following research questions in depth as African American women described their barriers and challenges through exploratory discussions of their experiences planning for and attaining higher education at PGCC:

• RQ1: What challenges and barriers, if any, do African American women face when furthering education?
• RQ2: What options are available for overcoming these challenges and barriers?

Research Design

The research design of the present study is focused on allowing the scholar to study personal perspectives of African American women in regards to their opportunities and limitations in high education. The importance of the phenomenological approach is explained by the need to collect insights from real people and determine their attitudes of a particular phenomenon. Interviews are considered the most appropriate for the chosen research design and answering the questions because they offer the ground to ask follow-up questions as well as fuel discussions between the respondents and the interviewer.

The aim is to ensure that the researcher gets the true experiences of the people who experienced the phenomena. There are, however, other instances where phenomenological research may be conducted through observations. The research design of this study will utilize the phenomenological approach, as proposed by Moustakas (1994), to focus on African American womens narratives regarding their lived experiences in planning for and attending community colleges. A variety of methods can be used in phenomenological research that includes interviews and focuses group meetings.

The main barriers faced by African American women are challenges of exclusion, bias associated with affirmative action, isolation, lack of support, stereotyping, victimization, gender biases, and exclusions from the research. It is imperative to figure out techniques women in the current society are using, especially with the increasing number of women obtaining degrees in higher education. Furthermore, the research can help in the provision of knowledge to the

concerned people in helping more women achieve their dreams by supporting them in their pursuit of higher education (Lutz, Hassouneh, Akeroyd, & Beckett, 2013, p. 128; Maton, Wimms, Grant, & Wittig, 2011).

Participants

The eligible research participants will be African American women eighteen and older who are obtaining an Associates degree, without regard for marital status, religion, or employment. These women identify themselves as African American. Staff at PGCC who is not a member of the IRB Team and who work directly with or have access to African American women.

It was chosen to focus on the population of African American women because of the lack of studies reflecting the opportunities and challenges they face in high education. According to Wright and Salinas Jr. (2016) who focused on the status of African American women in the academe of predominantly white institutions, this group was often silenced while others were privileged. In terms of staff, the researchers employed a transcriber for data collection; a colleague was asked to fulfill the role and was paid for his time.

Sample

For this research project, it is calculated that 10-15 interviewees will be sufficient to generate a list of core themes. The wide range age group is chosen because it will help in exploring all barriers to higher education that may be experienced by African American women. For this study anyone who identifies themselves as AA and staff who work directly with them.

The research settled on the African American population by reviewing the racial distribution of high education classrooms. Inclusion criteria for the sample are an individual identifying as female, being of African American descent, having high education history, or not having the opportunity to attend a high education facility. The listed criteria for inclusion were used for ensuring that the population recruited for the study offers an unbiased perspective on the problem.

Exclusion criteria for the study included biological women identifying as men, and belonging to the staff of an educational facility. It was imperative to ensure that potential participants who were the educational staff of a college or university did not participate in the research. They could have offered a biased look at the problem because they could be protective of their workplaces and would not acknowledge problems in access that could have existed.

Data Collection

Planning for and conducting a research study required many steps, the first step is to layout the objective of the study. After the researcher makes the determination, of how they will develop their questionnaire, they will decide the mode of data collection (e.g., mail, telephone, or in-person). Data collection is imperative to the effectiveness and efficiency of any survey (OSullivan, Rassel, & Berner, 2008).

The type of data collected in the result of interviews is considered qualitative due to the focus on interviews as a method. The responses of the interviewed participants cannot be measured quantitatively and therefore requires a thematic analysis or other forms of qualitative analysis. In terms of phenomenological research, qualitative data is suitable for exploring the perspectives of participants and answering the research questions identified earlier.

Data Collection Techniques

The study collected data through face to face interviews, lasting no more than 60 minutes. The phenomenological interview describes the meaning of a phenomenon that African American women share (Marshall & Rossman, 2006).

• All data will be anonymous means removing all participants names. The names of the participant will be replaced with pseudonyms. This study involves the use of digital voice recorders to gather information.
• Open-ended questionnaires (see Appendix A). This type of research question was chosen because of the need to offer respondents an opportunity to elaborate. In comparison with close-ended questions, the open-ended are less restrictive and will reveal the necessary level of detail.
• Field Testing (see Appendix B)

A field test was conducted by a subject matter expert (SME). The purpose of this requested field test is to ensure that the interview questions:

1. are appropriate for the vulnerable population and/or sensitive topic,
2. will not unnecessarily put participants through distress or discomfort
3. make sense.

Field testing is important in qualitative research because of the focus on the unguided and natural contextual exploration of a phenomenon by collecting the feedback of potential participants (Austin & Sutton, 2014). A successful field test is likely to reveal an unbiased perception of the proposed study and thus provide resolve any issues and barriers before implementing phenomenological research. Ten participants were chosen to be involved in the field test to determine possible mistakes that should not happen during the actual investigation.

• Procedure (confidentiality)

The researcher will ensure anonymity and confidentiality. The identity of participants will be protected with the help of consent forms, and careful selection of participants. The researcher will not collect any direct identifiers, such as names or email addresses, and no information that would allow someone to identify the participants.

The recruitment method that the researcher will be used to request for participants is to place flyers in common areas approved by the IRB committee.

The interview was held in different IRB approved locations throughout the Largo campus.

Instrument

Instruments used for collecting data for analysis cover a broad spectrum of tools. Initially, the researcher represented the key instrument in the study because they were the ones to be directly engaged in the process of data collection through interviewing participants. Some technological instruments were used to aid in the data collection. These included a computer, an audio recorder for their further transcription, and data analysis software. The transcriber was responsible for transferring the taped information into the written form for further data analysis.

