Category: African American history

Slavery is a topic in history that has been taught throughout the years. Slavery has been around since the 1600s. The year was to 1619 to be exact when the first shipment of African slave was brought and shipped to North America. The port was in Jamestown, Virginia was the African slaves were brought. African slaves were brought to North America by European slave owners for free labor and to make sure the production of tobacco and cotton was done. Eli Whitney is a name we hear about in history for his creation of the cotton gin. The cotton gin helped with the separation of the cotton fibers from the seeds. The cotton gin not only helped with the separation of the fiber and seed but also help with the Souths economy. Slaves were the way to go for most production since they were cheap and were not given a certain amount of time to serve their master like the indentured servants. Slavery is something for generations to come if it was not on a plantation, it was through their laws in place for them.

Slavery is what does it really mean to the human being. Slavery is when a person is owned by another person and has to work for them for free. A slave had no rights of their own, they were the property of the master. Slaves were owned by their masters forever and if they had children, their children would because of slaves under the master. Slaves that whole generation was called chattel slaves. Slaves and chattel slaves were mostly owned by white men and their families. There was one man in history named Anthony Johnson who was a freed black man. Johnson was concerned an indentured servant that earned his freedom. Johnson owned several acres of land and had slaves to work the acres of land. Johnson went about getting his slaves and the acres of land the legal way. I would have never thought of a black man wanting to own someone of his own color and have them work the land he owned. This felt as if it was an insult to the enslaved blacks. I would have felt as if Antony Johnson was trying to make himself better than me. I know that was not the case since he served his time as an indentured servant. It seems that indentured servant had more right and opportunities than someone with the title slave attached to their name.

Slaves would normally work on plantations doing work and little odd jobs their owners needed to be done. Slaves had titles such as butlers, nurse, gardener, shoemaker, the list can go on and on. Slaves main job was to work the tobacco and cotton fields. Some owners would let slaves pick their speed of working on their tasks, others had people watching the slave hitting them to work faster.

Blacks were risk-takers during the eighteenth century, they would go to great lengths to avoid becoming a slave. People all over knew about blacks trying to avoid coming to a slave because of the newspaper. The newspaper would be filled with advertisements, telling about runaway slaves. Slaves had to take with them proof of whether they had their freedom or were they still owned by a master. The largest slave population during this time was located in New York City. Being the largest, we could expect for upraising to take place. A total of 23 slaves set fire to a house and even killed white men that came to assist with the house fire in 1712. Another event in New York City was when 150 blacks and 20 whites were asserted for planning an uprising against the white owners. It is said that 34 conspirators and 4 whites were executed for the planning of the uprising.

Nat Turner was a slave that could have been part of the uprising, he was a very violent slave. In 1831 he mentions that he was the chosen one to help slaves get out of bondage. God had chosen him. People seemed to have believed him because he was a preacher and he said God had also chosen him. He had a big following, they would upraise against the slave owners, even killing a whole family. In all Turner and his followers killed about 55 people who were men, women, and children. The age did not matter the color of the people skin is all the matter to Turner and his followers. In the end, Turner would die by hanging for his actions during Turner’s rebellion in 1831.

On the other hand, some slaves went about the situation differently than Turner. Several slaves knew of the Underground Railroad that would help them get to freedom. The Underground Railroad had to use their own codes and symbols since most of the slaves were uneducated. People would help the slaves navigate between the different places where called the conductors. A safe house would have a quilt with different symbols that the slaves were able to understand. Some safe houses had a color system, red meant to keep going it is not safe and blue meant it was safe. A safe house could be in a personal home, church or barn whatever the person owned and keep the slaves safe.

There were also slaves that choose not to go the route of the Underground Railroad. They were called fugitive slaves. These types of slaves would go to places that had free blacks and they would try and blend in. Places like New Orleans or Charleston. But the Underground Railroad still had codes that helped the fugitive slaves find their way out of the South and to the North. Canada was the destination that many runaway enslaved individuals strived to reach; it was not the only destination for those escaping. Many enslaved people escaped to cities in the North or went to Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, South America or even to remote areas of the South and West”.

The person that is known for the Underground Railroad is Harriet Tubman, she was a slave that escape in 1849 and helped several others escape slavery as well. Tubman fled to Philadelphia and went back to Maryland to free her own relatives and slaves. Making a somewhere around twenty trips to help slaves to freedom, she was able to help hundreds of enslaved people. She would be the most famous conductor of the Underground Railroad. Her dedication to leading people on the Underground Railroad got her the name, Moses. She would also go down in history as an abolitionist. Tubman helped guide eleven fugitives and they made a stop at Frederick Douglass home who was a former slave and also an abolitionist in the year 1851. I never knew that so many people live in history crossed. I thought every story and people were different. I knew slaves would never probably meet up, but the story of Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass tells me a different story. Slaves depended on each other to find their way to the North and to freedom.

Frederick Douglass was not only an abolitionist, but he had no choice but to be a slave. He was born to a mother that was a slave and a father that was white that was never identified. After reading the textbook, I feel Douglass’ father could have been his mother’s owner at the time. Douglass learned to read and write, which both were breaking the law of Maryland back then. Frederick Douglass would go down in history as an abolitionist, an activist for racial equal rights and even an author.

The well-known President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. He would issue a proclamation that would declare all slave in the South free. He wrote that the nearly 3 million slaves that included men, women, and children shall ‘henceforward shall be free’ (Foner, 532). The slaves had to wait for their freedom until after the war until the Union got the victory. I never knew the slave had to wait for their freedom, why jump the gun and say that they would be free if the way was not over yet. People seem more accepting of the Emancipation Proclamation by the end of the war in both the South and North. Abraham Lincoln was not the first to try and abolish slavery, Benjamin Franklin was actually the first in 1790. Both tried and made an effect by the true abolishing of slavery did not come until 1865 when the 13th Amendment was added.

Slaves came from a long line of descendants that were slaves. It is amazing that most of the freed slaves back then were descendants of already freed slaves. Why keep some as a slave if the generation before them were already freed by their owners? Why wait to the end of the Revolution war, was it a way to raise the number of freed slaves for the Emancipation Proclamation? Freed slaves and blacks were able to start getting an education and having schools for the younger generation and hold a skilled job. They were even allowed to establish their own churches. This was only available in certain areas for them through.

In all slavery was a way of keeping power over someone. The stronger preying on the weak and whose numbers were not as large. Slaves were people that had to live in fear of owners for talking back. Only a couple of slaves were brave to talk back, with their life they paid the cost. Tried to run away, they would be beaten. Beaten for wanting to live their life, never chosen to be a slave for someone. Taking from their comfort zone, left to depend on someone that could kill them at any time. Female slaves were like rag dolls raped, children slaves were human toys for the owner’s kids. Slaves were even discriminated for the darkness and lightness of their skin tone. Being an African American, I see it all the time where the blame is still placed on the white man. The blame for how our ancestors were treated. The blame for how society views African Americans. I can only wonder if everyone takes responsibility for their own actions would still be in the state America is today. Are we just repeating history and falling slaves to different forms?

This essay is written to inform readers of the Civil Rights Movement, the Montgomery Bus Boycott as the key its event, the importance of the movement to the African American race, and the Civil Rights Act.

On December 1, 1955, the life of our nation changed forever. The start of the Civil Rights Movement began with the Montgomery Bus Boycott in the 1900s. December 1st, 1955, was a day many African Americans marked as the day to stand up for what they believed to be right by sitting in the seat that they wanted to sit in without the bus driver telling them to get up. This boycott was done to prove that African Americans had had enough of being pushed around. Many important civil rights activists were: Claudette Colvin, Malcolm X, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., James Farmer, Rosa Parks, and many more African Americans. Rosa Parks is the person famously known for getting arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger in Montgomery, Alabama. Little do many people know that a woman named, Claudette Colvin, was arrested on March 2, 1955 for refusing to give up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama, nine months before Rosa Parks. After this day, the apprehension grew even rapidly between whites and blacks which led to another boycott in the city of Montgomery, Alabama. Many people were injured and many were even killed, but the ending result had a favorable outcome. Which meant people were actually starting to see what the south had going on.

