Category: African American

Police brutality toward the African-American population of the United States is an issue that has received nationwide publicity in recent years. Some studies claim that it is caused by the American culture of white supremacy (Hayes, p. 2). Others, on the contrary, argue that the disproportional targeting of the African-American population is a myth, since evidence suggests that the police are only responding to the rate of deadly force assaults they are experiencing (Johnson, p. 9). This paper aims to examine both viewpoints and their coverage of the issue and to introduce possible solutions that would respond to both perspectives.

Statistics

Mapping Police Violence (MPV) is a website dedicated to spreading awareness of police brutality toward the black population in the United States by providing essential statistics, data, and trends analysis. According to MPV, black people are three times more likely to be killed by police than white people. Out of 346 killings of African-American men in 2015, thirty percent of black victims were unarmed, MPV claims. The website also contains a list of 17 of the 100 largest U.S. cities in which police killed black men at higher rates than the U.S. murder rate in 2014 (MPV). MPV adds that there is hardly any correlation between the rate of violent crimes in the city and the rate of police killings: For example, Buffalo and Newark police departments had low rates of police violence despite high crime rates while Spokane and Bakersfield had relatively low crime rates and high rates of police violence. Moreover, one of the most important facts regarding the issue is that 97% of cases in 2015 did not result in any officer(s) involved being charged with a crime (MPV). Overall, this data seems horrifying and justifies the backlash it has created among the general public.

Community Terrorism: Hayes Response

Floyd W. Hayes III is one of many scholars who has answered the growing concerns regarding police brutality toward the African-American community. In his article War Against the People: Killer Cops and Community Terrorism, he presents his uncompromising opinion on the topic, which, according to Hayes, is far from new: At least since the 1960s, black and brown communities in big cities across America have complained constantly and publicly about police brutality and repression (p. 2). Hayes goes so far as to compare the current actions of the police to those of slave masters in the past: The order of police violence, terrorism, and cold-blooded murder directed at black Americans today takes place with a systematic viciousness and savagery comparable to the dehumanizing sadism of white slave-owners (p. 2). He states that the main reason for such an attitude is racism, which promotes a criminalized image of black people as violent and threatening [&] black women, men, and children always already are guilty of something (Hayes, p. 2). He also points out some justifications for police killings used by the officials, for instance, the tendency to deny any racist motivation and cynically characterize each event as an isolated incident (Hayes, p. 3), and criticizes them thus: the increasing incidents of wanton police brutality and murder of blacks are by no stretch of the imagination isolated incidents (Hayes, p. 4).

In general, Hayes article seems comparatively vehement and personal in tone and, therefore, lacks important facts and analysis. For instance, he does not provide any statistical data and only addresses two isolated cases of police violence in his exploration, whereas his description of the public response to the issue is limited.

Battling the Myths: Johnsons Argument

Richard Johnson, on the other hand, provides a much more factual and in-depth analysis of the problem. His research is based on the portrayal of police violence in the media, and he aims to evaluate the big claims made by newspapers concerning the issue. Right at the start, he states that most media sources use unofficial data because the governments resources are very limited and include only the FBI, which is criticized because between 20% and 30% of law enforcement agencies do not report data in a given year (Johnson, p. 3), and CDC data, which comes from a federal supplemental form that is completed by coroners and physicians when they complete a death certificate (Johnson, p. 3). Both sources, however, release data two years after the collection year due to long processing times. Therefore, the information used in mass media is not only unofficial but also possibly untrue, since there is no way to compare it to the official data that has not yet been released. Having said that, Johnson based the rest of his paper on data from the media, providing a point-by-point response to the claims. His main argument is that the number of black killings by the police is proportional to the number of violent attacks on police officers by African-American men: African-American men may make up 6.6% of the U.S. population, but they account for 33% of those who have murdered police officers in the last three years. In other words, African-American men are five times more likely to kill a police officer, but only 3.7 times more likely to be killed by the police (Johnson, p. 8). Johnson also criticizes the medias definition of unarmed victims: 11% of all law enforcement officers murdered in the line of duty from 2013 through 2015 were killed by someone the Washington Post would label as unarmed (p. 7). Finally, he compares the statistics of deaths caused by the police with mortalities brought on by public health workers: The risk of death from a doctor or nurse is 254 times greater than the risk of death from police use of force (Johnson, p. 4).

Johnson provides a clear factual analysis to contradict the portrayal of police brutality in the media. However, he only uses general statistics and data and does not evaluate specific cases on their own, which is necessary to determine whether or not there is a tendency toward unjust killings of black men by the police.