The identified list of instruments: the researcher, the transcriber, a computer, and a tape recorder would aid in the present phenomenological research because they were simple, effective, and did not require any specialized knowledge to use them effectively. Through most of the study, the researcher played the role of the key instrument because they conducted a field test. Also, he or she developed interview questions, contacted potential participants, interviewed respondents, and audiotaped the conversations.

The questions that the interviewer asked the African American women participants were all based on their perceptions of the benefits and barriers existing in the sphere of higher education. In terms of formed consent, after the study was explained, the participants were provided consent forms that they read and signed thus agreeing to be involved in the study. For the data analysis section of the research, Nvivo software was the main tool used. It is a qualitative analysis software for reducing the time necessary to go through interview transcripts. The aid of data analysis software was necessary within the context of qualitative research not only for the reduction of time but also for the efficient management of data that could not have been achieved manually.

Data Analysis

The qualitative analysis allows for an in-depth understanding of the research subject to be acquired. Data analysis of the phenomenological research study relied on converting the interview into a transcript of the respondents experiences, their structural descriptions, and a combination of both the textual and structural descriptions. Data analysis followed a cyclic process. First, the researcher read each interview transcript several times to get a sense of immersion.

The most significant statements made by the interviewees were then noted. These were the statements that provided an understanding of the feelings of the respondents. These responses were then integrated to form core themes that were at a higher level of abstraction. The researcher compared the themes to determine connections and relations. The themes were analyzed and the main concepts from the data were interpreted. This formed the basis for explaining the experiences of the respondents (Smith, 2015).

The qualitative data obtained as a result of interviews was the focus of the current data analysis. The interviews were audiotaped and then transcribed into a written document used for further data analysis. While the researcher audiotaped the data, the transcribed was responsible for completing the rest of the preparation; both master and working copies were kept.

In the context of phenomenological research, coding and thematic analysis of the interviews represent the key data analysis methods. Through finding commonalities among the responses of participants in terms of their experiences with higher education, themes will be identified (De Chesnay, 2015). These were developed by using codes that help identify the most important aspects of developed items within data collection.

Software used and where the data was kept: The researcher will keep all data/information that was provided in a safe in the researcher home safe.

Procedures

To ensure that the study goes on successfully, the researcher developed several procedural steps for data collection. The first step was concerned with handing out flyers to potential participants to engage them in the study. Students were also included when handing out flyers because they could have encountered some severe limitations when accessing a high education facility. This was done at PCCG IRB approved locations; when the researcher approached potential participants, they explained the purpose of the study. Informing potential interviewees about the procedure and its implications for future studies was a step necessary for enticing an interest and engaging the public in the problem.

For participants concerned with the issue of confidentiality, the researcher ensured a reliable coding system (using numbers) to protect the interviewees identity in the process of data collection. This method allowed the researcher to keep track of responses given by different participants without revealing their identity. It is important to protect the identity of participants because of their crucial role in volunteering to be involved in the present study. Assigning codes to each participant allowed to keep their identity anonymous while preserving structure during data analysis.

To facilitate effective communication between the researcher and study participants, an email address was secured that participants can use to contact the scholar. As the present study did not imply any potential risks, the participants were encouraged to share any concerns that they may have. The benefits of participation will be explained to participants before conducting the interviews; they will be addressed from the perspective of racial injustice and bias. Participants signature will also be obtained before conducting the interview.

Validity

The concept of validity was formulated by Kelly (1927, p. 14) who stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure. To assess the quality of findings in a phenomenological study, it is necessary to take several measures to address validity. To guarantee the credibility or validity of the study findings, it is important to formulate effective interview questions and make multiple notes during the analysis procedure. These notes were necessary to code the gathered data effectively and then identify all relevant themes that are successfully retrieved using efficient strategies for conducting phenomenological interviews (Leung, 2015; Mohamad et al., 2015).

As validity is concerned with the extent to which an instrument measured what it was supposed to measure, it is important to mention whether the study was valid (Mohajan, 2017). At the stage of data collection, validity was achieved through interviews revealing the attitudes of participants. Because of this, the study design and methods had to reflect the validity of the research.

When elaborating on validity in research methodology, it is imperative to consider both internal and external validity. While the former is affected by design flaws, the latter is associated with the level to which findings can be generalized. Internal validity in the current study was achieved through establishing a reliable data collection procedure that led to the effective interpretation of data. External validity in the current research is reflected by the applicability of the findings to other contexts. For instance, similar disparities in access to high education can be experienced by females of other ethnic backgrounds, especially those from minority populations.

References

Austin, Z., & Sutton, J. (2014). Qualitative research: getting started. The Canadian Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, 67(6), 436-40.

De Chesnay, M. (2015). Nursing research using data analysis: Qualitative designs and methods in nursing. New York, NY: Springer.

Mohajan, H. (2017). Two criteria for good measurements in research: Validity and reliability. Annals of Spiru Haret University, 17(3), 58-82.

Padilla-Díaz, M. (2015). Phenomenology in educational qualitative research: Philosophy as science or philosophical science? International Journal of Educational Excellence, 1(2), 101-110.

Whittaker, J. A., Montgomery, B. L., & Martinez Acosta, V. G. (2015). Retention of Underrepresented minority faculty: Strategic initiatives for institutional value proposition based on perspectives from a range of academic institutions. Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education: JUNE: A publication of FUN, Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience, 13(3), A136-45.

Wright, D., & Salinas Jr., C. (2016). African American women leaders in higher education. Advances in Educational Administration, 25, 91-105.

Yilmaz, K. (2013). Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research traditions: Epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. European Journal of Education, 48(2), 311-325.

Shields, L., Newman, A., & Satz, D. (2017). Equality of educational opportunity. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Web.