No one ever thought that the Boycott would happen this long. On December 8th, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and other officials met lawyers and other activists from the bus company, and the city of Montgomery commissioners, to present a modest desegregation plan similar to the plan that was already set to happen in many of the Southern cities, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and Mobile, Alabama. The plan was hoped to end the boycotts and to be accepted, but the company did not approve of it. Due to the bus boycotts, many black owned cab services and bus companies charged a minimum of ten cents to blacks that needed a lift to their destination.

Dr. King later formed an organization named the Montgomery Improvement Association in which he was led to oversee the well beings of the organization. This organization was called the mastermind of the Montgomery Bus Boycott which had an executive board filled with many pastors and ministerial staff around the surrounding Montgomery area. Later on, at the end of this journey, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the segregation on buses to be resolved and the movement continued.

In 1942, James Farmer created the interracial organization named the Congress of Racial Equality also known as CORE. The Congress of Racial Equality was created to enhance race relations and to end discriminatory policies through direct action projects. Farmer was given the title and responsibility as the race-relation secretary for the American branch. He later resigned from positions after an altercation in policy, then founded CORE as a nonviolent approach to racial prejudice that was influenced by an Indian leader. From that point forward, CORE begin to planning trips that was created to observe the Supreme Court’s 1946 decision, that declared the segregation of seating unconstitutional. That movement later lead to group of known as the freedom riders. This group of people left on May 4th, 1961 from Washington and was supposed to arrive on May 17th in New Orleans, which was the anniversary of the brown decision. While participating in the ride, they drove through the state of Alabama.

While in Alabama, the group split into two separate group, the first group traveled the city of Anniston where they came in contact with a cluster of mobsters. The mobsters damaged the bus the freedom riders rode on, but the freedoms rides were able to get away. The freedom riders later made a poor decision to stop and purchase new tires not knowing that their transportation vehicle would get bombed by Ku Klux Klan members and other white people. Although the second group did not have the same obstacle while traveling through a different part of Alabama. They did not let anything stop them from getting to their destination. Truth be told, the freedom riders never arrived at New Orleans majority of them ending up getting arrested.

April 6th, was all marked an important day for many of the African American race because while on the march from the Sixteenth Street to the city hall they were arrested. King was later arrested on the day known as ‘Good Friday’, which is April the 12th. While Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was in lock up, he wrote the letter to Birmingham.

On September 9th, 1957, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the law to the Civil Right Act of 1957. It was previously attempted to be passed by Attorney General Herbert Brownell, this act was the first opportunity since Reconstruction that the federal government embarked the legislative actions to secure the civil rights.

On March 7th, the Civil Rights Movement began to take a turn in violence in Alabama. A total of 600 demonstrators were involved in the march from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery, Alabama to stand up for the murders of the black civil rights activist by white police officers. That is when many people motivated the legislation to enforce the 15th Amendment. While marching near the Edmund Pettus Bridge, they were stopped by policeman. While refusing to stop their mission, many people were beaten and tear gassed by police and some were hospitalized. From that point forward that day was given the title of being called ‘Bloody Sunday’.

The movement had two devastating punishments for two of the well-known leaders in the 1960s. On February 21st, 1965, the well-known Islam and Afro-American Unity leader, Malcolm X, was killed. Then, the father and civil right leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient, Martin Luther King Jr., was assassinated while at his hotel room on the balcony. Later following Dr. King’s death Fair Housing Act law was passed on April 11th, 1968, preventing housing discrimination based on sex, race, national origin, and religion.

Due to the countless marches and rallies of all different races, the legislation finally ended segregation.

Works Cited

1. https://www.britannica.com/event/American-civil-rights-movement
2. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/montgomery-bus-boycott
3. https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/montgomery-bus-boycott
4. https://blackpast.org/aah/montgomery-bus-boycott-1955-56
5. https://www.biography.com/people/claudette-colvin-11378

Olaudah Equiano: His Story As He Remembered

Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, written by Himself (London: 1790), 51-54 https://www.americanyawp.com/reader/british-north-america/olaudah-equiano-describes-the-middle-passage-1789/

The African American Historian Olaudah Equiano attempted to showcase the horrors and terror of the triangular trade. “The Triangular Trade was also known as the Transatlantic Slave Trade; it was a way of trading goods during the 16th-19th century between the regions of Europe, Africa, and the Americas.” The middle passage transported millions of Colored slave people to the New World on a ship as part of the Atlantic slave trade. However; former slave Olaudah Equiano provides a highly vivid scene of the horrific circumstances and hardship in which they as slaves lived at that time.

Olaudah Equiano indicates the cruelty of the treatment they received as slaves by telling how they were chained up and tossed on board with cargo. He explains that they were put under the deck where they had no room to move due to it being crowded with all slaves on the ship and the materials it held. They were all touching each other during the time there was no personal space. He mentions how there was an extremely disgusting smell that filled the air which made it hard to breathe due to the dry air. It was highly a heated atmosphere under the deck for the slaves. Olaudah tells how sickness was brought on and many African slaves fell to death. It was so filthy; they used the same tub to bathe and lay in as all the slaves as well as eating each other. The slaves didn’t just become sick behind the filth it was also diseases brought upon them. They lived and lay in their filth. There was undressing in front of each other (Slaves were all strangers). There was no privacy at all for the slaves even based on gender.

The slaves were left with barely anything to eat or drink had many more died from hunger and thirst. They had to have a small portion and shared that with multiple people as the ship crew selfishly ate their fish. He continued to tell a story in which he lived through firsthand experience in 1789. He stresses the issue of how aggravating and scared they were of the whites. In the article he numerous times states how hard of a hardship it was for them as slaves. “In this manner, we continued to undergo more hardships than I can now relate; hardships which are inseparable from this accursed trade. -Many a time we were near suffocation, from the want of fresh air, which we were often without for whole days together.” Former slave Olaudah tells about the cries that filled the air and the grief and terror noise. They were beaten and out of their misery, they started wishing for death. He mentions standing by two slaves that soon threw themselves overboard committing suicide and one was captured and beaten. The crew put netting that hung on the boat to prevent slaves’ attempts of suicide but that didn’t stop them from attempting. After that, he witnesses an island in which they then arrive with joyful whites.

The description of the Middle Passage’s history in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade holds that it was a triangular trade route that took days to accomplish. Rum, sugar, coffee, slaves, tobacco, etc. were sold in exchange and labor. The African slaves were forcibly removed from their homes and families the whole trip was subsequent transportation across the Atlantic seas. The transportation was under the most abominable and hellish conditions imaginable. The slaves were stuffed under a ship’s deck where it became so packed some began to fall or couldn’t breathe due to the atmosphere. There were excessive deaths of many slaves that were inevitable because of the poor conditions during the time of the Middle Passage. The remaining were left on board under deck with the slaves. “The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable.” The transport across the Atlantic waters in a slave ship was under the cruelest and harshest conditions ever imagine. The whole document was about slaves witnessing a new world and a tragic journey of the middle passage. Life as a slave was hard and miserable. The Transatlantic slave trade was one of the most fascinating subjects that had extremely grown American industry.

In conclusion, the Trans-Atlantic trade was a disaster for the colored people. Due to the Middle Passage now there are the world’s most influential countries. It was a terrible way of how our ancestors were treated but they fought and stayed strong through the bad conditions and pain they received. Some died some survived and because of them, we live in this great world today. Olaudah Equiano made everyone aware of the cruelty and because of its rights is active. However, Paullina Simons once said, “All great things worth having require great sacrifice worth giving.”

Introduction: The Pivotal Year of 1968 in American History

America’s history is filled with many eventful years, but none are as eventful as the year 1968. 1968 was a presidential election year, a leap year, a year of violence, and the year that citizens found their freedom of speech. Some describe 1968 as “a year of triumphs and tragedies, social and political upheavals, that changed our country forever.” (1968: A Year of Turmoil and Change 2018). The year 1968 is also described as the turning point in Americas history because of the civil rights movement, the anti-war protests, and the technological advancements made throughout this eventful year that would forever change America.