Conclusion

Overall, it is clear that both viewpoints have their limitations. However, the combination of the two provides a well-rounded view of the issue. Whereas the portrayal of police brutality in the media could indeed be exaggerated, the number of police mistakes leading to tragic results is still high and must be addressed. Campaign Zero is a movement that intends to target racialized police brutality; however, most of their solutions would have an impact on police violence not just against the African-American population, but against all citizens of the United States: they promote the introduction of police body cameras to prove the necessity of defensive actions and extensive training that aims to limit health consequences for both parties in case of an active fight, as well as community oversight and fair police union contracts (Campaign Zero). These solutions could potentially help build a trusting relationship between the police and the citizens, regardless of their race, thus ensuring higher efficiency on the part of the U.S. justice system.

Works Cited

Campaign Zero 2016, Solutions. Campaign Zero.

Hayes, Floyd W. III. War Against the People: Killer Cops and Community Terrorism. Critical Sociology (2005): 1-5.

Johnson, Richard R. Dispelling the Myths Surrounding Police Use of Lethal Force. 

Mapping Police Violence 2016, Police Violence Map. Mapping Police Violence.

Research Purpose

The present phenomenological study involving African American women aims to explore the barriers that the population faces when seeking higher education. The needs of the defined population are often overlooked by policymakers, teachers, and administrators, which presents a further challenge for their prosperity in a future career (Ricks, 2014). The purpose of the study is to shed light on a significant achievement gap that prevents women of African American background from accessing educational services. However, monitoring the attainment of education and its progress has long been included in the measures of both social and professional success (Carter, 2009).

Sample Description

Conducting qualitative research, it is crucial to consider several factors prior to defining the sample and its size. The key objective is concerned with recruiting study participants that would be right for the research, which means that they should meet the criteria that are relevant for the study. Sample size should be large enough to sufficiently describe the issue of interest and address the research at hand. However, large sample sizes provide the risk of data repetition (Kaplan, Chambers, & Glasgow, 2014). For the current study, the sample of women of African American background aged between 16 and 25 will be included. The size of the sample is 50 participants; the choice of the sample size is attributed to the need to explore the life experiences of individuals within a reasonable timeframe.

Research Aims

Gaining an understanding of the barriers that prevent African American women from accessing quality higher education is vital for exploring the role of race within the educational context. There is a growing problem of relevant parties, such as policymakers in the sphere of education, failing to understand the multi-dimensionality of the forces at work in learning and teaching, which leads to a temporary approach to the issue (Serdyukov, 2017). Due to the fact that women of color will make up more than half of the US population by 2050, dismissing them out of the national agenda on education is ineffective, educationally unsound, and inequitable (Bowman, Comer, & Johns, 2018).

Furthermore, despite the growing concerns of the public regarding the lack of education among African American females, there is a failure of researchers to explore and conceptualize the complex issues of gender and race. Rather, when scholars study marginalized populations in education, the emphasis is mainly placed on Black men and White women, with limited attention given to the educational challenges of Black females.

Conducting Research

In order to attract relevant study participants to engage, the researcher will use flyers as a tool for disseminating information about the research (Gelinas et al., 2018). For example, the flyers will be posted in approved areas as well as handled directly to potential research participants. The key focus for the dissemination of information is faculty members because they are the target audience of potential participants (Hanneke & Link, 2019). Furthermore, the researcher will request email information of faculty members in order to connect with them online and inquire about their participation. The interviews with staff members were intended to be carried out in the faculty office.

Interviews

Staff interviews will be conducted in the context of Prince Georges Community College. The interviewed participants will be of African American background because of their capacity to offer insights into the experiences that would be valuable to the conclusions of the study (Alloh, Hemingway, & Turner-Wilson, 2019). Race-specific experiences play an essential role in the study because the subject matter is concerned with what African American women go through when seeking education. The population of interest in the study is highly marginalized, with girls and young women having to adopt coping mechanisms to deal with the issue of gendered racism (Perry, Harp, & Oser, 2013).

Furthermore, these methods are often misunderstood by educators and other school personnel, causing further difficulties in ensuring that African American females receive the education they deserve.

The purpose of interviewing staff at the community college of choice is associated with the need to understand the general perspective of authoritative figures on the defined problem (Edwards & Holland, 2013). As the staff to be interviewed is of African American descent, it will also be possible to attain an insight into their personal experiences with education, including the barriers that prevented them from attaining education. The issue of discrimination at the educational institution will also be raised in the interviews with college staff members (Kaplin, Lee, Hutchens, & Rooksby, 2019).

