Category: African American history

As everyone knows, Malcolm X is a very important figure throughout history. He was apart of many different groups because he wanted to help and make changes for the better. Malcolm X used his involvement in the Nation of Islam as a platform to advance change. In this essay It will show Malcolm’s induction into the religion, and how he was able to use it to advance his message to African-American people during the Civil Rights Movement. Also what the Nation of Islam religion is and compare it to the two other major, which is western religions Judaism and Christianity.

Nation of Islam Religion is an ​African American movement and organization. It was founded in 1930 and known for its teachings incorprated elements of traditional ​Islam​ with black nationalist ideas. The ​Nation​ of Islam Religion also promotes racial unity and self-help and continues a strict code of discipline between members. Furthermore, they believe in main beliefs. The main belief of The Nation of Islam and its followers is that there is no god but Allah. An Allah is the Muslims God. They also pray five times a day, as it is their most important worship.

The person who created the nation of Islam was Fard Muhammad. according to the Nation of Islam, his goal was to ‘teach the downtrodden and defenseless Black people a thorough Knowledge of God and of themselves, and to put them on the road to Self-Independence with a superior culture and higher civilization than they had previously experienced.’ However, there are still two other major western religions.

Another major western religion is Judaism, Judaism is the ethnic religion of the Jewish people. Which comprises the collective religious, cultural and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant that God established with the Children of Israel. In the Judaism religion, God has been formed in a variety of ways. Normally, Judaism says that YHWH, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and the national god of the Israelites, is actually what brought the Israelites from slavery in Egypt. Also gave them the Law of Moses at biblical Mount Sinai. Judasim differs from the Islam Religion in many ways, such as different sins, holy books, holy spirits and rituals.

Christianity is the second major western religion. Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its Christians, believe that Jesus is the Christ, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible. They have 5 main beliefs which are Belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit. Also The death, descent into hell, resurrection and ascension of Christ, The holiness of the Church and the communion of saints. Christ’s second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful. Christianity and Islam are the two largest religions in the world. They share a historical traditional connection. However, they have a lot of theological differences. The two faiths share a common area of origin in the Middle East. They also both consider themselves to be monotheistic. Each religion is different for a reason, there wouldn’t be different religions if they all shared the same beliefs and Gods. Although, having multiple religions and allowing different religions in a common area is good. Everyone should be allowed to practice the religion they want or none at all.

Malcolm X was able to use his induction into the religion to advance his message to African- American people during the Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm X delivered a message. The message to sum up says whites were not to be trusted. He also stated that African Americans need to be proud of their heritage and to set up strong communities without the help of white Americans. He encouraged the formation of a different state for African Americans in which they could rely on themselves to give solutions to their own problems. He also says violence was justified in self-defense. However, it was not the answer. He then states Blacks should achieve what was rightfully theirs ‘by any means necessary.’ In the autobiography of Malcolm X he goes from being an atheist, then into following the Nation of Islam, and lastly into a follower of Eastern Islam.

As history can see, Malcolm X became an influential leader of the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam associates Islam with black nationalism and desired to encourage and empower disadvantaged young blacks that were searching for confidence in segregated America. Malcolm did all these things to help make a change for the future so the kids did not have to go through what his time did. On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X had publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. Although he was still a Muslim, he said, but felt that the Nation had ‘gone as far as it can’ because of its rigid teachings. This was a big time in history. After that had happened, Malcolm then went on a religious journey and traveled to the holy city of Mecca, where he was exposed to mainstream Islam. Main stream Islam is the Islam that the majority of the Muslim world practices. During this time Malcolm has changed his name to Malik E Shabazz. In his autobiography it shows his excitement at being recognised in the ‘orthodox’ Muslim world. An example of this can be seen when Hajj Jeddah Committee leader recognised and registered Malcolm as a Muslim.[5] Although race relations is always portrayed as the main focus of Malcolm’s life it is important to admit that accepting Orthodox Islam has most definitely shaped Malcolm’s outlook on race relations. Yet, most importantly, his embrace of the universal understanding of ‘brotherhood’ represented in Islam.

Malcolm X was one of the most lively, dramatic yet influential figures of the civil rights era. He had made the necessary changes for African Americans so they could live better lives. Religion was an asset to all these plans. Malcolm X went through a lot for those things that happened. This was able to happen because of his huge platform he created for himself. People know that his assassination was to due with what Malcolm had preached through out his life. Malcolm being apart of a religion helped him flourish with his plans.

The three key events in the autobiography of Malcolm x that help develop a central idea in the text is racial identity. The other key fact is separation and integration, and systematic and the last one is Oppression. IN this text you will see how in the autobiography of Malcolm x develop 3 key facts that help create 3 central ideas that all connect.

To begin with, an example of racial identity in the text is white supremacy. The idea of white supremacy started way before Malcolm x was born. It started at the idea of Christianity implying that everything white is good and that blacks should be more like whites. From the way they look to the way, that act was all wrong everything that the negro did in their lifestyle was wrong and wasn’t tolerated by the whites which lead to segregation of the races. It taught him that everything white was good, to be admired, respected, and loved. It brainwashed this ‘Negro’ to think he was superior if his complexion showed more of the white pollution of the slavemaster. This develops one or more central ideas because of the fact that white supremacy happened in his everyday life. This wasn’t just a one-time thing and it wasn’t only just about him, it was about millions of other people. White supremacy started way before Malcolm and it still exists today.

The second key fact that develop a central idea throughout the text is the idea of integration vs. segregation. Integration vs Separation is a huge thing for Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm x. They both share the same beliefs but not for the idea of segregation. In the text, they both want different things for African Americans but want them to keep segregated. In the text “The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that _segregation_ is when your life and liberty are controlled, regulated, _by someone else_. To _segregate_ means to control. Segregation is that which is forced upon inferiors by superiors. But_separation_ is that which is done voluntarily, by two equals-for the good of both! The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that as long as our people here in America are dependent upon the white man, we will always be begging him for jobs, food, clothing, and housing. And he will always control our lives, regulate our lives.”I put the whole quote because it shows how Elijah wanted the African Americans’ freedom against the white man’s will. Integration vs segregation develop a central idea because it goes with the facts behind racial identification. In the text, because the whites called themselves superior to any other raced so they try to keep blacks down, which lead to the 3rd key facts of oppression.

The last key event is the idea of systematic oppression. Throughout the whole text, Malcolm x describes how African Americans are being oppressed by white Americans. Starting from when his father was killed, to when his teacher told him he couldn’t be a lawyer. In the text, Malcolm was talking to his teacher about becoming a lawyer since Malcolm was on the honor roll but his teacher shot his idea right down. In the text, it states that when he was having a conversation with his teacher about becoming a lawyer his teacher told him “Don’t misunderstand me, now. We all here like you, you know that. But you’ve got to be realistic about being a nigger. A lawyer that’s no realistic goal for a nigger”.Systematic oppression develops a central idea because of how many times in Malcolm’s life when he was being oppressed by white folks.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the three key events in the autobiography of Malcolm x that help develop a central idea in the text is racial identity. The other key fact is separation and integration, and systematic and the last one is Oppression. IN this text you will see how in the autobiography of Malcolm x develop 3 key facts that help create 3 central ideas that all connect.