In 1968, minorities were still struggling to find acceptance in the American society, but the fight for civil rights movement took a turn for the worst. The first major blow to the movement that year was the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. King fought for “all people in the United States to have economic equality.” On one faithful day in April 1968, “King’s advisors wanted him to go to Memphis in support of the strike called by the black sanitation workers.” The sanitation workers in Memphis were paid “meager wages” while white workers were “paid full wages” (Walker 2008, 60).”King was scheduled to speak the following day, but Abernathy called King at the Lorraine Motel when he saw the size of the crowd.” King spoke to the crowd about the “injustice” taking place in Memphis (64). On April 4, 1968 at the Abernathy Hotel, “King stepped on the balcony” and then, there was a “popping sound…a gun had been fired” (67). King was “pronounced dead” at the hospital after a failed surgery to save him. King was the civil rights “leader, their hope” and many wondered if the movement “had died with King” (68). After the death of King was announced “more than 150 cities across the country reported riots.”

King, “the leader who preached nonviolence” was now the reason so many ensued violence all over the nation (73). The riots were responsible for 46 deaths, 2600 injuries, and 22000 arrests for “looting”. Presidential candidate Robert Kennedy told the nation “that fighting each other would achieve nothing” (74). Kings death and the riots that ensued after forced legislatures to build onto the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which “ outlawed discrimination…required equal access to public places and employment, and enforced desegregation of schools and the right to vote” (Civil Rights Act of 1964 2016). Kings supporters continued his work in demanding equality and several years after his death, “Congress passed the Equal Educational Opportunities Act” that “ensures no child is denied access to quality education, regardless of his or her race” (Asselin 2014, 92). King’s supporters were motivated by the assassination to continue their leaders work and to fulfill his dreams of equality among all people. Because of this, the events that occurred and the advancements made because of them in the civil rights movement is one of the reasons that 1968 is considered the turning point in American history.

The Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and Its Impact on the Civil Rights Movement

Americas involvement in the Vietnam war became very controversial among citizens of the time because of the events of 1963. The Vietnam War was a “brutal conflict” between the communist North and democratic South Vietnam. The United States aided the South in their war efforts, “fearing the spread of communism.” Just eighteen years after the conflict started, the south fell to the communist north and “is considered to be a major defeat of the United States” (Diggs 2018, 2). The Vietnam War was so controversial because it was “the first time Americans watched war unfold on their television sets” (3). Americans were seeing the brutality that comes with war because news stations around the nation were on the ground of Vietnam, broadcasting it all over the nation. Also, the constant lies the government pumped to the American people lead to an “erosion of the public’s trust in the U.S. government and military” (4). This all became realized after one of the worst attacks the U.S. military has ever experienced, the Tet Offensive. In South Vietnam on January 30, 1968 “the North Vietnamese launched a massive coordinated surprise attack.” Americans watched “in glorious colour” as their fellow Americans were attacked and killed (Tucker-Jones 2014, 8). This surprised the American people because “publicly, America was claiming that it was winning the war…but behind the scenes the CIA and the US Military…were at loggerheads over the size of communist forces” (35).

The media also influenced the publics distrust in the information the government was sharing. “The reporters did not believe the official statements that came out of the Military Assistance Command, and the media coverage generally reflected this.” This would “adversely affect support of the war at home” (Willbanks 2007, 110). After the Tet-Offensive, many young Americans demonstrated their hatred for war and the draft. On April 3, 1968, “some 1,000 men returned their draft cards to government offices” in retaliation of the Vietnam War and the draft of young American men. Over a month later, a protest demonstration in Catonsville, Maryland occurred. “Nine antiwar activists enter a Selective Service Office” and “removed nearly 400 files and burned them in the parking lot with homemade napalm” (Twombly 2018). One of the largest anti-war protests occurred at the 1968 Democratic Party Convention in Chicago. The movement was in an “effort to find an antiwar Democrat to run against Johnson in the primaries” and that call was answered by two men named Gene McCarthy and Bobby Kennedy (Abramsky 2018, 13). The chaos of thousands of college kids turned violent when they started “throwing things at the police” and the police answer by releasing tear gas on the crowd (15). This became the story across the nation as similar stunts were being pulled on school campuses.

Many people believe that “Tet marked ‘The Turning Point” of the war because “before Tet, the American public was behind the war; after Tet, it was not.” After Tet, sitting president Lyndon Baines Johnson did not rerun because his reputation had been ruined along with other government officials (Blood 2005, 8). Not only do people considered the Tet Offensive the turning point of the Vietnam War because it led to Americas defeat, but the protest that happened after are considered the turning point in American history. For the first time, the American people felt as if they could not trust what they were being told by the government. Also, instead of supporting the war, they despised it and many people protested Americas involvement. The American people used their right to protest and freedom of speech to express their opinions to the presidential candidates and the government. It became obvious that America had to change the way they conducted military defenses. President Bush was quoted saying, “New threats require new thinking” when comparing the Tet Offensive to the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 (130). The Tet Offensive caused 1968 to be the turning point of the war, the turning point for the American people, and the turning point for the way America conducts military strategies.

The Vietnam War and Public Distrust: The Tet Offensive as a Catalyst

Not only did the civil rights movement and the Vietnam War are the reason that 1968 is considered the turning point in American history, but also the technological advancements made that year. On January 20, 1968, “the first NCAA basketball game to be nationally televised in prime time” was played and aired all over the nation. This was a big deal in sports and paved the way for all sports games to be played all over the nation. On March 13, the company now known as Exxon Mobile “the largest oil and natural gas” field that has ever been known in Americas history. On September 24, “60 minutes debuts” and “is now the longest continuously running prime-time program in history” (Twombly 2018). These minor technological advancements were nothing compared to the two major advancements, the invention of the 747 Jumbo Jet and the Apollo 8 mission. The invention of the 747 Jumbo Jet changed the way Americans traveled because “it opened up global air travel for the common man at prices undreamt of in the 1940’s and 1950’s, when” before it was just for “the rich and famous.” It was affordable and had the “capacity that no other plane maker could really challenge or meet” (Bowman 2014, 23).

On September 30, 1968, the first 747 Jumbo Jet was “completed and rolled from factory” (9). The 747 set a new standard for commercial passenger aircrafts and would forever change the way Americans traveled. The next major advancement would occur on December 21 with the launch of Nasa’s Apollo 8 launch. “NASA’s three astronauts became the first humans to see the moon’s far side.” NASA’s Apollo 8 mission completed 10 lunar revolutions over the course of six days. On Christmas Eve, “six telecasts were conducted” and transmitted “worldwide and in real time.” The telecasts “were of excellent quality” and “voice communications also were exceptionally good” (Dunbar 2009). The Apollo 8 capsule safely landed in the Pacific Ocean and all the crew was recovered. The Apollo 8 mission would forever change the world. Americans and people all over the world got their first real-time look into space. The Apollo 8 mission would pave the path for the following year when the United States won the first manned moon mission race. The many inventions and technological advancements in 1968 would forever change technology in America and contribute to why 1968 was the turning point in American History.

Conclusion: Why 1968 Remains a Defining Year in American History

1968 was the most eventful year in American History and is considered the turning point in American History. MLK’s death and the civil rights movement would lead to the desegregation of schools and more equality. The Vietnam War and the Tet Offensive led Americans to distrust the government, gave them a reason to use their freedom of speech and protest, and led to the change in Americas military strategy. And lastly, the technological advancements made that year, including the invention of the 747 Jumbo Jet and the Apollo 8 mission, set a new standard for travel and paved the path for new technologies. All the above reasons are why the year 1968 is considered the turning point in American history.