Questions for African American Women

1. What challenges and barriers do African-American women face when furthering education?
2. What options are available for overcoming the challenge and barriers?
3. Could you describe the journey or process of thinking about a college degree? What is it like for you?
4. How did you feel when you applied to PGCC? And when you were admitted? What is it like to be a student here?
5. Could you tell me a specific story about adjustment to college? (if a participant has trouble describe the experience).
6. What is different from what you expected?
7. How are friends and classmates important? Faculty? Staff?
8. Discuss the role of college policies in supporting your goals; what you would change if you could?
9. Were there cultural and social issues to overcome in planning for higher education?
10. What is your current experience as a student at PGCC?
11. What are your strengths? Support systems?
12. Have people and programs in the college supported your goals? How?

Questions for staff

1. What are the demographics of administrative and leadership staff at your institution?
2. What institutional procedures are in place to address potential barriers to success for African American women?
3. What are your concerns of potential barriers to student success overall, including African American women, and how do current college guidelines, policies, and programs address these obstacles to overcome them?

The Role of Public Administration and Higher Education

Public administration is associated with providing public-oriented services, the focus of which is on addressing peoples needs in this or that area. From this perspective, public administrators are concentrated on researching needs of certain groups of people in order to propose solutions to problems or barriers with the help of public resources and appropriate policies or initiatives (Fenwick & McMillan, 2014). Ringeling (2015) also notes that public administration as a field of practice concerns the preparation of public administrators as providers of public services, and it is also related to the development and implementation of certain policies and strategies to promote the change in public agencies, institutions, and society. Thus, in the field of higher education in the United States, activities of public administrators are directed toward improving the availability of higher education for African Americans with the focus on womens opportunities and experiences regarding obtaining an academic degree.

Researchers pay much attention to discussing the role of public administration and associated services in the context of higher education and individuals access to it. According to Shand and Howell (2015), the role of public administration in the sphere of higher education is important because postsecondary educational institutions are oriented to covering needs of people regarding their education and further career development, and public administrators are able to regulate and manage all issues and obstacles faced by individuals on their paths to higher education. Furthermore, many cases associated with the sphere of higher education can be resolved only involving public administrators as effective managers and even policymakers (Fenwick & McMillan, 2014). Therefore, the role of public administration in regulating activities of higher educational institutions is considerable.

Public administrators are focused on formulating questions to resolve, researching issues and related facts, and proposing effective strategies to address the identified problems. According to Shand and Howell (2015), it is important to discuss the role of public administration in relation to higher education from the perspective of public administrators effectiveness in resolving all issues that can be observed in modern educational institutions in the United States. One of the public strategies aimed at attracting African American women to U.S. colleges and universities was the effort of the Obama Administration to involve African Americans in historically black colleges, community colleges, and predominantly white institutions for receiving the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) degree (Alexander & Hermann, 2016; Jackson, 2013). The principle of the STEM education was formulated by the Obama Administration as a priority for opening these educational fields for minorities, including women (Alexander & Hermann, 2016). The reason was in the fact that women of color were previously underrepresented at faculties associated with obtaining a degree in technologies or engineering.

The role of public administration in guaranteeing higher education for African American women is also in developing programs and initiatives to support low-income female students, provide them with scholarships, and organize funds to address the needs of minorities (Fenwick & McMillan, 2014). According to Ringeling (2015), efforts of public administrators in the United States regarding the attraction of African American women to higher educational institutions led to increasing the number of women of color in historically black colleges, community colleges, and predominantly white institutions. Therefore, more activities of public administrators should be oriented to addressing the problem of the underrepresentation of black female students in postsecondary educational institutions.

Historical Overview of African American Women Obtaining Higher Education

The problem of the disproportionate college enrollment in relation to African American women can be discussed as having a historical background. According to Garibaldi (2014), African American womens opportunities to obtain higher education were always limited in the United States, and the situation began to slightly change only in the 1960s, after the decision declared in relation to the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954). Following this decision, the racial segregation in the U.S. educational institutions became viewed as unconstitutional. However, in spite of the increased higher education enrollment for minorities, African American women were still underrepresented in colleges and universities in comparison to white females (Garibaldi, 2014; Iloh & Toldson, 2013). In the 1960s and 1970s, the affirmative action policies allowed for improving the situation for women in historically black institutions, but overall rates of African American women with academic degrees remained to be low.

Although rates of graduating from high school for African American women increased significantly in the 1970s and 1980s, their enrollment in higher educational institutions was still limited. In his descriptive quantitative study, Garibaldi (2014) examined the situation in relation to African Americans and stated that the percentage of women of color in colleges and universities of the United States still remained to be low in comparison to the number of white students. Thus, 59,100 Black students graduated with a bachelors degree in 1976 compared with 60,700 in 1981an increase of only 1,600 Black graduates between those two years was observed (Garibaldi, 2014, p. 372). However, in the 1970s, the number of women of color with a degree was higher than the number of African American males who received academic degrees in educational institutions.

Historically, the low degree completion for African American females was associated with a range of factors, including social and economic ones, as well as these womens choices of vocational training. As a result, during the 1980s and 1990s, the majority of African American women received professional training and was not involved in studying engineering, technologies, and science. Thus, in 1982, college enrollment after high school was 40 percent for Blacks compared with 53 percent for White students (Iloh & Toldson, 2013, p. 205). In addition, the key focus was on nursing, education, and human resource management (Bartman, 2015). Felder and Barker (2013) analyzed the data for the 1990s and 2000s, and they stated that the involvement of African American women in receiving doctoral degrees was also minimal. Furthermore, traditionally the limited number of African Americans studied in higher educational institutions, and the limited number of women of color was the part of the faculty to support minorities.