This is important because the band-aid approaches implemented by policymakers often neglect the effect that gendered racism plays in the educational attainment of African American women, which is one of the most underrepresented groups. During the interviews with Prince Georges Community College staff, three important questions will be raised. Answers to the questions will offer a researcher an all-encompassing look on the perspectives of educators as well as their experiences when it comes to dealing with the challenges of providing African American women with educational support and guidance.

Questions

The first question is What are the demographics leadership and administrative staff at the institution?

Response versions:

1. Our institution is diverse, with people of color being included in both administrative and leadership staff.
2. I would say that there is not enough diversity in the management makeup of our college, and this could lead to further complications.

The second question is What institutional procedures are in place to address potential barriers to success for African American women?

Response versions:

1. We do provide support and guidance to all students that require the addressing of educational barriers.
2. I think that there are no specific institutional procedures; instead, every student is dealt with individually based on their needs.

The third question is What are your concerns of potential barriers to student success overall, including African American women, and how do current college guidelines, policies, and programs address these obstacles to overcome them?

Response versions:

1. My key concern is that young African American women would lack the resources and educational background to become successful in the future.
2. I am worried that the current guidelines and programs offer only a band-aid approach to the issue, failing to understand the multi-dimensional nature of the issue.

Conclusion

The problem of limitations to the educational achievement of African American women requires more attention on the part of researchers. The proposed qualitative study indents to explore the issue from the standpoint of educators at Prince Georges Community College. Individuals who regularly work with students will offer and insight on whether the existing solutions are useful for addressing the barriers that African American females face in college. Moreover, it is expected to reveal the approaches that are currently being carried out.

References

Alloh, F., Hemingway, A., & Turner-Wilson, A. (2019). Exploring the experiences of West African immigrants living with type 2 diabetes in the UK. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(19), 3516.

Bowman, B., Comer, J., & Johns, D. (2018). Addressing the African American achievement gap: Three leading educators issue a call to action. Young Children, 73(2), 1-10.

Carter, P. L. (2009). Equity and empathy: Toward racial and educational achievement in the Obama era. Harvard Educational Review, 79(2), 287-297.

Edwards, R., & Holland, J. (2013). What is qualitative interviewing? London, UK: Bloomsbury.

Gelinas, L., Pierce, R., Winkler, S., Cohen, I. G., Lynch, H. F., & Bierer, B. E. (2017). Using social media as a research recruitment tool: Ethical issues and recommendations. The American Journal of Bioethics: AJOB, 17(3), 3-14.

Hanneke, R., & Link, J. M. (2019). The complex nature of research dissemination practices among public health faculty researchers. Journal of the Medical Library Association: JMLA, 107(3), 341-351.

Kaplan, R. M., Chambers, D. A., & Glasgow, R. E. (2014). Big data and large sample size: A cautionary note on the potential for bias. Clinical and Translational Science, 7(4), 342-346.

Kaplin, W., Lee, B., Hutchens, N., & Rooksby, J. (2019). The law of higher education (6th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Perry, B. L., Harp, K. L., & Oser, C. B. (2013). Racial and gender discrimination in the stress process: Implications for African American womens health and well-being. Sociological Perspectives: SP: Official Publication of the Pacific Sociological Association, 56(1), 25-48.

Ricks, S. (2014). Falling through the cracks: Black girls and education. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning, 4(1), 10-21.

Serdyukov, P. (2017). Innovation in education: What works, what doesnt, and what to do about it? Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 10(1), 4-33.

Introduction

Chapter 7 of the book presents the slave culture from the perspective of the negroes. The life of the negroes who were slaves revolved around their family and their masters family. On more occasion than one, their own personal family life was sacrificed for the cause of their master and his family or even, country. The resistance to slavery seem to have been evolved from the culture and the way the communities interpreted the incidents happening around them. Naturally, the happening around them in terms of the slave culture which involved their own family life; their own love life and the rest of the social and cultural involvements, altered the way the slaves looked at life. And the way these people were enslaved made them to look forward to a place that had equality amongst them.

And this formed the roots of resistance in the hearts of the people.