References

1. 2016. Civil Rights Act of 1964. March 22. https://www.nps.gov/articles/civil-rights-act.htm.
2. 2018. 1968: A Year of Turmoil and Change. June 6. https://www.archives.gov/news/topics/1968-a-year-of-turmoil-and-change.
3. Abramsky, Sasha. 2018. ‘The Siege of Chicago: ‘The Whole World is Watching!’.’ Nation, August 27: 13-15.
4. Asselin, Kristine Carlson. 2014. Martin Luther King Jr.: Civil Rights Leader. Minneapolis: ABDO Publishing Company.
5. Blood, Jake. 2005. The Tet Effect: Intelligence and the public Preception of the War. New York: Routledge.
6. Bowman, Martin W. 2014. Boeing 747: A History Deleviring the Dream. Great Britian: Pen & Sword Aviation.
7. Diggs, Barbara. 2018. The Vietnam War. White River Junction: Nomad Press.
8. Dunbar, Brian. 2009. NASA: Apollo 8. July 8. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ apollo8.html.
9. Tucker-Jones, Anthony. 2014. The Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive 1968. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military.
10. Twombly, Matthew and McDonald, Kendrick. 2018. A Timeline of 1968: The Year That Shattered America. January. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/timeline-seismic-180967503/.
11. Walker, Ida. 2008. The Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Edina: ABDO Publishing Company.
12. Willbanks, James H. 2007. The Tet Offensive: A Concise History. Chichester: Colombia University Press.

Dance plays a big part in culture in many different societies. In African culture dance is for enjoyment, celebration, and honor (New World Encyclopedia). Dance brings together communities in Africa. As well as helping people find and understand their rules inside their communities (NWE). There are many different types of African dance. Traditional dance, African religion, Ritual dance, Ancestral worship, ceremonial dance and much more (NWE). During times of oppression traditional dance meant so much more. It was a form of communication, expression and freedom. The importance of African dance varies and is used in many different forms for various reasons. Getting through such hardship using dance helped shape what modern day african dance is today.

Dance has always been a big part of African Culture, long before they were even oppressed or taken from native lands. It had always been a very fundamental part of the lives of Africans. Special occasions like childbirth or marriage were a cause for celebration and they used dance to do so (African American Registry Organization). Different dance styles and meanings for dance vary depending on the tribe (J.Lewis, FLO DANCE). There is the social context, division between the sexes and the religious context (P. Harper and J. Picton, African dance). Inside indigenous customs each performance has a purpose and principle. As well as secondary purposes that reflect on everyone’s shared values. A lot of the time there is no visible distinction between ritual celebrations and social recreation. The purpose and meaning of one dance can merge into the other. The more significant the concept in a dance is than the greater appreciation for the performance is (P. Harper and J. Picton, African dance). In African culture dance is appreciated as a social occasion as well as enjoyed as an everyday activity. The religious context in African dance is rooted from a constant interaction between spiritual forces and the people of the community. Dance in ritual societies is used as therapy. Many African religions have a union between the living and their ancestors (P. Harper and J. Picton, African dance) Then there is the social context in African dance. Dance is an important educational tool. For example, repetitive dance teaches children physical control. Children may take their knowledge and form their own dance that helps them in their own individual way. In some tribes there are specific dance that are only performed during funerals, after burials and anniversaries of death (P. Harper and J. Picton, African dance). Before oppression dance had already meant so much and had been done for many significant reasons.

African dance has many different components and characteristics that make it what it is. In African dance is about marking your experiences in life, honoring their kings and queens, celebrating and even just for pure enjoyment and well being (New World Encyclopedia). But what is the essence of African dance? There is a lot to do with proper formation, instruments used, and movement. A popular saying upon africans is “let the circle be unbroken” due to the belief that there is a supernatural power in the circle. That is why the most basic and commonly used formation is a circle or line of dancers. (New World Encyclopedia). A lot of the movement is characterized by isolation (J.Lewis, FLO DANCE). Often leaning forward with flat feet towards the Earth, characterized as “Earth centered dance” (New World Encyclopedia). The most common and most important instrument that is essential in African dance is the drum. The drum provides an “energy point” and is considered the heartbeat of the dance. Also using their singing voices, clapping and maintaining a steady consistent rhythm brings together the dance as a whole (J.Lewis, FLO DANCE). Combine all these components together and it brings African dance to life and make it what it is.

Slave labor started to spread worldwide in 1500s and many Africans were taken from their homes and spread across the Americas. But they found a way to bring their dance culture with them. (J.Lewis, FLO DANCE). Bringing their dance culture with them helped the enslaved Africans connect with their motherland and bringing their cultural traditions to life (African American Registry Organization). In North America there were laws put in place that prohibited slaves from being able to dance and express themselves. Yet that did not stop them from finding new ways to adapt to these laws and circumstances, and continue to embrace their traditions (J.Lewis, FLO DANCE). These dances then grew into something much larger. Rather than just being on plantations by slaves it was brought to the big stage. ‘Black dance’ then became introduced to a larger audience in the 1800s. It turned into something not only done by Blacks but whites participated in these dances as well (African American Registry Organization). Often times African Americans were mocked and ridiculed by many but they didn’t let it stop them from performing and creating new dances. It started off with The Cakewalk, which was done in 1891 during The Creole show (African American Registry Organization). This then helped introduce and influence the creation of dances such as The Charleston, The Jitterbug, Jazz dance and many more (J.Lewis, FLO DANCE). It continued to evolve and spread from plantations, to the big stage, to what we know today as modern day African dance.

The dance now referred to as Gumboot was used by African gold mine workers who used dance as a form of communication. The development of this dance started when rural laborer workers started to work inside the mines. They were facing oppression and the difficulties in the mine itself. If the workers talked to one another they had to endure some kind of punishment (World Arts West organization, pg 1). Under the harsh conditions the workers were forced to create new forms of communication. Through this dance many people of different ethnic groups and backgrounds came together and shared a language through rhythm and music, which made helped developed the dance more (World Arts West organization, pg 1). Workers worked long hard hours for three months at a time, in complete darkness and unable to speak. It got its name because in the mines the workers used their gumboots to communicate as an alternative to actually speaking. They slapped their boots, stomped their feet and even made noise with their ankle chains. As time went on ‘gumboot’ developed into something greater and gained more popularity. It turned into a social activity done by many. Gumboot was accompanied by songs that mocked mean bosses, low wages, and more. (World Arts West organization, pg 1). Gumboot since then how evolved into something great. It’s a South African form of art. The dance become vibrant and theatrical, with boundless energy and brings a sense of joy and freedom to those involved. (T.Roberts, Gumboots) The people turned this form of communication used during a time of being oppressed and turned it into something greater.

Black culture strongly influenced dance in the 20th century and it all began in Harlem, New York. Harlem was home to many people of color of all backgrounds, traditions and beliefs, with their own dance styles and music. Harlem brought together many and became the “it place” to be amongst the black and white communities in New York. Everyone came together in clubs and brought upon new dances famously known today as The Charleston and Lindy hop (Victoria and Albert museum). This artistic explosion became known today as The Harlem Renaissance. It all started when a couple middle class black families moved to Harlem in the early 1900s. Of course during that time many whites did not accept the fact that many black families were moving into Harlem so they fought to keep them out. But when all attempts failed they left Harlem instead (History). By 1920, roughly 300,000 African Americans moved from the south into Harlem, giving its name the “it place” and becoming one of the most popular destinations in New York (History). During the Harlem Renaissance the black community started to break barriers never done before. One of those being the first all black musical on Broadway known as The Shuffle Along, which opened in 1921. The Shuffle Along created new opportunities for many black performers and dancers.