Many studies are focused on examining the situation in obtaining a higher education by African American women. McCoy (2014) noted that, although statistics demonstrate that more African American women received academic degrees in comparison to black males during the period of the 1980s, and they were actively enrolled in educational institutions in the 1990s, the situation was positive only with the focus on historically black institutions or community colleges. The number of African American males who studied in predominantly white institutions or who received masters and doctoral degrees was always higher, accentuating the gender gap and inequality in the sphere of higher education (Iloh & Toldson, 2013; McCoy, 2014). As a result, a historical overview of females educational experience indicates that it is possible to speak about certain barriers for African American women on the paths to higher education.

Current Status of African American Women in Higher Education

The current status of African American females in higher education is important to be studied in detail in order to conclude on possible changes in womens access to receiving academic degrees. According to the data collected and analyzed by National Center for Education Statistics (2016), the percentage of African American female students enrolled in postsecondary educational institutions increased from 19.1% in 1985 to 35.7% in 2015. For African American males, this percentage changed from 20.2% in 1985 to 34.1% in 2015 (Figure 1). It is possible to observe that the number of African American female students studying in colleges is slightly higher than the number of African American male students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). However, while comparing the data for African American and white female students, it is important to note that in 2015, 44.5% of white females were enrolled in U.S. colleges in comparison to 35.7% of African American female students (Figure 1).

While discussing the situation regarding the enrollment of women of color in colleges, it is possible to focus on the tendency typical of higher education in the United States: the number of women studying in postsecondary institutions is higher than the number of men. According to Garibaldi (2014), this tendency can be observed since the 1990s. Nevertheless, the number of African American female students who received degrees during the period of 1990-2012 is low while comparing it to the number of white women who received the same degrees (Iloh & Toldson, 2013). Felder and Barker (2013) noted that, despite the improved access of women of color to higher education, the observed racial disparity does not allow for speaking about removing all barriers for Africa American women to obtaining a degree. In spite of policies oriented to increasing the enrollment of African American female students in colleges and universities, the graduation rates for women of color are also low because many of them leave institutions without receiving diplomas because of a range of factors and barriers (Bartman, 2015). The literature and statistics demonstrate that there is still a gap in the number of African American female students receiving degrees in comparison to white females.

Researchers are also concentrated on the current status of African American female leaders in higher educational institutions. Wallace, Budden, Juban, and Budden (2014) paid attention to the fact that the lack of African American females at faculties of different institutions is one of the reasons for the limited number of black female students in these colleges and universities. A positive tendency can be observed only with reference to historically black institutions and community colleges (Jackson, 2013). According to Davis and Maldonado (2015), both African American females and males became presidents of or took leadership positions in about 90 historically black institutions, but the percentage of African American female leaders in postsecondary institutions is only about 4-6%. Furthermore, when women of color seek for a position in a predominantly white institution, they usually face significant barriers (Wallace et al., 2014). This tendency is associated with the comparably low number of women of color involved as tutors or professors in predominantly white institutions. From this perspective, the literature accentuates a significant gap in the representation of not only black female students in colleges and universities of the United States but also black female faculty members and leaders.

Lack of Organizational Commitment

The review of the literature on the topic of African American women in higher education indicates that researchers are interested in studying causes and factors that can be associated with black females impossibility to graduate from U.S. colleges and universities even if they were successfully enrolled in institutions. According to Bartman (2015), the problem is in the lack of commitment and motivation because of observed barriers and challenges. Thus, Felder and Barker (2013) stated that many African American females choose to leave institutions before graduating because of facing such problems as discrimination, prejudice, the lack of support, economic problems, and family issues, including marriage and pregnancy. McCoy (2014) noted that many black females are not aware of their opportunities for the future career development if they obtain a degree because of being afraid of bias and obstacles. Furthermore, having economic and social barriers, African American women can demonstrate the lack of commitment because of focusing on professions that do not require specific education or on their families. All these factors seem to influence the level of black female students commitment to studying in postsecondary institutions.

While focusing on such important factor as the lack of support from peers and faculty members, researchers claim that African American females can have little motivation to receive an academic degree because they do not experience some assistance during their study (Felder & Barker, 2013). Davis and Maldonado (2015) paid attention to the fact that African American female students need mentors in colleges and universities in order to improve their experience and address possible barriers. Such mentors should be representatives of minorities in order to increase black womens satisfaction and motivation to receive an academic degree. Thus, female students can experience certain difficulties during their study. According to Bartman (2015), there are some institutions where enrollment of Black women is so low that there is no sense of community for these students on campus and therefore their identity development lacks appropriate cultural references, and this situation negatively affects retention and attainment rates and adds to the lack of critical mass of this particular student group (p. 4-5). As a result, the lack of commitment and interest in the study can lead to absenteeism or low attendance rates of African American female students.

Researchers focus on the idea that the problem is in the lack of comfortable conditions for minority students in U.S. colleges and universities. The culture of predominantly white institutions is oriented to supporting white female and male students. However, in spite of the fact that historically black institutions can promote the development of the black culture and the sense of belonging to a community, there are no effectively implemented policies, strategies, and practices that can be used to attract and retain African American students to guarantee their successful graduation (Felder & Barker, 2013; Jackson, 2013). A similar situation is observed at community colleges where the number of African American students is high, but the attention paid to their support is not enough (Iloh & Toldson, 2013). All the discussed factors can influence black female students experience regarding their study at higher educational institutions and motivation to receive a diploma.

References

Alexander, Q. R., & Hermann, M. A. (2016). African-American womens experiences in graduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education at a predominantly white university: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 9(4), 307-314.

Bartman, C. C. (2015). African American women in higher education: Issues and support strategies. College Student Affairs Leadership, 2(2), 1-7.

Davis, D. R., & Maldonado, C. (2015). Shattering the glass ceiling: The leadership development of African American women in higher education. Advancing Women in Leadership, 35(1), 48-64.