Did Martin Luther King Jr. accomplish everything he strived for? Did his dream come true? Martin Luther King didn’t always have good things going his way when he was doing the civil rights movement or even when he wasn’t. Martin strived for equality for everybody throughout the whole United States no matter your race. The way Martin achieved things without violence was pretty amazing. King led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and in 1957 became the first president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. With the SCLC he had an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize the nonviolent 1963 protests in Birmingham, Alabama. He helped organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous ‘I Have a Dream’ speech.

Martin fought for equality throughout the cities and states because he felt as if blacks weren’t treated right at all. This was during a time when segregation was going on. Blacks were discriminated against and they didn’t have any rights. They had to sit at the back of the bus, drink from designated water fountains, use back doors, and couldn’t shop at their stores, or eat at their restaurants. Martin felt as if that wasn’t right at all. Therefore, Martin started a movement. People say the Civil Rights Movement was just a protest, but King said “This isn’t a protest it’s a movement….a nonviolent movement”. This movement shows the different races’ true colors that put the blacks through hard times. After watching all the footage after the movement it was harmful to watch. Still, everyone apart of the movement stayed humble to achieve what they wanted.

One hard thing King couldn’t really get his equality point across was segregation in schools. Black kids were still treated like the poor, and whites were treated like the rich. In my opinion, ion think this is right because no one has a value so why treat people like they do? However, this all started to change in some schools throughout the states, but it was still going on in some schools. Once the king told his “I Have A Dream Speech” everything started to come to hand everything he ever wanted.

Shortly before King passed away one of the things he strived for was the real bad brutality on blacks. At the time of segregation, this was one bad thing that nobody could do anything about because no one really had the authority. However, a 17-year-old kid by the name of Trayvon Martin was fatally shot in Sanford, Florida by a guy by the name of George Zimmerman. It’s tragic how Trayvon lost his life. Zimmerman was a part of the neighborhood watch at the time and he claimed that “he felt threatened because Trayvon was walking down the sidewalk with a hood on his head”. Now Zimmerman said because Trayvon had on a hood he felt threatened by him walking down the sidewalk at night. Sadly, Zimmerman shot Trayvon and he ended up bleeding to death. However, I find it quite weird that Zimmerman wasn’t sent to jail for any of this he’s still sitting free.

All of King’s dreams didn’t come true when he was striving for them, he was sadly assassinated for trying to get equality.

Did you know that there was more to Harriet Tubman than the Underground Railroad? Harriet Tubman was a very goal-oriented and trustworthy person hired by the Union Army to accomplish the mission of freeing the slaves. In modern America, Harriet Tubman is viewed as a civil rights activist, but back then, she was viewed as a dangerous African American woman with a bounty on her head. Young children in the United States are taught that Harriet Tubman was a small piece of history, but without her, there would not be the Underground Railroad. The points that I am going to discuss in my paper will explore that there was more to Harriet Tubman than what we learned in school. Tubman’s legacy has not been taught in depth because of the lack of recognition she has received and the lack of information recorded in history. To highlight the complexity of Harriet Tubman’s life, we must look at how she became a spy, why she did not receive recognition, and how the African American community benefited from Harriet Tubman.

Although we are taught that Harriet Tubman was best known for the Underground Railroad, there is more to Harriet Tubman than meets the eye. Most of her accomplishments are buried in the shadows of history, and there is very little recorded information about Harriet Tubman’s life, outside of being a conductor in the Underground Railroad. It is recorded that she was born into slavery as Araminta Ross. Years later, in 1862, Harriet traveled from her home in Auburn, N.Y., and went to South Carolina to support the Union Army as a nurse, caring for black soldiers and newly liberated slaves. After arriving in South Carolina at the beginning of the Civil War, she realized that she needed to take matters into her own hands. Once she began infiltrating the Confederate Army, the Union generals found the kind of information about Confederate troop locations and movements she was getting from black slaves (who knew her by reputation) was proving valuable to Union commanders. She was dedicated and skilled in freeing as many slaves as she could in the Confederate South while serving in the Union Army. Harriet, being a former slave, understood how enslaved people were being treated by their slave owners and wanted to liberate them. Through gaining the slaves’ trust and creating a mutual understanding, Harriet was then able to retrieve information that would be helpful to the Union Army and benefit slaves. Despite being born into slavery and having a lack of education, Tubman was determined and self-taught. For example, Tubman might have studied the day patterns, the terrain, and the schedule of the Confederate Army in order to ensure safety to reach Canada. Harriet was able to orchestrate all her plans to free the slaves without anyone’s help and did it all on her own.

Despite all of Harriet Tubman’s accomplishments while she was alive, she received very little to no recognition for any of the major historical changes she helped come to fruition. For instance, Frederick Douglass was one of the people that gave Harriett Tubman recognition, going on record to state “The difference between us is very marked. Most that I have done and suffered in the service of our cause has been in public”, while Harriet received recognition from mostly “a few trembling, scarred, and foot-sore bondmen and women” (Blackpast.com). Harriet Tubman knew the risks that came along with every mission to free the slaves. When Douglas, a fellow civil rights activist, wrote the letter recognizing Tubman’s efforts, it was made clear that she was highly regarded in the African American community. She was well-respected by her peers and was seen as a role model. Harriet Tubman was a revolutionary woman doing the kind of missions that men would not dare to try. She definitely had to be fearless knowing the possibility that she could get captured. She did not let repercussions prevent her from trying and was focused on her primary mission. Moreover, “She was so stealthy that enslavers in Maryland put a $40,000 bounty out for her capture. But she was never caught, later declaring: ‘I was the conductor of the Underground Railroad for eight years, and I can say what most conductors can’t say —I never ran my train off the track and I never lost a passenger’” (Brown). Despite having a $40,000 bounty for her capture, she was very strategic and used information that the black soldiers and enslaved people would tell her, ultimately helping her remain undetected. Although Harriet Tubman was a wanted woman, she would receive little to no recognition for her duties in the Union Army until years later.

After Harriet Tubman served in the Union Army, she continued to contribute to the African American community. Known as the Moses of her people, Harriet made a name for herself by being a fearless leader before returning to her home in Auburn, NY. Harriet Tubman hoped to establish the Tubman Home for Aged and Indigent Negroes to carry on her work after she was gone, of caring for the old and poor in her community. Harriet Tubman deeply cared about her community and wanted her legacy to continue. Tubman did not expect to receive any recognition, since she did these things because it was the right thing to do. Harriet wanted to provide a service caring for family members, including her aging parents, and pursued her life’s mission of caring for the poor and disenfranchised members of her community. Moreover, Harriet Tubman spent most of her life being of service to people both during her military service and after. Through her continuous efforts, Harriet Tubman’s legacy lives on in modern America in various ways. Tubman has been honored with monuments and statues, schools bear her name, and thousands of Americans daily travel along Harriet Tubman’s roads, streets, and avenues. Harriet has been celebrated as an enduring Civil Rights icon, and in 2016, the US Treasury announced that she would be recognized as the first American woman pictured on currency in over 100 years. The US treasury choosing to replace former President Andrew Jackson on the twenty-dollar bill with Harriet is a historic move. However, more work must be done to truly create a legacy that resonates with Harriet. Rather, the government should mandate that the history of African Americans is taught in schools more accurately. Harriet Tubman’s legacy was not initially recognized, but it will live on and reach greater heights because of the important role she continues to play in history.