Katherine Dunham and Pearl Primus are one of the first two African American women to inspire the black modern dance movement (Victoria and Albert museum, 2016). Katherine Dunham was an African American woman who broke barriers of race and gender. She used dance to influence many people and inspire generations to come (Joanna Dee Das, Dance the African Diaspora). Katherine was the first to incorporate folk and ethnic choreography into her dances. By doing so she revolutionized American dance by diving and digging deep into the roots of African dance and rituals, transforming them into choreography of importance that touches everyone (Katherine Dunham centers for Arts and Humanities). Dunham had a remarkable capacity for reinvention. Showing the world that African American dance and heritage is beautiful and speaks volumes. Dunham became one of the most important teachers for teaching dance that is still used today around the world. Combining Caribbean dances, traditional ballet, African American rhythms and rituals to create what we refer to now as the ‘Dunham technique’ (Katherine Dunham centers for Arts and Humanities). As for Pearl Primus, she was born in Trinidad but raised in Harlem, New york. After her dream of becoming a medical researcher became irrational due to all the racial discrimination at the time, she ended up going to the National Youth Association. This is where miss Primus would be cast as a dancer and where her journey began (L. Mennenga, Black Past). Primus was the first black modern dancer. She used the arts to express the social and political injustices and restrictions on the black people in America. During 1940s Primus made an in depth study on black traditions. Using this knowledge to embrace West indian, African, and Primitive dance, being one of the first to do so (Victoria and Albert museum. Pearl Primus and Katherine Dunham were and will always be important figures in the preservation and study of ethnic dance. As both women paved the way for black modern dance and turning it into something timeless and remarkable.

Then there was a rise in African American dance companies. The dance theatre of Harlem was founded in 1969, only a year after the assassination Martin Luther King Jr. This was a direct response to the lack of performance opportunities for black people. The following year, the Philadelphia Dance Company was founded for the very same reasons. The Philadelphia Dance Company said they wanted to to give black dancers the opportunity to perform on a worldwide stage. Such opportunities were not easily given or even allowed (S. Bailey, The Philadelphia Tribune). One of the most notable dance companies is the Alvin Ailey dance company. The founder Alvin Ailey was born in Texas in 1931. He was inspired to dance after seeing a Ballet, Russes de monte carlo. In 1958 he founded the Alvin Ailey dance theatre. The purpose of this company was to bring African American culture dance expression to the world. The company was used to provide jobs for those who were talented and wanted to make a career out of dance, but because of their skin color they had no where else to turn to (J. Dunning, The many colors of black dance). Ailey’s choreography showed elements borrowed from modern dance, primitive dance and jazz dance.

African dance has come a long way from just being done by different tribes in African, to being done by slaves in the American into what we know it as today in its modern day form. A form of expression and freedom. African dance wasn’t always accepted by whites, a lot of the time African Americans weren’t even allowed to participate in dance theatre because of their skin color. Slaves were often punished for dancing on plantations. People like Alvin Ailey, Katherine Dunham and Pearl Primus paved the way for new opportunities and jobs for African Americans. As well as creating new forms of African dance. Today African dance has many forms and is not only done in african, but around the world. Reaching many different audiences and cultures.

In order to better understand and analyze the narratives of different fugitive slaves and the impact their stories had on American society and the abolition movement, one must first gain a basic overview of the history of slavery in America. Slavery in America was a controversial issue from the very beginning, as it became a major topic of debate when drafting the constitution. Concessions were made on both sides and through the use of language such as “all other persons”, the drafters of the constitution actually never directly use the term “slavery” once throughout the whole document. Slavery had already existed in the colonies prior to the American Revolution, and it became a major way of life, engrained into the culture of the southern states whose main economy was based upon agriculture and free labor. Following the revolution and the Declaration of Independence, most Northern States began the process of abolishing slavery, and by 1805, all Northern States had abolished the practice in some way. However, southern states were still depending on slavery in their everyday life, and the abolition movement began to stall as the North and South reached an impasse.

It is the purpose of this paper to give a detailed look at some fugitive slave narratives, and analyze the extent to which they were able to effect public sentiment and awareness of slavery, as well as the abolition movement. The argument being made is that through the use of these narratives, fugitive slaves were able to have a largely significant impact on the abolition movement by disproving stereotypes, spreading awareness on the severity of slavery, and creating a sympathetic sentiment both domestically, and even internationally.

One of the main narratives that we will use to support this argument is the Narrative of Henry Box Brown, Who Escaped from Slavery Enclosed in a Box Three Feet Long and Two Wide. Written from a Statement of Facts Made by Himself. With Remarks Upon the Remedy for Slavery, by Charles Stearns and Henry Box Brown. The narrative itself is the captivating and heart wrenching story of Henry Box Brown and his escape from slavery. The narratives are told by Brown himself, while some prefacing and commentary is done by Stearns. Henry Box Brown was an African-American man, born into slavery in Virginia, 1816, and remarkably escaped by shipping himself in a box to Philadelphia, allowing millions around the world to hear his story. When looking at the details of this narrative, we must continue to ask what the purpose of this document was, what effect it had on the public, and how Brown’s experiences in slavery, as a fugitive, and as a free man compare to that of others during his time.

Interestingly enough, Brown begins his narrative by explaining to the reader that his intention is in fact not to discuss the “untold horrors of that fearful system of oppression, which for thirty-three long years entwined its snaky folds about” his soul (Brown 11). He explains that other fugitives have already done that far better than he ever could, and continues to explain that he will attempt to convey, if possible, the “beautiful” side of slavery from a slave’s point of view. Brown’s character and credibility can immediately be discussed based on how he chose to go about the opening of his story. With the use of such poetic language, he successfully communicates his mastery of the English language, an important element that will be discussed in a later section. He also takes an alternate approach, and shows his humility as a human being, by acknowledging the differences between his experience as a slave, with that of many others. He explains that he was never whipped once in his life, and that “if no blows are inflicted upon the slave’s body, and plenty of ‘bread and bacon’ is dealed out to him, he is therefore no sufferer” (Brown 12). This immediately has an effect on any reader, as it makes Brown seem even more trustworthy as a source, and makes the reader more emotionally invested in Brown and his story. As a result, the recounting of his story will have a larger and more impactful effect on those who read it.

Now the question that arises after reading the opening of Brown’s narrative is that if he does not consider himself to have suffered, at least relative to the suffering of other slaves, what was it that caused him to flee. He promptly addresses this question and explains “Far beyond, in terrible suffering, all outward cruelties of the foul system, are those inner pangs which rend the heart of fond affection, when the ‘bone of your bone, and the flesh of your flesh’ is separated from your embrace, by the ruthless hand of the merciless tyrant… and more fearful by far than all the blows of the bloody lash, or the pangs of cruel hunger are those lashings of the heart” (Brown 13). In this passage, Brown is referring to the cruel act of separating babies from their parents at birth to be sold back into the evil system of slavery. He eloquently describes this act as a far worse form of suffering than any amount of blows by a whip, or any degree of hunger. Despite the lack of physical harm, he paints a picture for the reader, attempting to illustrate the mental and emotional torture of having to experience your own flesh and blood being torn away from you and being forced into such a cruel and painful world. He continues to explain that there is no such thing as a kind slave master in such an evil system. Despite the fact that his owner was one of the most distinguished for his lack of cruelty and physical punishment, he did not hesitate to tear Brown’s wife and children from his embrace. It is the emotional damage that slavery inflicted upon Brown that propelled him to flee to Philadelphia in a three feet by two box for 27 hours. Therefore, Brown identifies this often overlooked aspect of the system of slavery as one of the most horrific and painful, and the main motivation behind his daring escape to freedom.

It is interesting to note that Brown continuously makes reference to other fugitive slave narratives which contain many of the horrific truths that he himself was not subject to. By doing so, he is constantly setting himself apart and in many ways downplaying his own insufferable experiences. Based on the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas, American Slave. Written by Himself, it is clear to see that Brown was very much correct, and his experience as a slave was in many ways starkly different to that of others. In his narrative, Douglas recounts that his slaveholder “would at times seem to take great pleasure in whipping a slave. I have often been awakened at the dawn of day by the most heart-rending shrieks of an own aunt of mine, whom he used to tie up to a joist, and whip upon her naked back till she was literally covered with blood. No words, no tears, no prayers, from his gory victim, seemed to move his iron heart from its bloody purpose. The louder she screamed, the harder he whipped; and where the blood ran fastest, there he whipped longest” (Douglas 6). Similar to Brown, Douglas’ mastery of the English language forces the reader to experience a painfully detailed and horrific illustration of the reality that is slavery. While these differences in their experiences are different, the general sentiment remains consistent. The collective efforts of these amazing men who fled to freedom were the main sources used to spread awareness about the evils taking place down south.