Felder, P., & Barker, M. (2013). Extending bells concept of interest convergence: A framework for understanding the African American doctoral student experience. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 8(1), 2-20.

Fenwick, J., & McMillan, J. (2014). Public administration: What is it, why teach it and does it matter? Teaching Public Administration, 32(2), 194-204.

Garibaldi, A. (2014). The expanding gender and racial gap in American higher education. The Journal of Negro Education, 83(3), 371-384.

Iloh, C., & Toldson, I. (2013). Black students in 21st century higher education: A closer look at for-profit and community colleges. The Journal of Negro Education, 82(3), 205-358.

Jackson, D. L. (2013). A balancing act: Impacting and initiating the success of African American female community college transfer students in STEM into the HBCU environment. The Journal of Negro Education, 82(3), 255-271.

McCoy, D. (2014). A phenomenological approach to understanding first-generation college students of color transitions to one extreme predominantly white institution. College Student Affairs Journal, 32(1), 155-169.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Table 302.60. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by level of institution and sex and race/ethnicity of student: 1970 through 2015. Web.

Ringeling, A. (2015). How public is public administration? A constitutional approach of publicness. Teaching Public Administration, 33(3), 292-312.

Shand, R., & Howell, K. E. (2015). From the classics to the cuts: Valuing teaching public administration as a public good. Teaching Public Administration, 33(3), 211-220.

Wallace, D., Budden, M., Juban, R., & Budden, C. (2014). Making it to the top: Have women and minorities attained equality as higher education leaders? Journal of Diversity Management, 9(1), 83-88.

Significance of the Study

This study can be discussed as significant because it is aimed at investigating whether African American women experience certain barriers while obtaining their higher education, what types of barriers these females can face, and what measures to prevent these obstacles can be used by these women of color. From this point, there are three types of signs that are related to this study. The first type can be viewed as associated with theoretical significance. From this perspective, it is important to conduct this study because its findings will have the theoretical significance as this research will add the new knowledge to the field of studies regarding the higher education that are also associated with African American womens experiences in community colleges (Walpole, Chambers, & Goss, 2014). The reason is that the existing knowledge regarding African American womens experiences in higher educational institutions and possible barriers to obtaining degrees is limited.

The research significance of the study is associated with the fact that it is an extension study. This aspect means that the prior research on African American womens higher education and possible barriers on this path is extended to address the population of those African American women who study in community colleges in contrast to predominantly white institutions (Hannon, Woodside, Pollard, & Roman, 2016; Walpole et al., 2014). This study is important to be conducted because it will provide additional insights regarding African American female students experiences and obstacles to obtaining their degrees with the focus on a specific set of a community college.

The study findings will also have practical significance because the research will provide key data regarding African American womens experiences associated with obtaining higher education that can be used to improve policies in educational institutions to avoid and prevent possible barriers for women of color. Thus, examples in the literature indicate that African American females can face various barriers to obtaining a degree, and the focus is not only on institutional obstacles but also on personal and social challenges (Alexander & Hermann, 2016; Walpole et al., 2014). From this point, this study is significant to identify what particular barriers can influence access to women of color to higher education to develop and formulate effective policies and practices for authorities to address the problem.

There are certain gaps in the existing literature on African American womens experiences associated with the period when they obtain or plan to receive the higher education because not all important aspects are covered in previous studies (Alexander & Hermann, 2016; Hannon et al., 2016; Walpole et al., 2014). From this point, it is critical to research African American female students perceptions, visions, and barriers in this field in more detail. This study will contribute to identifying how the process of receiving higher education can depend on personal, social, economic, and institutional factors among other ones. Furthermore, the significance of the study is in the fact that its focus is not only on the individual experiences of African American women but also on their interactions with other women of color in an educational institution, who can be both peers and representatives of the faculty (Walpole et al., 2014). Therefore, the significance of this study can be viewed as threefold, and this research will contribute to theory, the knowledge in the field, and practice with the focus on a set of community colleges.

Limitations and Assumptions

In this section, limitations and assumptions associated with the study on educational paradigms and experiences of those African American women who are oriented toward obtaining the higher education are discussed. The first assumption to focus on is that African American females often experience certain problems or face obstacles when they plan to obtain higher education or when they study in higher educational institutions. These barriers can be of a cultural, social, or economic nature, and they can also be associated with race and gender biases among other factors (Alexander & Hermann, 2016; Hannon et al., 2016). It is also assumed that these barriers can be related to African American females individual qualities, attributes, behaviors, personal choices, and situations in their family or community (Hannon et al., 2016; Walpole et al., 2014). This assumption is the key one, and it determines the focus of the study.

The second assumption is that those African American women who participate in the study will provide honest answers to questions, and they will share their experiences, visions, and perceptions openly during interview sessions. It is possible to expect that the nature of a phenomenological interview will help participants feel comfortable and provide true and fair answers to the probing questions with the help of which African American females will be involved in a conversation with the researcher (Alexander & Hermann, 2016; Hannon et al., 2016). This assumption explains the choice of the instrument for the data collection procedure in this study.

Therefore, the next assumption is that the used interview protocol, with the focus on its structure and probing questions, will contribute to creating a positive atmosphere for participants and making them feel comfortable while answering the interview questions. It is possible to assume that the used interview protocol is effective to address barriers during a conversation and establish a rapport with participants (Alexander & Hermann, 2016; Hannon et al., 2016). Thus, informal phenomenological interviews are viewed as more appropriate for collecting qualitative data on participants experiences than formal interviews (Alexander & Hermann, 2016). The researcher should realize that these assumptions can be unsupported concerning the study design and findings because of certain limitations that need to be discussed in detail.