As previously mentioned, as children in America, we were all taught that Harriet Tubman was only known for the Underground Railroad, but we were not taught about Tubman’s other accomplishments. Harriet Tubman was a mastermind, she did not receive enough recognition, and she created a legacy that continues to live on. Harriet Tubman’s legacy has also been pushing America away from its racist past. America has not fully changed from its racist roots, but there are plenty of possibilities that could help America let go of its racist past. Following in Harriet’s footsteps, we need more education regarding African American history while we are in elementary school, a restructured justice system, and a reformed police department. Making these changes would most likely be the ideal America that Harriet Tubman would have wanted.

Based on what we know about her, she would most likely view modern-day America as extremely corrupt. Harriet Tubman dedicated her entire life to changing the lives of African Americans for the better, and she would be very disappointed in the way America looks now. She is a blueprint for American citizens to follow. Harriet Tubman defied adversity by accomplishing such great things during a time when women were not expected to contribute at all. At the time, a black woman being a spy was unheard of, but Harriet Tubman filled that position. Moreover, Harriet Tubman set the standard for leadership. She proved that no matter the color of your skin tone or gender, anyone can be a good leader with the right tools at their disposal. However, the question remains, will America ever adopt Harriet Tubman’s legacy and change for an equal future? And if America adopts her legacy, would it look like the ideal future that Tubman envisioned at the time?

On April 3rd, 1964 Malcolm X, a household name during the civil rights movement, delivered his speech in Cleveland, Ohio in order to discuss one important issue: the American values of democracy and freedom are not inclusive to African-American citizens. In his speech, Malcolm wanted to persuade fellow African-Americans to become more engaged politically and be more vocal. In the speech “The Ballot or the Bullet,” Malcolm X uses a variety of rhetorical devices such as pathos, the usage of a slippery slope, repetition, and ethos in order to emphasize the mistreatment and discrimination that African-American citizens have experienced.

Malcolm’s use of pathos is the most powerful rhetorical device of his address. Throughout the speech, he continuously emphasizes that black citizens are the victims of American democracy. He explains, “I’m speaking as a victim of this American system. And I see America through the eyes of the victim. I don’t see any American dream; I see an American nightmare.” By repeating the word “victim,” Malcolm X is highlighting the years of discrimination and violence that African-American citizens have had to face. This invokes a sense of sadness and fear into the minds of his African-American audience as they feel betrayed by democracy and patriotism since they are not considered citizens due to their lack of rights.

The usage of a slippery slope by Malcolm helped further enlighten his audience of the need for equality. This is evident when he reveals that, ‘Once you change your philosophy, you change your pattern, you change your attitude. Once you change your attitude, it changes your behavior pattern.’ What he’s ultimately saying is that because you change your philosophy, you will begin to grow in other aspects of life such as your character. If this is done, the idea of being a free black man or woman becomes a lot more realistic opposed to the enslaved mentality that was instilled in African-Americans by the white supremacists. Malcolm assumes that if the philosophy of an individual diminishes, then they will not be as cognitive and fully aware of the rights they are entitled to as being citizens of America.

Malcolm X employs the use of repetition in a numerous amount of occasions. He uses a variation of derogatory words such as “hunkies”, “polacks”, and “blue eyed thing”, to give his audience a feeling of fearlessness within themselves and their race.This repetition helps to leave a lasting impression on the audience, in such a way that every time the phrase is used, the people will reflect upon the speech of Malcolm X. Throughout the course of the speech, Malcolm makes sure to repeatedly use the word “you”. This helps in making the audience feel as if they are more apart of the process and apart of what Malcolm strives to achieve.

Throughout the speech, Malcolm X also uses ethos in order to emphasize his credibility and inspire his audience. For example, in the beginning of his speech, Malcolm immediately identifies with his target audience, the black community. He says, “No, I’m not an American. I’m one of the 22 million black people who are the victims of Americanism. One of the 22 million black people who are the victims of democracy, nothing but disguised hypocrisy.” In order to prove his decency and follow through with the expectations that the audience has for him, he shows his frustration and anger. Since he identifies as a black man and feels betrayed by the American system, his audience is more likely to listen closely to his speech and feel inspired to take charge with him. This also proves that Malcolm X is a qualified and knowledgeable speaker who has witnessed these issues, done his research, and is willing to fight for the well being of his fellow African-American citizens.

By using rhetorical devices such as pathos, the usage of a slippery slope, repetition, and ethos, Malcolm X is able to define the main issue of the American government continuing to oppress African-American citizens along with effectively criticizing American democracy as well as inspiring his audience to continue to fight for their rights as American citizens. By emphasizing the mistreatment and discrimination that these citizens have experienced, Malcolm X encourages black citizens to either demand their right to vote or be ready to take physical action if needed.

The Brown v. Board of Education case was a huge piece of American history, it was a fight for change in schools and the way they were operated. This was a lengthy process of racial integration, starting with the schools; segregated schools were supposed to be equal, but in fact, were not. That’s when African-American families influenced the fight for equality.

The case originated in 1951 in Topeka, Kansas. A 9-year-old girl named Linda Brown, who was a third grader, was required by law to attend a school for only black children in her hometown. To do this, Linda had to walk six blocks, going down dangerous roads, and then board a bus that took her to her school. Only seven blocks from her house was a school attended by white children, which would’ve been better for her location-wise, but she couldn’t attend due to the segregation of schools. Linda’s parents, along with twelve other local black families in similar situations, filed a class-action lawsuit in US federal court against the Topeka Board of Education, claiming its segregation policy was unconstitutional. A three-judge panel of the US District Court for the District of Kansas ruled against the Browns, relying on the Plessy precedent and its ‘separate but equal’ doctrine. But that didn’t stop the Browns; they represented by NAACP chief counsel Thurgood Marshall, appealed this decision directly to the Supreme Court. In May 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled in favor of the Browns. The court ruled that ‘separate but equal’ would no longer be allowed and that there would be no more segregation of public schools.

The Brown v. Board of Education case was hugely influential. This case launched the civil rights movement and won equal rights for women, the disabled, and racial groups. Before Brown v. Board of Education, African Americans were to use different buses and attend different schools and other public places than whites. This was set in place by the Jim Crow Laws. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, better known as the NAACP, worked to challenge these laws. And finally, in 1954, the Brown v. Department of Education case and its ruling ushered in such important and needed changes. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. led many sit-ins and boycotts. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 led to the process of desegregation. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended racial discrimination in voting. Even though many years have passed since the Brown v. Department of Education verdict, many districts still deal with racial disparities and socioeconomic hardships. But without people like the Browns fighting for equal rights in schools, segregated schools would probably still exist.