After traveling in a box for 27 hours, with no access to fresh air, and is thrown from steamboat to wagon, Henry Brown makes it to Philadelphia. He moves around in different cities after his arrival in the North, and it is in Boston where he first accounts the story of his sufferings in front of thousands. This was the beginning of Brown’s activism in the abolition movement. Toward the end of Brown’s narrative, he makes his intentions quite clear with a direct call to action for his intended audience- the North. Brown says, “I call upon you, Sons of the North, if your blood has not lost its bright color of liberty, and is not turned to the blackened gore which surrounds the slaveholder’s polluted, to arise in your might, and demand the liberation of the slaves. If you do not…I shall bear witness against you, as well as the slaveholders themselves” (Brown 54). This is an extremely powerful passage in the narrative because it is a direct message to the people of the North who are reading it, and it says that if they do not fight to end the evil that is slavery after knowing what they now know, then Brown, other slaves, and god himself would bear the same judgment upon them as he would the slaveowners.

One of the major effects of Henry Brown’s narrative and the narratives of other fugitive slaves was the disproving of widely held stereotypes, intended to create a perceived gap in intelligence and equality between whites and blacks. One of these stereotypes was that African Americans were unable to learn how to read and write because of their inherent lack of intelligence. The widely published, eloquently written narratives by these same African Americans who were enslaved their entire lives disproved that notion and opened the eyes of many who were previously ignorant. By doing so, right away it is clear to see how the narratives written by fugitive slaves bolstered the abolition movement. It humanized slaves and showed the white public that they are capable of thinking, reading, and writing at an equal if not superior level to that of whites when given the chance. Inequality still existed of course and worsened with time. In “How to Read a Slave Narrative” by William L. Andrews, he highlights many critical pieces of historical context, as well as guiding questions such as “what is the significance of the prefaces and introductions found in many slave narratives” (Andrews 1). The prefaces of the narratives being referred to were often written and co-authored by whites. The main reason for doing this was to increase the narrative perceived credibility, and to attract the more closed-minded white readers. Surely this could be interpreted as a sign of things to come.

These various narratives at the time were being mass produced and read by most of the nation, and even overseas. People were finally learning the true horror of slavery at an intimate level, and were evidently moved by it based on the push from Northern states to abolish slavery entirely in the time leading up to the civil war. However, during this same period of time between the 1790s and 1860s, as more slaves fled to the north, segregation steadily increased and was quickly normalized. Based on the writings of Elizabeth Pryor in, Colored Travelers: Mobility and the Fight for Citizenship before the Civil War, it is observed that “public vehicles were ripe settings for this contest over race, space and mobility…northern whites deemed it aggressive and dangerous for free people of color to enter public vehicles as equals” (Pryor 45). Arguably as a result of these rapidly expanding trends of segregation in the North, the Jim Crow laws were introduced as a solution to the eventual ratification of the 13th amendment which abolished slavery. These laws legitimized segregation in the United States and made it illegal for African Americans to have many of the same basic equal rights as whites. “Separate but equal” became the mindset of most of the country, as the slaves who were just given their freedom were thrust into yet another form of systematic oppression.

In conclusion, it is clear that through the use of narrative, fugitive slaves were able to have their voices heard around the world and are still discussed today. These narratives had a tremendous impact on the abolition movement. They disproved the ignorantly held notion that African Americans were incapable of learning to read and write. By selling more copies in some cases than classics such as Moby Dick, awareness of the extent of the evils of slavery was finally being realized and the sentiment of the public quickly began to shift. And finally through the use of direct calls to action such as that by Henry Brown towards the end of his story, the intent of these fugitives were clear, and those who read could not help but feel horrified and sympathetic, as well as shame should they continue to overlook it. The experiences of these freed men once they arrived in the North was far from equal, as segregation increased along with the number of fugitives escaping. However, the matter of the fight for equal rights and the end of segregation is an entirely separate, and equally significant topic. The fight for the abolishment of slavery became quickly catalyzed during this time, largely due to the many narratives coming out by fugitive slaves, and finally led to the ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865.

The 1800s were a tremulous time in our history. From this time period comes the bitter and tragic story of Celia.

The story of Celia began in the summer of 1850. Robert Newsom was a plantation owner from Callaway County, Missouri. He owned an expansive farm with multiple slaves. After the death of his wife, Newsom purchased Celia. At the time, Celia was only fourteen years old.

Shortly after Celia’s purchase, Newsom began to rape her. He would go to her cabin frequently and demand sex from the young girl. Celia was helpless to fend off his advances. Since she was considered Newsom’s ‘property’, she legally had no right to refuse him.

For years, Celia suffered at the hands of Robert Newsom. Celia finally found a small piece of happiness in 1850 when she began a relationship with George, another slave. Celia became pregnant in 1855. The child could have been either Newsom’s or George’s. It was at this point that George found out about Celia’s relationship with Newsom. He accused her of having an affair with Newsom and threatened to “have nothing more to do with her” unless she “quit the old man” (‘Celia, a Slave’, McLaurin, 1993). This was a major issue for Celia. She had no power to stop Newsom from raping her, but she cared for George and did not want their relationship to end.

Desperate, Celia attempted to speak with Newsom’s daughters, Virginia and Mary. Claiming that she was too ill from her pregnancy to deal with Newsom’s advances, she suggested that she would have to resort to defending herself with force should he try again. Newsom’s daughters ignored Celia’s pleas.

The situation came to a head in June of 1855, when Newsom came to Celia’s cabin to rape her once again. Celia begged Newsom to leave her alone and attempted to get away. When Newsom continued to advance on her, Celia grabbed a nearby stick “about as large as the upper part of a Windsor chair, but not so long” and hit him over the head with it (‘Celia, a Slave’, McLaurin, 1993). Newsom fell to the ground. Celia then hit him over the head again, killing the slave master.

After murdering the man, Celia faced a terrifying situation. She had killed her master. At the time, this was punishable by death by hanging. In order to hide the evidence, Celia burned Newsom’s body and spread the ashes so that they would not be found.

The next morning, Newsom’s family realized that he was missing. After searching for hours, the family feared the worst. William Powell, the Newsom family’s neighbor, began to question the Newsom family’s slaves. It was George who gave away Celia, stating that the last time Newsom was seen he was making his way to Celia’s cabin. They immediately began to question Celia, who denied any involvement. After continuous pressure from the investigators, Celia admitted to the murder of Robert Newsom.

Celia’s trial began in 1855. Her lawyer, John Jameson, planned to argue that Celia had legally protected herself against her master, citing a Missouri law that said a woman could defend herself against a man if her honor was being threatened. The issue that Jameson faced was convincing the judge that the law applied to slaves, despite being legally considered property.

In the end, Jameson and Celia were unsuccessful in their plea. In November, the judge and jury found Celia to be guilty. She was sentenced to death. Jameson drafted an appeal to the Missouri Supreme Court, but the appeal was denied. In December of 1855, Celia was marched to the gallows and hung.

The story of Celia is significant because it shows the horrors that African Americans of the time experienced. To Southerners, slaves were simply property. They had no rights and were not on the same level as whites. This ideology had changed within the North around the time of Celia. To many, slavery was immoral and fundamentally wrong. These differences in opinions led to tensions between the North and the South. Shortly after Celia’s death, the Civil War began.

Introduction

Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, remains one of the most influential African American leaders in the history of the United States. His life story is a testament to the power of transformation and the struggle for racial justice. Malcolm’s early experiences with racism, including the tragic murder of his father by white supremacists and the institutionalization of his mother, deeply impacted his views on race and society. As a young man, he turned to a life of crime, but his incarceration led to a profound spiritual and intellectual awakening. Embracing the teachings of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X emerged as a powerful voice for the rights of African Americans, advocating for racial pride, economic self-sufficiency, and the right to self-defense against racial violence. His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1964 marked a significant turning point, broadening his perspective on race and unity. Malcolm X’s assassination on February 21, 1965, cut his dynamic life short, yet his legacy as a symbol of resistance and a proponent of human rights continues to inspire generations. Through his fiery rhetoric and unwavering commitment to justice, Malcolm X challenged America to confront its racial prejudices and work towards true equality.