The researcher needs to acknowledge certain limitations of the study to guarantee that the study results are reliable and valid. According to researchers, the discussion of study limitations allows for determining any boundaries that are selected when researchers investigate certain subjects (Walpole et al., 2014). While focusing on the methodology of qualitative studies, it is necessary to note that limitations can be related to a sample, a data collection procedure, and a data analysis procedure. As a result, if limitations are not acknowledged, researchers cannot conclude about the credibility of the findings.

The first limitation to discuss is a possibility of bias associated with participants subjective interpretations of their experiences, as well as the researchers subjective analysis of the collected data concerning ones own experience. It is possible to address this limitation while asking participants to provide only true information without making subjective comments. Furthermore, the researcher can address this limitation while applying the principle of epoché, according to which researchers put aside their belief about the phenomenon under investigation or what one already knows about the subject before and throughout the phenomenological investigation (Chan, Fung, & Chien, 2013, p. 1). Much attention should be paid to the procedures of collecting information and conducting data analysis to address this limitation.

The second limitation of the study is restricted access to interviewees that requires the use of such a non-probability sampling technique as a snowball sampling technique. Problems with having access to potential participants can affect the credibility of findings (Alexander & Hermann, 2016). This limitation can be addressed with the focus on a snowball sampling technique, which allows for extending a sample within a short period, overcoming problems with recruiting African American female participants.

One more limitation that needs to be addressed in this study is that phenomenological face-to-face interviews usually require a lot of time to be conducted and analyzed. The reason is that such interviews are informal and non-structured, and a conversation can last several hours. This limitation is addressed with the focus on scheduling interviews and planning the data collection and data analysis procedures. The time for these procedures should be set while taking into account the discussed limitation. The focus on assumptions and limitations of the study is important to be able to reduce the impact of the researchers bias on the study results, as well as the impact of problems with the availability of the sample related to the selected population. All the identified limitations will be successfully overcome to contribute to the validity of the study findings.

References

Alexander, Q. R., & Hermann, M. A. (2016). African-American womens experiences in graduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education at a predominantly white university: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 9(4), 307-314.

Chan, Z. C., Fung, Y. L., & Chien, W. T. (2013). Bracketing in phenomenology: Only undertaken in the data collection and analysis process. The Qualitative Report, 18(30), 1-9.

Hannon, C. R., Woodside, M., Pollard, B. L., & Roman, J. (2016). The meaning of African American college womens experiences attending a predominantly white institution: A phenomenological study. Journal of College Student Development, 57(6), 652-666.

Walpole, M., Chambers, C. R., & Goss, K. (2014). Race, class, gender and community college persistence among African American women. NASPA Journal about Women in Higher Education, 7(2), 153-176.

Tentative Research Question

The following research question has been formulated for this paper: How did the Harlem Renaissance affect African American society?

Reasoning: Effects of the Harlem Renaissance

Religion and Family

The research paper will answer the question of the influence of the Harlem Renaissance on the progress of African American society in terms of religion and family. The reawakening of the African American culture in the context of the Harlem Renaissance led to accentuating traditional African religious views that were followed in the Black community (Huggins, 2007). Practices associated with religious worship became available to African Americans in different forms. Additionally, many African American families were influenced by this cultural explosion as they chose to move to New York, and Harlem in particular, to realize their potential.

Art and Music

This research will reveal how the Harlem Renaissance affected the art and music of African American society. The progress of the movement provided many African American artists, poets, writers, and musicians with an opportunity to express their ideas openly. What is more important, during that period, African Americans voice in the spheres of art and music was heard and valued (Watson, 1995). Alain L. Locke, as a philosopher and a proponent of the Harlem Renaissance, contributed significantly to recognizing Black peoples creativity (Harris & Molesworth, 2010; Stewart, 2018). Thus, the paintings of African American artists were inspired by their African heritage, and jazz became a well-known component of their cultural background.

War

The end of World War I contributed to the overall social and economic progress in the United States, which also resulted in improving the life conditions of African Americans. When being focused on moving forward to overcome the war outcomes, both White and Black Americans became interested in developing culture and art as elements of progress (Huggins, 2007). Thus, the paper will describe how Americans interest in Blacks art increased during the post-war period and later in the 1920s-1930s in the context of the Harlem Renaissance.

Implications of Completing an Analytical Research Paper

The significance of the research paper on the impact of the Harlem Renaissance is in the possibility to determine social and cultural factors related to the progress of African American society in the 1920s-1930s. When referring to the analysis of the literature, it is possible to learn how the activities of the leaders of the New Negro Movement contributed to positive changes in African Americans social development (Watson, 1995). It is necessary to examine the formation of the Black community in the country as a developed cultural group in terms of their religion, family, and art with reference to the impact of the Harlem Renaissance. This paper will answer the question about the role of the Harlem Renaissance in making the cultural, art, and intellectual contribution to African American society.

Target Audience

The research paper expects to inform the African American community about the impact of the Harlem Renaissance on its progress in terms of art and music. Furthermore, the paper is also aimed at educating readers as representatives of different racial groups about the achievements of the New Negro Movement for drawing the publics attention to Black art. The paper will be based on a range of credible sources on the topic in order to present the most useful information to respond to the research question.

References

Harris, L., & Molesworth, C. (2010). Alain L. Locke: The biography of a philosopher. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Huggins, N. I. (2007). Harlem Renaissance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Stewart, J. C. (2018). The new negro: The life of Alain Locke. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Watson, S. (1995). The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American culture, 1920-1930. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.

Introduction

Consistent with the dominant stereotyped image of African Americans in other films, movies produced between 1930 and 1960 depicted African Americans as hyper-sexualized, colored, incompetent, criminal, and child-like characters whose best roles in the society were only limited to being a servant, butler, or even house helps. The negative portrayal of African American characters in the US films of early 20^th century reinforced a belief that the proper social position for the black people was that of a servant who was unswervingly devoted to his/her white masters and to upholding the current social order (Frost 37).