‘Freedom Road’ by Howard Fast is a historical fiction novel based on the Reconstruction era after the American Civil War. This novel emphasizes the racial impact on the African-American society transitioning from slavery to living a civil life. It elaborates on the superiority of racism during the 19th and 20th centuries. The events that occurred in the novel are fiction but they took place during a distinctly important and problematic time period in history.

In the novel, Gideon Jackson was a slave in South Carolina and fought during the American Civil War. African-Americans in their community were treated with massive disrespect, as if they were criminals, and as if they brought violence with them wherever they went. “The white man paused, looked at Gideon out of a pair of very cool blue eyes, and made as to walk on. Gideon sensed something of the struggle inside the other, a southerner born and bred in the south, hating a slave system that made him a landless scavenger, but hating Negros too because of the economics that forced him into their class, his white skin the only badge of respect left” (Fast). When the African-Americans were slaves, they did all the agricultural work for the white people. They were able to succeed and rank as a high class and treat their slaves like animals and gave them no credit for labor. Jackson had to treat Anderson Clay with respect because of his ‘badge’ of skin color because of the vast majority of white supremacists within the southern states. Jackson was a symbolic figure in his community because of his desire for equality within the African-American community and his neighborhood. Jackson was later picked by his community to represent his state in the new state government in the US House of Representatives. Jackson was able to reconstruct democracy and bring freedom and equality in the South. He granted the equal rights to free public education, right to vote, and the right to own property or properties. With being able to write a new Constitution for his state, it brought everyone to unite as one whole peaceful community, regarding race. Everything was going amazing for Jackson, his family, and his community. His son went off to become a doctor, Jackson learned how to properly read and write and then his family learned, and he was able to build a house for him and his family. He was able to do all this with the help of the union army occupation.

Furthermore, everything took a turn when their equal protections were taken away by Abraham Lincoln’s party, the Republican Party. “‘Because the whole future of this country is at stake. Because when we fought our revolution, when we fought our civil war, we were moving down a proud and shining road, what people call a hallelujah road. We were moving with all the good men who lived behind us, and we turn our face to darkness. For how long, Mr. President? How many shall have to die before we can call this a government of the people, by them and for them?’” (Fast). Organizations who highly opposed the African-American community were formed to overthrow their equal rights into the community. It was a grand spark of racism. The Ku Klux Klan was organized and wanted to pursue war with Jackson including with his family and with his community to end Reconstruction. The attack from the KKK did not well, Jackson and other freedom fighters were outnumbered and outgunned and were eventually defeated by the KKK. This resulted in a negative way, equal education, equal rights, and property and land rights were all taken away. They were left to misery, poverty, and with no equal rights.

In 1861 to 1865 marked the deadliest war ever fought on the United States with the killings of 620,000 soldiers. The American Civil War was a war between the states and was caused because of the tensions between the northern and southern states. During this time, the 19th century, the United States was expanding and growing economically. Tension started because in the south, slavery and racism was a major conflict in the South, African-Americans did not have the same equal rights as any other citizen. Before the Civil War, the south’s economy depended on their slaves. Their slaves did all the farming labor and growing for them. The northern states were doing great in the industry and okay in agriculture because farmers owned small farms and properties. The Reconstruction era followed after the Civil War. The purpose of the Reconstruction era was to bring the divided Northern and Southern states to come together to unify as one whole nation, including African-Americans. With Reconstruction, there were people who opposed this and organized their own group. The Ku Klux Klan or the KKK, is the oldest hate group that was founded in 1865. The goal of the Ku Klux Klan was to regain white supremacy within the Southern states following the Reconstruction era. Under the law for every state, it was mandatory to follow the 14th Amendment of the US Constitution that every ex-slave has ‘equal protection’. The KKK was most known because of their violence and terrorism towards African-Americans. The KKK took in a massive role in violence, killing or bringing violence to those who were African-American and were in office.

To conclude, the novel showed aspects of the racial impact on African-Americans or ex-slaves during earlier centuries. Jackson had the chance to successfully change the states Constitution but was taken away because of hatred towards the black community. It also elaborated on the impact on democracy, voting rights, and a change in the society. The novel gave a great emphasis on what African-Americans had to go through in order to have freedom and equality. Racism was largely demonstrated in this novel and it has been an issue in real life history for the past centuries and it continues to leave negative impacts on our society up to this day.

During the Reconstruction era, the rebuilding of the south proved to be a difficult task. Even after the abolition of slavery blacks still faced harsh discrimination. Due to the continuous unequal treatment of blacks, the government of United States created the Freedmen’s Bureau. This organization provided Americans across the South with a resource to seek advice with race related issues. The letters provide first-hand information about what the environment was like that existed in the post­war south. Specifically, the letters provide a landscape exposing the layers of oppression that blacks faced. The letters clearly demonstrate that blacks were subjected to a new type of slavery that still denied their rights. The Freedmen’s Bureau made extraordinary efforts to try and help blacks assimilate more easily into society during the Reconstruction era. While the Freedmen’s Bureau failed to help former slaves in many aspects of their lives, the Bureau did help freed blacks in several important ways that they would have never received had the Bureau not existed, overall making the Bureau a success.

When the Civil War concluded, the United States entered an unprecedented time in its history. Among the numerous challenges facing the newly reunited country during this period, the debate concerning the freed slaves consumed the nation. This matter demanded some form of compromise. Thanks to the Thirteenth Amendment, slavery was abolished in the United States and all slaves became free men and women. There was no consensus as to what free truly meant when using it to describe the current state of blacks. Since blacks were no longer slaves and said to be free, many felt they should have access to all of the freedoms every white citizen enjoyed. However, some felt that their freedom should come with certain limitations. Before the Civil War, slaves were considered to be property. This prior treatment of blacks contributed to some Americans’ resistance to accept them as free people after the war. The United States government developed an agency called the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Land, typically referred to as the Freedmen’s Bureau. This organization served to protect the legal rights of former slaves. The Freedmen’s Bureau also aided with their education, jobs, healthcare, and land ownership. The organization helped those in the South with assistance in negotiating contracts for the former slaves to make sure they were being treated fairly. The agents also supervised court cases regarding labor disputes and land titles to prevent unequal treatment.

In the South, states passed laws issued as black codes that showed the unfavorable attitudes toward African Americans. These laws were designed to restrict the freedoms and rights of former slaves. Through the passage of these laws, it took away a part of the freedom that these previous slaves deserved. A common Black Code in most southern states required blacks to enter into labor contracts with their employers. Oftentimes freedmen entered these contracts with their former masters. The freedmen quickly learned that no one other than their former masters would offer them employment. This kept them in the hands of their previous owner while taking away the freedoms that they were just given. In a Freedmen’s Bureau letter written by L.P. Dangerfield he apologizes to another man for hiring his former slaves without permission. Dangerfield mentions that the county in which both men reside “passed a resolution that no one should hire the servant of another without the written permission of his master”. This shows that this unwritten rule was enforced among the former masters. Most former slaves did not want to work for their former owners, but they were stuck and had no other options to earn a wage. In these situations, the masters treated the blacks poorly and unfairly. In an effort to help, the Freedmen’s Bureau worked to save blacks from these contracts.