100 Words Essay about Malcolm X

Malcolm X, an emblematic figure of the civil rights movement, epitomized the struggle for racial equality in America. Born into adversity, his early encounters with racism shaped his advocacy for African American rights. Transforming from a life of crime to a leading voice for change, Malcolm’s journey was marked by his dynamic leadership within the Nation of Islam and his later embrace of Sunni Islam, which broadened his views on race and unity. His powerful oratory skills and promotion of self-defense against racial oppression left an indelible mark on the fight for civil rights. Assassinated in 1965, Malcolm X’s legacy as a fearless and tireless advocate for justice continues to inspire and resonate across generations, symbolizing the ongoing struggle for equality and human rights.

250 Words Essay about Malcolm X

Malcolm X, a figure synonymous with the civil rights movement, remains a towering symbol of the fight against racial injustice. His life, marked by transformation and fervent activism, reflects a profound narrative of redemption and purpose. Born Malcolm Little, his early years were fraught with the harsh realities of racism, leading to a troubled youth. However, his incarceration became the catalyst for a profound metamorphosis. Through self-education and reflection, Malcolm adopted the teachings of the Nation of Islam, emerging as a vocal advocate for African American empowerment and resistance against systemic racism.

Malcolm X’s philosophy evolved over time, advocating initially for separation rather than integration, a stance that contrasted with other civil rights leaders. His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1964 was a pivotal moment, expanding his views on race and unity and leading to a more inclusive approach to the struggle for equality. Malcolm’s eloquence and uncompromising pursuit of justice galvanized many, but also made him a target.

His assassination in 1965 was a tragic end to a life that had come to embody the complexities of the civil rights era. Yet, Malcolm X’s legacy endures, transcending his mortality. His life’s work continues to inspire those committed to challenging racial discrimination and inequality. Malcolm X’s journey from a troubled youth to a symbol of black pride and human rights is a testament to the enduring power of transformation and the relentless pursuit of justice.

400 Words Essay about Malcolm X

Malcolm X remains one of the most compelling figures in American history, embodying the tumultuous struggle for civil rights and racial justice. Born Malcolm Little in 1925, his life was a testament to the power of transformation and the indomitable spirit of resistance against systemic oppression. Malcolm’s early experiences with racial prejudice, including the violent death of his father and the institutionalization of his mother, ingrained in him a deep-seated mistrust of the white establishment. These formative years, marked by pain and anger, set the stage for his later activism.

His journey took a pivotal turn during his incarceration, where he encountered the teachings of the Nation of Islam. This experience reshaped Malcolm’s worldview, leading him to adopt the surname “X” as a symbol of lost African heritage. As a minister of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X quickly rose to prominence, advocating for black empowerment, self-sufficiency, and a stark rejection of integration as a means to achieve racial equality. His articulate, passionate rhetoric made him an influential figure, though his views often sparked controversy.

Malcolm’s pilgrimage to Mecca in 1964 was a transformative experience that led him to embrace a more inclusive vision of race and brotherhood. This shift in perspective marked a new chapter in his activism, as he began to advocate for civil rights within a global context, emphasizing human rights over mere civil rights. His newfound approach sought to unify, rather than divide, but also highlighted the global nature of racial injustice.

Malcolm X’s assassination in 1965 was a profound loss, silencing one of the most dynamic voices of the civil rights movement. However, his legacy endures, transcending the era in which he lived. Malcolm’s life story is a powerful narrative of redemption, from a troubled youth to a symbol of black pride and self-determination. His evolution from a nationalistic firebrand to a global human rights advocate illustrates the complexity of his character and the depth of his impact on the struggle for equality.

Today, Malcolm X is remembered not only for his fiery rhetoric and unwavering commitment to justice but also for his contribution to the broader discourse on race, identity, and human rights. His teachings continue to inspire new generations to question the status quo and to fight for a more just and equitable society. Malcolm X’s legacy is a reminder of the ongoing struggle against racial discrimination and the importance of steadfastness in the pursuit of justice.

500 Words Essay about Malcolm X

Malcolm X, born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, emerged from the crucible of racial prejudice and personal adversity to become one of the most influential African American leaders of the 20th century. His life’s journey from a troubled youth to a prominent figure in the civil rights movement encapsulates a narrative of profound transformation, driven by an unyielding quest for justice and equality.

The early years of Malcolm’s life were marred by the violent racism of the era, which claimed the life of his father and destabilized his family. These experiences sowed the seeds of discontent and rebellion in Malcolm, leading him down a path of delinquency. However, it was during his incarceration that Malcolm’s ideological metamorphosis began. Immersing himself in literature and the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm emerged with a new identity and a fervent desire to uplift African Americans.

As a minister and spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X advocated for racial pride, economic independence, and the rejection of integration as a means of achieving racial equality. His eloquence and uncompromising stance on black empowerment resonated with many African Americans, who were disillusioned with the slow progress of the civil rights movement. Malcolm’s rhetoric, often perceived as incendiary, challenged not only the white establishment but also the mainstream civil rights leadership, advocating instead for a more radical approach to achieving justice.

Malcolm’s pilgrimage to Mecca in 1964 marked a significant turning point in his life and ideology. Witnessing the unity of Muslims from diverse racial backgrounds led him to adopt a more inclusive outlook on race and humanity. This experience broadened his perspective, leading him to emphasize human rights over civil rights and to seek solidarity with oppressed peoples worldwide. Upon his return, Malcolm sought to establish a secular organization, the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU), aimed at addressing the social and economic issues facing African Americans.

Despite his evolving views, Malcolm X remained a figure of controversy and was often met with suspicion and hostility, both from the white community and from factions within the Nation of Islam. His assassination on February 21, 1965, in Harlem, marked the end of a life that had become emblematic of the struggle for racial justice and equality. Yet, the legacy of Malcolm X has endured, transcending the era of his life and death.

Malcolm X’s contributions to the civil rights movement and his influence on the discourse surrounding race and inequality in America are profound. His life’s work challenged the nation to confront its racial prejudices and to acknowledge the systemic injustices that African Americans faced. Malcolm’s insistence on self-determination, his critique of systemic racism, and his later advocacy for global solidarity among oppressed peoples have left an indelible mark on the struggle for human rights.

In the years since his death, Malcolm X has been celebrated as a visionary leader whose ideas continue to inspire movements for social justice and equality. His autobiography, co-authored with Alex Haley, has introduced countless readers to his complex life and thoughts, cementing his status as a pivotal figure in American history. Malcolm X’s legacy is a testament to the power of transformation and the enduring struggle for a more just and equitable world.

“Freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor, it must be demanded by the oppressed” (Martin Luther King Jr)

Martin Luther King Jr is the most well-known pioneer of the non-violent social activist movement for African-Americans. His movements were focused on ending racial discrimination against African-Americans by desegregating public transports, public parks and schools where non-whites were not allowed (Virtanen and Huddy 1998)

His movement had such a strong impact on the people and the country that it led to Civil rights Act 1964 authorizing the federal government to desegregate public transport and areas and also to end the racial discrimination in jobs as well. His struggle resulted in voting rights being granted to African-Americans and later they were given the right to a settlement without facing any discrimination.

His movement was a culmination of previous and future movements for the same purposes. His tireless efforts laid the foundation of non-white rights, which still echo in America’s conscience, it improved their social and financial conditions and helped to advance democracy in the society. His vision changed the course of the country’s history and his struggle continues to inspire many till date.

History

Born in Atlanta, King’s personal courage and eloquent skills attracted national attention in 1955 when he was arrested along with other activists for boycotting Montgomery bus service which required non-whites to surrender their seats to white people and were made to stand or sit at the back. The incident that ignited the protests were when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white resident. This resulted in Rosa Parks being arrested. To protest against her arrest Black Community Leaders formed Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by Martin Luther King, a role that placed him in the front for future fight for civil rights. The purpose of the peaceful protests was to put an end to the discriminatory behavior and racial biasedness towards African-Americans.