Although some of the film companies were owned by the black folk, they emerged to dispute this position in 1930s and 1940s by including diversified roles of African Americans in movies, which contrasted their prevailing negatively stereotyped portrayal. This paper discusses the changing portrayal of African Americans in 1930-1960s films with reference to Negro Soldier, Gone with the Wind, and Double Indemnity. However, it opens up with a brief background to the evolution of the depiction of African Americans in the early 1930s to late 1960s and beyond in the US film industry.

Background to the Portrayal of African Americans in Films

Films that were produced between 1930 and 1960 portrayed African Americans differently. Themes such as racism and negative representation of African Americans as an inferior race were prevalent in movies dating back from 1909. For instance, the movie Birth of a Nation (1915) by D.W Griffith portrayed not only the dominant racist views of experts in filmmakers, but also reflected racial attitudes among the audience (Lyman 51).

Since the audience praised the theme of racism in movies, filmmakers got more enthusiastic to portray African Americans negatively since the goal of filmmaking is to attract mass appeal. While Birth of a Nation has nothing for African Americans to celebrate, other films sought to tell the dark history of their struggles with racism and servitude (Lyman 49). This suggests that film, as an important media for criticizing and ridiculing dominant perception of the society, served the function of conveying various historical lessons and experiences of African Americans. Indeed, the movie Gone with the Wind, which was released in 1939, shed light on the history of the African Americans.

Although Gone with the Wind was an important masterpiece commentating on the inappropriateness of stigmatization and consideration of African Americans as inferior, it portrayed them as struggling to fight for recognition of their race citing that it was as equally superior as that of whites. This suggests that African Americans were evolving to acquire equality with American dominant white class of people.

Scar of Shame, which is a Hollywood production of 1927, further highlights and reinforces the racial differences between whites and African Americans (Frost 43). Negative portrayal of African Americans, especially with regard to their capabilities, was also reflected in the film industry awards. As an inferior class of people, African Americans were not given major roles in films. This observation perhaps reveals why few, if any African Americans, have ever won film industry awards such as Oscar award between 1930 and 1960.

In the early 1940s, the need for change of portrayal of African Americans in the film images emerged. The need arose from the necessity to develop and build national unity along racial boundaries. The Negro Soldier (1944) was created for this purpose. Casablanca (1942) also served as an important example of altering the US film industry views and perceptions of racial matters (Frost 43). These developments closely relate to various developments made between 1940s and 1950s in the Hollywood liberalist conscience. During the period of the development of the US film industry, gradual change took place, thus prompting the involvement of African Americans in the US film business mainstream culture. The liberal mind in the US film industry is perhaps well explained by the film titled Pinky, which was produced and released in 1949. Liberal expectations in the film industry reached a climax in 1967 with the production of Guess Whos Coming to Dinner.

With the achievements of the late 1960s in the portrayal of African Americans notwithstanding, the issue of their negative portrayal in film re-emerged in the beginning of 1970 to 1990s. Melvin Van Peebles movie Sweet Sweetback Baadaas, which was produced in 1971, redefined the 1930s to 1960s image of African Americans in movie screens. It redefined the masculinity of African Americans previously defined in the Sidney Poitiers movie Guess Whos Coming to Dinner (Lyman 53). With the production of Disney films such as Aladdin in 1992, questions arise on whether the position and negative portrayal of African Americans in the US film mainstream has changed from that of the early 1920s to 1930s.

Further detailed discussions of the portrayal of African Americans in films warrant the consideration of a detailed analysis of the manner in which they were portrayed in the US film mainstream with reference to specific examples and particular historic period. In the next section, this portrayal is discussed with reference to Negro Soldier, Gone with the Wind, and Double Indemnity. These movies were produced and released between 1930 and 1960.

Portrayal of African Americans in Negro Soldier, Gone with the Wind, and Double Indemnity

The US film motion picture industry has had sophisticated history for African Americans in their manner of portrayal. The earliest portrayal of this group of people was mainly restricted to their demeaning and stereotyped depiction as people of color. During the first decades of the 20th century, many films depicted a nostalgic and idealized vision of life in the antebellum south (Frost 39). In this time, civil war experiences were very fresh in the memories of African Americans and the entire American society.

The films produced in 1930-1960 served the principal function of unleashing the wound of bad experiences of African Americans in the civil war. This was perhaps necessary to foster reconciliation through glorification of southerners lost causes. Negro Soldier, Gone with the Wind, and Double Indemnity represent the changing moments in the portrayal of African Americans in films.

The Negro Soldier

The Negro Soldier is US militarys documentary portraying African Americans as equally able to participate in war as their white counterparts. It is perhaps best interpreted as an attempt to spread propaganda aimed at soliciting African Americans to enlist in participation in the WWII. Since the founding of the United States, African Americans were segregated and oppressed. However, war created the necessity for their inclusion in not only the public sector employment, but also their inclusion in the military. Nevertheless, segregation in military rankings and allocation of roles were prevalent even in 1940s and beyond. For instance, Segregation into white and black units remained throughout the war with most African Americans being assigned less prestigious non-combatant support roles (Nickel 28).

The application of racial thinking in the military unit depicted African Americans as a group of people who are void of education, courage, and skills that are necessary for playing successful roles in military. In the Negro Soldier, this thinking is interrogated.

The Negro Soldier reflects a young preacher among a black congregation persuading people from all races to engage in the fight against the enemy. Members of the congregation, who include African Americans, are well dressed implying that they live a comfortable life unlike that of the stereotyped blacks or African Americans. The preacher identifies various people in the congregation. One of the people in attendance of the church mass is Private Parks First Class, an attractive light-skinned member of the Womens Army Corps (Nickel 37). This observation suggests that apart from demystifying the perception of the inability of male African Americans to participate in military, even female African Americans were also portrayed as having equal ability to carry out military roles such as the male whites. Thus, African Americans do not only fit in house workers roles in the society as portrayed by some early 1930s US mainstream films.