Freedmen received varying forms of compensation while working for their former masters. The best form of payment one could receive was owning a piece of land. Ownership of land ensured that freedmen could control what crops they wanted to grow, to whom they sold their crops and enabled them to retain the income derived from the land. The least desirable form of payment closely resembled slavery. The freedman worked at the hand of their employer. In this scenario, the worker did not have control over any aspect of their labor and often received insufficient wages for the work they performed. Since their options for employment were restricted, the employers were free to pay as little as possible. The Freedmen’s Bureau acknowledged the unjust treatment of the workers and decided to intercede. Richard Banks, a former slave, wrote a Freedmen’s Bureau letter regarding the dilemma he found himself in with his employer, Captain Miles Trice. Captain Trice promised to pay him $12 for the work he had done before Christmas. Banks said: “I have been to him several times and he won’t pay me anything… I would be glad you would take some action on it as I worked hard for it and am wanting the money”. Unfortunately, Banks did not have a unique experience and the Freedmen’s Bureau often dealt with similar cases. The Bureau would advocate on behalf of the freedmen, in this case Banks, and fight for the payment promised to them. The former slaves who sought the assistance of the Freedmen’s Bureau successfully received their promised wages.

Many former slaves found labor contracts forced upon them. The Black Codes of the South relied heavily on vagrancy laws to coerce former slaves into signing labor contracts. A person deemed to be a beggar could be arrested, fined, and forced into a labor contract if he or she could not afford to pay the resulting fine. The Freedmen’s Bureau tried to step in and advocate for the African Americans being victimized in these situations. The Bureau was often unsuccessful combating these court rulings. The legal system proved to a challenge they could not face. All white juries made sure blacks were denied any form of recourse through the judicial system. Even with weak evidence and arguments from the prosecution, African Americans often pleaded guilty to the charges. W. Storer How recounts the events that transpired in a court case from 1865. He explained that a “young freedman Robert Carter was tried for attempt at Larceny… He was taken before the Provost Marshal where he confessed his guilt… He contended and I think proved the confession was not voluntarily made. The other evidence would not convict”. Since juries had no African American representation, innocent men such as Carter were being wrongly convicted. Blacks knew that the chance of being found innocent was highly unlikely. By pleading guilty blacks felt they were protecting themselves from receiving more harsh sentences. Without successful support from the Freedmen’s Bureau, blacks continued to be convicted of crimes they did not commit.

Blacks were consistently being wrongly accused of violence, yet violent acts towards blacks were completely ignored. Blacks regularly received threats from the white community which prevented them from feeling safe within their own neighborhoods. W. Storer How’s first report for the Freedmen’s Bureau highlighted the anti-­black feelings that circulated the South during Reconstruction. He accurately describes the environment that enabled violence against blacks. When discussing the status of the freedmen How stated, “it would appear they are at work and willing to work, though not treated very kindly by their former masters and others, who in the presence of the military practically acknowledge their freedom while they tell the freedmen that they are not yet free as they will discover when the troops are withdrawn”. Since most white southerners shared this view about blacks, the Freedmen’s Bureau intervened in an effort to protect freedmen from continuing acts of violence. Unfortunately, even with help from the Bureau, many attacks were successfully executed, and numerous African Americans were injured or killed as a result. George B. Carse, the Bureau agent from Lexington, wrote a letter to military authorities reporting the murder of a black man. The attack was carried out by a white law student named J. C. Johnson who “shot a freedman named Patrick Thompson”. Six days later, George B. Carse reported, “J. C. Johnson… has been arrested and is now confine in the county jail ­­awaiting trial”. This event is an example of how, with the assistance of the Freedmen’s Bureau, whites could still be held responsible for the crimes they committed against blacks.

Even though not every attack was murder, many assaults towards blacks occurred and were sometimes perpetrated by an African American. In a letter about a black woman, Thomas P. Jackson wrote to N. K. Trout, “Lucy Trice makes complaint against Hams for assault upon … her daughter Betty Trice”. Even though this event was an interracial assault, Lucy Trice was able to receive help from Jackson and the Freedmen’s Bureau to bring in the accused man. When asked for assistance with cases such as these, the Freedmen’s Bureau worked to locate the criminal and bring them to court so he or she could be prosecuted. Without the assistance of the Bureau, cases such as these would have likely been ignored by local law enforcement. This made the Freedmen’s Bureau the only group working to help victimized blacks, providing them some more representation in society.

Presently, individuals can witness the clear product of the centrifugal forces surrounding the 1960s, as it pertains to the discourse of race. The destabilizing framework within the 60s deconstructed the 1950s American Dream which idealized heteronormativity, patriarchy, suburbia, middle-class, and the caucasian race. Ultimately, the 60s was a dynamic decade of protests consisting of marginalized communities that sought the acknowledgment of non-normative discourses within society. For instance, the presence of progressive events such as the election of John F. Kennedy, the Great March in Washington, and witnesses of the Stonewall riots, created a monumental wave of optimism igniting the proliferation of discourses. Notably, the art produced in the 1960s became more politically engaged since these historical aspects allowed visuals to reveal significant messages and spark thought-provoking discourse. Robert Rauschenberg speaks to the 1960s awareness of historical context within his politically and socially charged silk-screened canvas entitled Retroactive I (1964) (FIG 1).

Although conflicted with using the image of JFK after his assassination, Rauschenberg wanted to pay homage to and memorialize the president he most admired (MoMa, Robert Rauschenberg: Among Friends). With that being said, many people have taken offense to Dana Schultz’s tribute piece, Open Casket (2016), calling it a “Black Death Spectacle” display at the Whitney Museum of American Art (Greenberger, ‘The Painting Must Go’: Hannah Black Pens Open Letter to the Whitney About Controversial Biennial Work). Standing out from all the prominent voices of outrage around this piece, is writer and artist, Hannah Black, calling for the destruction of Schultz’s work in her open letter, The Painting Must Go (Ibid). Black’s position is that the artwork is inherently rooted in undertones of appropriation since its composition was created at the hands of an individual of caucasian descent who cannot fathom the authentic black experience (Ibid). Similar to how Rauschenberg’s painting memorializes the death of Kennedy, Schultz’s work honors the death of an African American teenager named Emmett Till, who was wrongfully lynched. Both artworks wrestle with new political discourses and realities of their time in which activism created a reimagined dream. Ultimately through understanding the Schultz controversy, individuals can process the dynamic codings of the 60s and its effects on the present.