The year 1955-1968

The year 1955 marked the beginning of the great leadership of Martin Luther King. As mentioned above, Rosa Park’s incident led to the peaceful protests by King because he had seen what African-Americans were going through. Despite serving heroically in world wars, despite serving the country in every possible way they could they still were denied rights and status and were being subject to immoral segregations at all places. The success of this boycott gave rise to the peaceful protests and sit-ins by African-Americans and liberal whites. Although it resulted in resistance by white supremacists as well but people were now standing up for their rights.

In 1957, the Little Rock, Arkansas school board voted in favor of integrating the school system. However disputes broke out when Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus called out national guards to prevent the enrollment of nine of the African-American students in to the school. The students were harassed and attacked by the white students that forced the government to deploy their men to provide safety to the students. Although the harassment and racial slurs continued for a year but non-white students were allowed to attend the school.

Civil rights movement received an infusion of energy when students in some states began to sit in in local stores and lunch areas to protest against segregation. These were peaceful sit-ins with no violence but still they were met with brute forces. These sit-ins however led to such protests throughout Southern states.

Later in 1963 mass demonstrations were again carried out by King, which was countered by white police with dogs and fire hoses. This attracted media attention and resulted in more protests. It is where King delivered his “I have a dream speech”, the vision of which was to end discrimination in the world. This march was a huge success with many protestors throughout the country marching with him. It had six official goals, (a) meaningful civil rights laws, (b) massive federal works program (c) full and fair employment to African Americans (d) decent housing for them (e) the right to vote and (e) integrated education system

After the march, King along with his other fellows met President John. F Kennedy was willing to pass the bill but it wasn’t clear whether he had enough votes to do so. But he was assassinated in 1963. The new President Lyndon Johnson decided to assert his power in congress and implement Kennedy’s legislative agenda. (Steven Kasher, The Civil Rights Movement, A Photographic History, 1954-68)

This March and speech earned King fame at home and abroad. Time Magazine named him Man of the year and in the same year he became the youngest person to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

In 1964 President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, preventing discrimination in employment and to help prevent workplace discrimination.

In 1965, President Johnson signed Voting Rights Act abolishing the literacy test to qualify for voting.

However, after 1965 the protests turned violent resulting in wide spread riots and killings. And finally in 1968 Martin Luther King was assassinated when he was shot in the hotel’s balcony. Just days after his assassination, Fair Housing Act 1968 became the law where it was ruled housing facilities shall be provided equally to everyone without any discrimination based on color, race and ethnicity. The year 1968 although marked an end to King’s life but the reforms he intended to bring and changes he wanted to see in the country continued. Many later leaders and reformers followed his footsteps.

Impact it left on the history of the United States and the World

King’s death did not put an end to his civil rights movement. In fact it proliferated many such movements that led people from marginalized groups to fight for their rights.

If we drift back to the time before Martin Luther King started his journey, a violent, discriminatory and supremacist behavior of whites will be seen. Although there were efforts made previously by some to liberate African-Americans from this tyranny but the efforts King has made have left a long-lasting impact on the course of history.

A renowned evolutionary biologist in his famous treatise on human evolution makes the case that the human ability to organize and cooperate beyond of the lines of kinships is what separates humans from hominid species. The greatest leaders of humans are experts at facilitating this. Martin Luther was one of those great leaders and any such activists who are willing to bring a change must look at a page from King’s book.(David Sloan Wilson, 2007).

African-Americans have equal voting rights now. They have equal rights to settlements. Any sort of discrimination is met with dislike and hostility.

Although it took decades for the actual change to happen because change isn’t an overnight phenomenon but the seeds that were sowed by him resulted in a fruitful result where slavery many years later was abolished for once and for all. Segregation was ended.

50 years ago it was prohibited for black people to drink from the same fountain, to, use the same restrooms, stay in same hotels or study in the same school but do the same conditions still persist in the US? The answer is obviously No. it was his efforts that brought people together. African-Americans got their rights. The United States of today is entirely different from what it used to be. Inter-racial marriages are now common.

Today, social movements such as Black Lives matter are built on King’s legacy of pacifism that highlights police brutality against non-violent black men and women. In fact king’s messages reverberate strongly in Black Lives Movement’s literature. This movement began in 1960s and was left unfinished (Alexander 2010). It picked up from where it was left in the twentieth century.

Now in almost every Hollywood movie we can see a non-white character playing different roles that shows that white people have accepted them as their equals.

The most important change we can see in the course of history is when in 2008 USA elected its first African-American President Barrack Obama. Although it happened years late but it shows that the people of USA were willing to accept such a huge change, they were willing to accept a non-white person as the head of their state. This is the change for which Martin Luther King had strived hard.

A survey after the election of President Obama was conducted which showed that two-thirds of Americans believed that black people had reached racial equality (Bobo 2011)

It is his phenomenal efforts and non-violent movement that drove the world and the country towards this change.

References

1. Virtanen, S. V., & Huddy, L(1998). Old fashioned racism and new forms of racial prejudice. The journal of politics, 60(2), 311-332
2. Kasher, Steven. The Civil Rights Movement: A Photographic History, 1954-68. Abbeville Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0789201232
3. Wilson, D. S. (2007). Evolution for everyone: How Darwin’s theory can change the way we think about our lives. New York, NY: Delacorte Press.
4. Alexander, M & West, C. (2010) The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colour-blindness. The New Press.
5. Bobo, L, D (2011). Somewhere between Jim Crow & Post Racialism: Reflections on the Racial Divides in America Today. Daedalus, 140(2), 11-36

Sources

1. Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In. African American Odyssey.
2. Little Rock School Desegregation (1957). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
3. Rosa Marie Parks Biography. Rosa and Raymond Parks.
4. The Little Rock Nine. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior: Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site.

What a coincidence that this weeks reading coincides with the anniversary of Malcom X’s death. Fifty-five years ago on February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was assassinated. The Autobiography of Malcom X is by far one of the most influential books that I’ve read in my life; I want to take some time to reflect on this great mans life.

Malcom X is an example on so many levels; He is the example of triumph over adversity. He is an example of a man completely transforming his life. One of the most poignant or powerful moments in his the book is when Malcolm X talks about his encounter with one of his English teachers when he was in the eight grade. Academically he was at the top of his class and one of the only black students. When asked what he wanted to do with his life Malcom answered that he wanted to be a lawyer. His teacher replies that is not realistic. A young boys dreams were crushed. What if Malcom’s teacher was black? This goes to show the power of the black experience in the classroom. As Walker depicts in her article African American Teaching in the South: 1940-1960, black educators worked to instill high aspirations in children.

The autobiography of Malcom X opened my eyes. Growing up I did not hear about Malcom X or his perspective. My school did not teach us about Malcom they taught us about Martin. Martin Luther King and Malcom X are two sides of the same coin. Malcom X was a modern thinker — It was Malcom X who almost single handily transformed the racial consciousness of black people so that they no longer were ashamed of being black. Malcolm X symbolized the kind of attitude and political perspective of many of the youth coming out of urban areas in the North.

Although, Obama and Malcom X may be seen as opposites end of the political spectrum, as Coates illustrates in We Were Eight Years in Power, one can observe similarities. Like Malcolm, Obama is misunderstood in the sense that the country expected the first African-American president to eliminate America’s racial problem. Like Obama, Malcolm stood for the promotion of human rights. On the contrary, Malcom X spoke to the “white” media but he was not trying to convince them what he was saying was true because he knew they were going to distort what he said. He used the experience of black people in the ghetto, the people that he was talking to. Obama on the other hand, a master of eloquence, used the attention of the media to garner support.

Malcom was many things — controversial, angry, loud, hungry, ambitious, confident — but above all, he was real, he was humble. Malcolm to me means oneness; He stood for what he believed in and he wasn’t afraid to change his beliefs when they were no longer true. They may have killed Malcom but they didn’t kill his ideas.