Gone with the Wind

While the Negro Soldier instills the perception that African Americans have equal capabilities with whites, Gone with the Wind sharply criticizes this position. It portrays African Americans as slaves and having the inability to face new challenges such as new tasks, which they have not been comfortable with in the past. In the movie, African Americans are depicted as loyal to benevolent masters. For this reason, Big Sam can only leave Tara under instructions. The slaves are portrayed as comfortable with their life at the Scarlett. Those who consider looking for their freedom are treated as gullible, unscrupulous, and as political party puppets. In this extent, Gone with the Wind supports the prevalent racial stereotypes in the US film mainstream culture of the early 1930s such as in Birth of a Nation.

A more serious negative portrayal of African Americans than their treatment as slaves encompasses their treatment as childish and stupid inferior class of people. While Mammy comes out of the film having her uncompromised dignity, Pork appears in the movie scene a confused character. Confusion is evidenced by his glazed expression and wide open eyes. This confusion arises from allocation of new duties in relation to what he is accustomed. Big Sam has his language rules reduced to a point that is less worth in relation to that of an illiterate house worker. The worst of all negative portrayal of African Americans is the depiction of Prissy. She lies, behaves stupidly, squeamish, and becomes overly hysterical over little matters. This negative portrayal confirms the old perception that African Americans needed to work as slaves as they lacked the capacity to make their own work decisions.

Considering the achievements of African Americans such as those portrayed in the Negro Soldier, it is a shame to see McQueen act as Prissy in the Gone with the Wind. The level of stupidly portrayed by Prissy only measures up to that of an inhuman character. It is a pity that African Americans, just like Prissy, can lie over obviously outright issues in the effort to evade the wrath of a master.

Double Indemnity

Directed by Billy Wilder, the movie Double Indemnity bases its story on James M. Cains 1943 novel, which was developed in early 1930s. The film reflects characters such as Fred McMurray (insurance salesperson), Barbara Stanwyck (homemaker longing for her husbands death), and Edward G. Robinson (claims adjuster). The title of the movie refers to an insurance clause, which doubles the amounts of money paid to persons whose deaths can be attributed to certain accidents. Double Indemnity belongs to a group of Hollywood movies referred as noir

The movie is told in flashbacks involving Neff. In 1940, many whites had migrated from cities to suburbs, thus leaving the cities filled with minorities who in turn attracted stereotypes and racism in that time (Lott 548). Double Indemnity is composed in an urban setting perhaps to best portray the place of the African Americans who are classified as minorities.

In the movie, corrupt and morally degraded whites are depicted alongside black folk who are service workers. The best that African Americans can do in the society of morally corrupt whites is functioning as slaves who must work hard to help the white master in amassing wealth. Neff exemplifies the portrayal of the negative minorities including African Americans in the movie. Due to contempt and racism, Neffs excessive interaction with blacks disproves the inappropriateness of negative stereotyping for African Americans and blacks in general. Indeed, the interaction of Neff with blacks helps in depicting African Americans as compassionate people.

In 1930s and 1940s, blacks and other races that were considered racially inferior such as African Americans were stereotyped as criminals. Surprisingly, Double Indemnity uses dark lighting to portray corruptness and immorality in the society, which is a direct abuse to African Americans. Contrasting of whites and blacks in the movie highlights and/or creates emotions on the roles of the African Americans in the society even though the movie may have been developed to ridicule the prevalent stereotyping of African Americans and blacks in general as inhumane. Whites do not share similar roles with African Americans. All Whites belong to the middle class. They have more than what they need for a comfortable living. The only instance that African Americans appear in the movie is when a Whites car needs washing when there are office-cleaning tasks and/or when suitcases need to be carried from one location to another. In this sense, poverty that is associated with minorities subjects them into servitude.

Nonwhite individuals in the Double Indemnity serve as images for misdemeanor, figurative scapegoats, and/or induced immoral acts such as bribery. Double Indemnity compares whites who capitulated to villainous desire with racial and ethnic stereotypes; yet retaining the idea of respectable morality (Lott 552). This way, even if the role of African Americans in the contemporary American society is depicted as inferior to those of whites, the dominance of whites is incredibly ridiculed. The association of whites with immorality such as corruption, which also amount to crime, demystifies the US film industry mainstream culture of 1930s by associating minorities with crime.

Conclusion

The US films, which were produced between 1930 and 1960, described African Americans in different ways. Some films such as Gone with the Wind emphasized the dominance of the white master over the slave, childish, and hysterical African Americans. Perhaps to suit its intentions of persuading African Americans to join the US army and/or support World War II, Negro Soldier contrasted this portrayal by depicting African Americans as having equal ability with white soldiers. Double Indemnity portrayed white masters possessing negative characters such as corruption. However, they interacted with the blacks. This portrayal demystified the perception of the superiority of white masters over the less human African Americans. The view was acerbated through the US film mainstream as reflected in films like Gone with the Wind and Birth of a Nation.

Works Cited

Frost, Jean. Hedda Hopper, Hollywood Gossip, and the Politics of Racial Representation in Film, 1946-1948. Journal of African American History 93.1(2008): 36-63. Print.

Lott, Eric. The Whiteness of Film Noir. American Literary History 9.3(1997): 542-566. Print.

Lyman, Stanford. Race, Sex, And Servitude: Images of Blacks in American Cinema. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 4.1(1990): 49-77. Print.

Nickel, John. Disabling African American Men: Liberalism and Race Message Films. Cinema Journal 44.1(2004): 25-48. Print.