Part of Black’s open letter to the Whitney Museum involves the issue of painterly style in Open Casket, considering the application of paint as an irresponsible treatment of the subjectivity of Emmett Till (El-Sheikh, Sous les paves, la plage). Many art critics that support Black’s position consider the painterly image as a logical application rooted in Western Modern paintings, typical of artists exploring the benefits of white privilege. Furthermore, art historian, George Baker wrote, “But naiveté edges into something much more sinister here, as the work collapses the destruction of Till’s body and face, his murder, with the artist’s aesthetic” (George Baker on Painting, Critique, and Empathy in the Emmett Till / Whitney Biennial Debate). However, according to Clement Greenberg’s essay, ‘Modernist Painting,’ he emphasizes color, the abstraction of purity, and non-representation (775,776). Modernism’s idealism of ambiguity and lack of “content” is contrary to Schultz’s execution of Open Casket since she is capturing the brutality of Till’s murder rather than an aesthetic experience. A personal argument to be made is that it is not Schultz’s aesthetic that is being criticized but rather her ‘mark’ as an artist depicting a different subjectivity other than her own. Schultz notes the atrocity of Till’s murder as distorted, maimed, and a travesty. Furthermore, Till’s features are exaggerated not from a place of playfulness but rather an exaggeration of his subject position in America. The painting is symbolic and its textured strokes are cryptic of a racial political discourse rather than a Modernist Painting discourse that relies on quality through flatness (Greenberg 777). Some may also argue that Contemporary African artists such as Chris Ofili’s paintings are sacrilegious since they utilize visual playfulness to communicate multiple viewpoints that compromise black culture and its history (Crooks, Contemporary African Art). Assuredly, Schultz’s work is not “playful” when one considers the works of Yinka Shonibare and El Ansui, whose playful representations of complexities of nationalism, post-colonialism, and ethnicity are at the forefront of racial discourses (Ibid). Critics praise these artists for their “playfulness” by illustrating African peoples’ hardships and the ability to resonate with audiences. For this reason, Black cannot insinuate that Schultz’s work is racist or inadvertently a form of oppression and censorship.

Apart from the fact that Schulz’s work does not display or feed into ignorant stereotypes of black people, she recognizes and deconstructs her white privilege through the acknowledgment of America’s dark history of racism. Open Casket is notably a self-reflective painting that cites a racist historical murder and the lack of institutional resources available to people of color. Black claims that “The subject matter is not Schutz’s…. [It’s] white free speech and white creative freedom have been founded on the constraint of others, and are not natural rights” (Greenberger, ‘The Painting Must Go’: Hannah Black Pens Open Letter to the Whitney About Controversial Biennial Work). Interestingly, many critics leave out the narrative that Schultz, a woman, is also part of a marginalized community. Black criticizes the mobility of “white creativity” within art institutions, however, many white women in art history are excluded from this narrative. In actuality, women, along with other marginalized communities, have less social mobility within a world dominated by the ideal construct of hegemonic masculinity perpetuated by the 50s. Rauschenberg’s subjectivity as a prominent white male artist and his usage of a white male leader as a central figure in his work further illustrate the constraints of both race and gender. However, the shifting power dynamics between Richard Nixon’s conservative and Kennedy’s democratic administration, draw reference to the changing politics and the multiplicity of discourses arising in the 60s. For Rauschenberg, the homage to cultural symbols and images in his painting reveals his personal and cultural memory of change in the 60s. The human rights movement had come at a crucial time when truths were widening, social realities were imploding, and cultural boundaries were proliferating. As Schultz has communicated in past interviews, it was her position and identity as an empathetic mother that allowed her to relate to Till’s mother’s position as she overlooked the casket of her dead son (Basciano, “Whitney Biennial: Emmett Till Casket Painting by White Artist Sparks Anger”). Black and other critics fail to rationalize that artworks allow viewers to humanize situations that they do not necessarily identify with. As Greenberg explains, “The immediate aims of Modernist artists remain individual before anything else, and the truth and success of their work is individual before it is anything else” (778). Although one might think Black’s open letter is standing up for black people’s suffering, many feel that her message is hurting the cause and distorting Schultz’s reflection on Till’s murder. Limiting the number of people and races that are allowed to show concern for an event only hurts the message of equality through the implementation of divisions of what artists can or cannot inherently portray. In Retrospective I, this ‘fear’ is illustrated through the reassurance of Kennedy’s presence that operates as a reminder to uphold America’s mission to achieve equality even after his assassination. For instance, the gloomy mushroom-shaped clouds appear to be floating above the pointing president which is a clear reference to the ongoing Cold War and the Cuban Missile Crisis, all situations that indicated an uncertain future. Similarly, Schultz’s piece resonates with an audience that disrupts their unconscious/conscious interpretations of a stereotypical “violent black adult male” through the confronting image of Till resting in a casket. Truly, art and empathy are not exclusive to the boundaries of race and the American ancestral pain transcending generations. Moreover, the argument that Schultz created Open Casket for “fun and profit” is fallacious and misleading since it liberates “from norms of practice or taste” (Greenberger, ‘The Painting Must Go’: Hannah Black Pens Open Letter to the Whitney About Controversial Biennial Work) (Greenberg 779). Even many of Schultz’s critics praise her for her courage, however, they criticize the representation of a serious dialogue of racism which sets a standard for artists to only use subjects of their racial likeness. Schultz and Rauschenberg’s work exclusively involves a cultural memory of historical trauma as they relate to these events on a personal level through the times.

Despite the unique social, economic and political progress that America has achieved over the years, it is yet to mitigate racism. Institutionalized racism is quite prevalent in modern society as blacks face discrimination in employment, social status, and healthcare services. The current events, however, reflect experiences of African-Americans since they entered America as slaves. In essence, the Civil War occurred as a result of conflict over the expansion of slavery to western states. Even though life was somehow better for freed slaves who moved to several western states, they did not live equally as the majority population. In Texas, for example, black people made some political engagement in politics, but they also lived under political tensions with their white neighbors. Jim Crow laws, Ku Klux Klan and segregation, are some other examples of the dark side of America as they led to the dehumanizing, the institutionalization of racism and disenfranchisement of blacks. Besides, Buffalo soldiers were black fighters, who after the end of the Civil War kept order in several western states. Black women mainly encountered sexual exploitation due to the existence of patriarchy the society had traditionally held and the property-based view that slaveholders in the west and elsewhere in America exhibited regarding blacks. Ostensibly, this article outlines experiences of African-Americans before and after the American Civil War.

Abolitionism and Creation of the West

The abolitionist movement gained momentum after the American Revolution War, which resulted in the independence of America and the new constitution. Experiences of the War and dictates provided in the constitution predisposed people to start recognizing human rights and the bad image that slavery projected. As a result, some northern states freed slaves and others established a gradual process for eliminating slavery. The freed slaves, as well as those who managed to escape from their masters, traveled westward. The continued influx of immigrants in the west influenced the government to establish new states and boundaries such as Illinois, Maine, and Indiana, which were Free states. Notably, to meet the interests of the southern states, the government established Missouri, Mississippi, and Alabama as slave states. Nonetheless, blacks’ westward immigration and the consequent creation of states resulted in a rift between northern and southern states. Before the establishment of these states, northern and southern states had even representation in the government, which meant each exercised equal influence on slavery. However, in 1819, Missouri applied to be admitted in the union as a slave state, which would create an imbalance between slave and free states. The Missouri compromise formulated by the Congress in 1820 allowed Missouri to become a slave state, but it also established Maine as a free state. These tensions together with slavery and discrimination experiences highlighted in the subsection below culminated to the Civil War. African-American abolitionists in California sought to establish institutions that could give them freedom of expression. Black churches appeared in the late 1840s and served primarily as an institutional base for protesting against racial injustice. In 1849, for instance, St. Andrew’s African Methodist Episcopal church was operational and lobbying against slavery.