Family Life

The family life of the slaves was a restricted existence controlled by the masters as the incidence killing of a boy by his mother reflects. The desperate nature of their own family life, is very well exposed. The family structure was grossly undermined when the slave owners chastised the slave in front of the slave children, says Berlin and Rowland (1997). The slave children were reared by the slave owners rather than by their parents. The rules that governed the children were all brought about by the slave owners and this meant that the parents had little or no control in how the children grew up. The extent to which the children were educated or groomed depended on the attitude of the slave owners.

The legal structures in the society and power of the authority were all in favor of the slave owners. This is amply reflected by the incident on the death of the boy and later in the two runaway outlaws. The owners were interested in ensuring that they had their share of the people protected and their own interest taken care of, in the first place rather than any thing else. Since the masters played a very important role in the growth of the child and therefore, the family, the life of the slaves depended not only on their own parents but also on the mentality of their masters.

This made them to runaway from their homes whenever they could find an opportunity. Living in the woods as they called it, was something that every one had tried. But after seeing the tough life in the woods, they naturally had to come back home. Secondly, people who were not under a master were sure to get sold to another person. As the letter of Sargry Brown indicates, people try to save themselves from getting sold to a random person who could be pretty troublesome. Families try to live close by or with the same family. This is not something that is always possible. And obviously families had to live separate.

As the story of the Louisa and Archer Alexander show, they do have a close kinship that works for years. The family commitment and attachment is very clear and the kinship maintained among them is also shown by the letters inquiring about the various relatives. This is also reflected in the essay by Berlin and Rowland.

The family ties were existing closely. But they were being broken by the law and by the slave masters and owners. Naturally, such happenings were generating a great deal of ill will and a seed to fight against the injustice rendered to them.

Gender Identity

Though the earlier studies had claimed that the slave families are female centered, later studies and work have proved that the families are, as elsewhere, male centered. Males in the slave families found other means to ensure that their importance in the family is maintained. This is reflected in the essay by Deborah White. A closer analysis of the letters and the incidents presented in the Chapter 7 of the book also reflects the same idea. For instance, the letter from Sargry Brown indicates that she had been writing three letters requesting her husband to take care of her requirements. Obviously, this has been the practice in her household. The husband had to take the lead and take care of the wife and the children to as great an extent as possible.

Due to force of the situation that they are in, this was not always possible. The law of the land and the high handedness of the owners had a very important role to play in the lives of the males. As White points out, the masters also looked at the males of the slave households as the leaders and instructed them accordingly. All this indicates that the gender roles and identity were very well held by the slave families. This was also reflected during the civil war when the husbands took upon themselves the need to protect their families. This was seen in a number of places during the war, according to White.

Protecting their own families is a priority to every man. As White points out, the male in the family led the family to sow seeds or to plough the land. There was no question of who was the leader in the family. Though due to the domination of the slave owners in the way the family lived, it was still a problem for the male in the family to ascertain his position. This also led to a large scale differences and sowed the seeds of resistance. Certainly cultural changes and the community both black and the white, has an impact on the rise of the resistance.

The World-View

The slave families did have stories to tell their children. As Lawrence Levine points out, though their tales were not very focused, they were small and reflected the persons view of the world. In most cases, it was found that there was a attack on the weak but the weak withstood by playing a trick on the stronger animal or person. On most occasions, the stories centered around the animals. This reflects the original concept of the researchers that most of the stories of the Afro-Americans could traced back or connected to African main land. There were similarities in their stories even though generations have passed through after their migration to Europe or America.

The nature of the stories seem to inform the listeners, even if you are weak you can over come the toughest and the strongest with your wits. This is reinforced by every story that is told over. In addition, it also indicates that the tough or the strong men always tried to subjugate and make use of the weak. The Lion would try to kill a goat, while the fox would try to pounce on a rooster. These are all natural occurrences of the strong against the weak. The stories reflect their world view and indirectly their own lives. However, at the end of the story they are indicating a positive opening for their lives too.

While the stories reflect the world view of the story teller, his own understanding on how and what is happening in the world, it is also morale booster for the people who are listening as well as to the person who is telling it. It is an indirect way of letting out his own thoughts and how one can get out of the impasse that they are in. It is only natural for the listener to believe that by using wit and appropriate timing, they could overcome their weakness and win over even the stronger opponent.

Conclusion

Hampered family life, weakened gender role and an understanding of what is happening around a person, would all ensure that the person would rise against it once the opportunity arises. It is important to note that seeds of any resistance movement are not just in one single person or one single incident. There could be a proximate cause to a movement. But then, the overall need of any large movement will be the involvement of a community. The black communities in the Americas were enslaved and the lives of the slaves were miserable enough. The community lived through this modifying and evolving to suit the situation.