Gender, Experiences and Some Success

Compared with the south, western blacks enjoyed more favorable conditions. Since the purchase of Louisiana, blacks had occupied unpopulated regions in the west. Here, free blacks grew crops and facilitated trade between Native Americans and fur traders. In retrospect, conditions in the west were only favorable if compared to the south, but not by standards of humanity. Despite African-Americans being useful in trade, the government only considered Native Americans in the formulation of policies. Conditions in the west were mostly unfavorable for black women. Firstly, black families had traveled miles before reaching destinations in the west, and this drained them physically. Upon arrival also, black women suffered from a lack of sufficient food. One resident in Kansas remembered that they survived on dugouts during their initial years of arrival. They also slept under tents, which were humiliating to women. Consequently, black women had to find some ways of supplementing their husband’s farm earnings. Domestic working was the option that black women depended on to make ends meet.

Additionally, black women in the west complained about being isolated from other black communities and their traditional roles, which they valued significantly. Besides, black women, as well as their men, had to struggle with institutionalized slavery. In Utah, for instance, slavery remained legal until 1862. In Texas, slavery was almost the norm. Thus, even though most of the black women had escaped south in fear of slavery, the institution continued sabotaging their progress in the west. Therefore, black women remained in servitude until late after the Civil War. For being in subjection, the enslaved African-American women served their masters, particularly in domestic chores. Unfortunately, slavery left women vulnerable to sexual exploitation.

Moreover, western states like Colorado continued treating black men and women as properties of slaveholders and used this basis to alienate them from some critical mainstream practices. For instance, legislators enacted laws to restrict blacks from enjoying civil rights, sufferance, and public transportation. In some states also, blacks could not purchase land. Even though the emancipation proclamation eventually subdued the whites’ discriminatory efforts, most western states did not let blacks to enjoy freedom. In the 1850s to the late 1860s, a significant section of western states established legal restrictions to bar black men and women from testifying against a white person. Throughout the 1860s to the era of segregation also, black women and men struggled with social discrimination. The Los Angeles black press often included stories about how black women were struggling with the increasingly rising tide of bigotry.

However, black women received credit for having established learning institutions. Black women secured jobs as professional teachers in the post-Civil War era, in which case, they gained experience and finance to run private schools. For instance, Elizabeth Thorn established the first African-American schools in Sacramento and then in Oakland. However, apart from teaching, black women occupied the lowest occupational strata such as domestic workers mentioned earlier in this essay. Within the black community also, there were tensions as black women continued working away from home. Ideally, women had been traditionally reserved the position of performing domestic services, which men capitalized to control their wives. When women started engaging in paid jobs in domestic services or teaching, men complained of the trend as being disrespectful and an affront to the black community. Other roles performed by black women in the west between 1850 and 1920 included preaching, newspaper editing, policing, stylists, activists and acting. Moreover, black women in the west were more phenomenal in the pursuit of suffrage rights. Before the First World War, suffrage victories came mostly from the west, and black women participated significantly in advocacy campaigns. Prohibition and temperance movements were some activism campaigns that western black women mostly participated.

Resistance

African-Americans, particularly after some success of the abolitionist movement, did not give up their quest for civil rights. In California, an African-American woman filed a successful case demanding to be granted the right to testify against a white person. Also, when whites drove some black women out of San Francisco streetcars, a group of black women filed a suit that obtained the Negro’s rights to ride. In the early 20th century, western states had passed some preliminary civil rights laws that black women utilized to resist discrimination. Sadie Cole began a campaign in 1916 that intended to remove all posts that were insulting to the black community. The continued advocacy made black women penetrate to social institutions more than those in the south. In 1920, black girls in the west depicted higher school attendance than black boys or black girls in the south. Nonetheless, the black community suffered from seasonal discontinuation of their education due to segregation, which gave white children more opportunities to learn. Even when segregation ended, black girls could not learn more effectively as loneliness prevailed once they attended white-dominated schools.

Experiences During the Gold Rush Era

As indicated earlier, the prevalence of abolitionism created freedom for many blacks. In the gold rush era, most blacks went to California with the hope of progressing economically from the sale of gold. Since the medieval period, gold had been the most valued item, and it often resulted in wars. In California, however, an ordinary person could access gold and go home rich. California had no stable government at the time, and gold belonged to everyone who could mine. Due to oppression that blacks had endured in south and north, they saw gold mining in California as the perfect opportunity to regain economic worth. Black men and women trekked mostly from slave states and in most cases; they endured life-threatening experiences. Notably, some died before reaching the gold sites or after they had arrived. In 1849, for example, a fifth of the immigrants who had arrived at the gold site died. In essence, life was still no better for those blacks who withstood harsh environmental conditions. Racial oppression that had prevailed in the south became a horrible experience for blacks during the gold rush era. The social status of blacks in the state continued to be relatively lower compared with other races. For instance, Californian legislatures passed a Foreign Miners Act in 1852 to restrict non-white minors of Chinese and South American origin. Although this law did not apply to blacks, it led to some insulting sentiments against them. Chinese had opposed the law since its formulation, but they intensified protests when legislatures added restrictions that traditionally applied to African-Americans. Specifically, the Chinese argued that they were from superior culture compared to blacks, and thus, such laws were inapplicable.

Also, whites sidelined blacks using other extreme techniques. Genocidal violence, for example, was common during the gold rush era. Besides, racial intimidation was the primary technique that whites utilized to gain exclusive control of the mines. White miners had some connections with Californian legislatures whom they approached to establish racially-discriminatory laws. In 1850, California entered the union as a free state. However, local slaveholders did not free their slaves voluntarily as it was the norm in other free states. In 1852, California enacted a harsher Fugitive Slave Act, which allowed masters who were going back to southern states to repossess their slaves. Groups of bounty hunters emerged primarily hired by masters to coerce black slaves.

In retrospect, not all blacks succumbed in the gold rush. Some obtained substantial wealth from the mines and gained opportunities to establish businesses like hotels, restaurants, private schools, and laundries. They also earmarked finances for supporting abolitionist movement in California and throughout America. In particular, the successful African-Americans financed most of the underground railroads in California towards the Civil War.

How Emancipation Claims Affected Black Lives in the Western States

In 1865, General Granger reiterated President Lincoln’s emancipation by announcing the end of enslavement in Texas. As a result, emancipated blacks celebrated the freedom in a holiday usually referred to as Juneteenth. Nonetheless, several issues confronted their celebration. Ideally, most of the freed persons had been in slavery for an extended period. Immediately after the emancipation, therefore, they set to find their family members. Some other emancipated individuals remained stranded as confusion about how to lead a life as free persons set in. When the country entered reconstruction, blacks in Texas faced a difficult period. White Texans introduced black codes to restrict the freedom that blacks had gained in the emancipation proclamation. Through those codes, violent attacks became a common experience for African-Americans. By 1868, Ku Klux Klan was operational in Texas, and its members aimed primarily at intimidating and assaulting freed people to curtail their participation in political processes. However, blacks in Texas capitalized on emancipation freedom to increase their engagement in politics. They began by appointing delegates in the 1868 constitutional convention and transitioned gradually into politics. For instance, George Ruby served in the Texas legislature between 1870 and 1874, and another African-American, Matthew Gaines, was the Texas senator throughout the reconstruction.

Nevertheless, the reconstruction era in Texas ended when Democratic Governor Coke took the state’s leadership in 1874. Although violence and intimidation were the most common means that whites in Texas utilized to restrict blacks, the white primary was the most effective mechanism. The technique eliminated blacks from participating in Democratic primary elections. Therefore, political advancement that blacks had gained during reconstruction started deteriorating.

African-American Experiences in Kansas

After the onset of the Civil War, blacks in Kansas established a volunteer military unit to fight Confederate forces. The military unit that African-Americans formed at Fort Scott was the first black organization to participate in the Civil War. In the aftermath of the War, politicians announced Kansas as the best place for the black people to settle. Compared with the south and even some western states, Kansas gave blacks some freedom of life. Like most states in the western region, Kansas was a new territory that the Congress formed to maintain the balance between free and slave states. During the early years of its establishment, many black people immigrated there with the hope of voting for Kansas to become a free state. It indicates that Kansas had been the hope for black people since its establishment. Nonetheless, despite the Kansas constitution being lenient to African-Americans, white neighbors continued holding negative attitudes towards them. As a consequence, some black people found life in Kansas unbearable, and thus, emigrated to neighboring states including Oklahoma.

The Civil War and Insecurity in the West

The onset of the Civil War left western communities at increased insecurity. Before the War, regular troops patrolled western states to offer some security, which was imperative given that some of those states were relatively newer. In the War era, the regular troops left to supplement federal soldiers. Since establishment, western states had depicted political tensions over boundaries and contentious issues of slavery, which worsened during the Civil War. African-Americans experienced more violence and problems during this time due to their inferior social status.

Exodusters

Even though African-Americans had occupied the western frontier since the early 19th century, their numbers in the region increased sharply towards the end of the Civil War. The passage of the Homestead Act in 1862 gave blacks some opportunities of owning land, something that had hardly existed before. Given political oppression and socioeconomic struggles that blacks had faced in southern states, they took the act as an opportunity to occupy free lands in western states. After arriving in western states, blacks established all black-towns in Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The 1909 Homestead Act expanded the first legislation and provided a vast region of arid land, which led to another movement of blacks to the region. Interestingly, the 1909 legislation resulted in the relaxation of some culturally-held gender restrictions as it also allowed women to own some pieces of land. Women who succeeded in securing pieces of land saw an improvement in their social status and became more autonomous. However, in all series of settlements, blacks who had experienced hostilities as whites in western states sought continuously congressional approval to decide who settled in those lands.

Black Cowboys

Cowboys emerged in the United States in the 1500s, but black men had not engaged in it as remarkably as they did immediately after the Civil War. Black cowboys became popular in Texas and other western states. In Texas, blacks who had historically acquired skills in cattle rearing gained increased demand as ranchers needed people to transport their livestock to some northern states where they were more valuable than in the west. Unfortunately, railroad in America during those days had not connected most regions. Only Missouri, Colorado and Kansas had some shipping points, but they could only be accessed by physically moving herds of cattle. Cowboys rounded up herds on horseback and traveled across inhumane environmental conditions before they reached destinations. Even worse is that African-Americans were also attacked and denied access to restaurants. Consequently, black cowboys mostly slept in the vast wilderness of the west, in which; they survived by sharing blankets and other essential items.

Buffalo Soldiers

Buffalo soldiers operated in western states, including Kansas, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. After the end of the Civil War, black cavalry regiments patrolled the mentioned states from 1867. The patrols kept order among cowboys, whiskey peddlers, buffalo hunters and other groups that inhabited the western region. Despite racial prejudice, buffalo soldiers served better and earned several awards beginning in 1870. The term buffalo originated from Indians who saw black soldiers as having hair similar to that of a Buffalo. Their services also proved valuable in later wars such as Indian Wars and the Johnson County War.

Jim Crow Laws and Segregation

Jim Crow laws promoted segregation at both local and state levels. As indicated earlier, the reconstruction period dissatisfied a significant section of white legislators who soon established mechanisms to maintain the status quo. The use of poll taxes, literacy examinations and residency requirements intended to concentrate power on whites. Notably, this gave white policymakers success in establishing policies that developed institutions specifically for white and other separate ones for blacks. In western states, white restaurants in the black community could not serve blacks and theatres as well as departmental store operators refused to provide services to them. Recreational facilities also did not accommodate blacks or accommodated a selected few. White and African-Americans mostly lived under intense relationships before the 1964 civil rights recognition. There were also separate residential, asylums, hospitals, cemeteries, jails and waiting rooms for whites and blacks. However, black institutions were significantly inferior compared with those of whites. Also, schools comprised of white teachers who ensured that black students acquired low-level skills to serve under the whites. Even though blacks made some attempts to introduce the civil rights bill and reverse segregation, their efforts were unsuccessful. In 1875, Republicans passed the civil rights bill that outlawed discrimination in public transportation, churches, schools, and other institutions, but the Supreme Court overturned it in 1883. In Plessy vs. Ferguson case of 1896, the Supreme Court upheld segregation stating that it was constitutional. Before 1917 also, some states had laws that restricted blacks from moving to white-dominated places. As late as the 1940s, some organizations preferred only white candidates and segregation in schools and hospitals also prevailed. Even worse is that whenever a disaster occurred, the government was quicker to support the whites, but at times it did nothing about blacks’ lives. In the aftermath of the great depression, for instance, government agencies focused more on building houses in the white community. In the 1930s, financial institutions and the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation established red-lining that designated black neighborhoods as areas with high risks. Consequently, poverty levels in black neighborhoods escalated as they could not access or afford expensive loans.

Conclusion

Beginning with how they entered America, African-Americans in the west have encountered a horrible experience of staying in the country. Slavery is arguably the basis of their predicaments as it empowered the majority population exclusively. Many consequences of slavery were disenfranchising and economically destabilizing. For instance, the prohibition of owning properties led to the widening of the economic gap between blacks and whites. All the events that led to some level of acceptance of the black people in the country relegated them to the inferior status. Jim Crow laws and segregation alienated blacks from mainstream opportunities before the civil rights act of 1964. Nonetheless, 55 years after the legislation, blacks in western states and elsewhere in America are yet to live equally as whites. Racial profiling is an example of the modern version of the institutionalized racism in America. To tackle the issue, therefore, the government needs to enfranchise blacks by facilitating their penetration into mainstream opportunities. Laws should also be leveraged to deinstitutionalize racial oppression.

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12. Samantha Gibson. California Gold Rush. 2018. Retrieved from the Digital Public Library of America, http://dp.la/primary-source-sets/california-gold-rush.
13. Simple History. The California Gold Rush cartoon 1849 (The Wild West) YouTube, 29 Sept. 2016, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iydRkC0gMZI
14. Study.com. Westward Expansion: The Homestead Act of 1862 & The Frontier Thesis. 2013. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NbwVl-0AP6s
15. Taylor, Quintard, and Shirley Ann Wilson Moore, eds. African American Women Confront the West, 1600-2000. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.