They had acclimatized themselves to the family life that was existing because of a hostile legal system. They also evolved their own gender roles that got altered by the slave masters. This became the new slave culture. All this added to their woes. It was only natural, that they try to resist the subjugation that they are being put to. Apart from this, the community discussed between themselves in the form of stories. Stories reflected the thoughts of the community about the way they are being used. This also had a growing impact on the thoughts of the community as a whole.

Culture gets altered because of the changes in the community and the legal bindings that happen in them. Society responds to such changes. Those communities that find themselves in a losing position, generally try to rise and fight for their rights. This happens when the community slowly realizes its position and also tries to disseminate their thoughts across the community. This has happened in the Afro-American community resulting in their rising.

Introduction

African American people fought for their rights throughout the centuries. These days they are not oppressed and humiliated anymore; they were given equal rights with white people and are full-fledged members of society. Acquiring equal status in white society gave African Americans a possibility to take part in its social life; this resulted in their self-realizations through literature, music, and cinematography. These days films with African Americans in leading roles are a frequent occurrence though people still argue whether the portrayal of black people in movies is verisimilar or whether some directors still have stereotypes towards them refusing to present more respectable screen images for African Americans (Vaughn, 2002). The analysis of the literature discussing the portrayal of African Americans in films shows that there exist different opinions regarding this issue. Four journal articles exemplifying this topic have been thoroughly studied and the ideas presented in them were evaluated on the basis of careful logic and results from scientific investigations (Cozby, 2009). It is necessary to compare and contrast the findings of these articles and to find out what the study of each article deals with, what the findings of the articles are, whether or not the studies had any flaws, and which areas remained uncovered.

Literature Review

The articles under consideration describe portraying of African American people in films and discuss other issues connected with this topic. Thus, the article Television and the Socialization of the African American Child: Images of Marginality by Gordon L. Berry deals with television as a tool facilitating the socialization process of African Americans, particularly, black children. The socialization process is defined as one by which children learn the rules and regulations of their own family group, their culture, and their society (Berry, 1998). The article states that modern mass media performs the role of a socializing institution with television functioning as a medium which transmits the values of the nation.

Another article, Television and Social Identity: Race Representation as White Accommodation by Gail E. Coover discusses positive portrayal of African Americans in films. The article emphasizes that positive portrayal of black people is marketable because it shows non-racist attitude of white people towards the black ones. The author of the article points out that such an enlightened racism leads to the idea that that Black characters are well-liked, not in spite of their race, but because of their race (Coover, 2001).

One more article A New Piece to the Puzzle: Examining Effects of Television Portrayals of African Americans by James A. Rada examines the effects of African Americans portrayal in films on both black and white audiences. The article aims at estimating the effects of favorable and unfavorable portrayals of African Americans in television (Rada, 2000).

And finally, the article No Accident: From Black Power to Black Box Office by William Lyne is all about black exploitation films of 1980s and of the modern times. The article states that black people are still presented in films as criminals aiming to beat the system that is inhospitable to them (Diawara, 1993) and as a community that has some of the highest unemployment, infant mortality, and drug related homicides (Lyne, 2000).

Discussing the findings of the articles, it should be mentioned that all of them have different opinions about portraying of African American people in films. For instance, the articles by Gordon L. Berry and Gail E. Coover state that the portrayal of black people and their families in modern films is positive whereas William Lynes article shows that African Americans are depicted as criminals and A New Piece to the Puzzle explores both negative and positive representations of black people in films. Therefore, the author of the article Television and the Socialization of the African American Child found out that positive portrayal of black people in films helps African American children gain pro-social messages and values from the content (Berry, 1998) and facilitates social adaptation of a child to the white society. The article Television and Social Identity, in its turn, found out that depiction of friendly relations between people of different races evokes positive emotions in white audience and enlightened racism results in affirmation of antiracist attitudes. Furthermore, the article A New Piece to the Puzzle concluded that unfavorable portrayal of African Americans evokes the desire to help them in white audience whereas the willingness to help white people whose portrayal was also unfavorable turned out to be much less. Eventually, the article No Accident: From Black Power to Black Box Office expressed an opinion that films portraying African Americans as criminals have a role of catalysts for riots (Lyne, 2000) and form erroneous opinion about black community among the white audience.

However, not all the articles managed to cover specific areas of the study. For instance, the article Black Family Life on Television and the Socialization of the African American Child discusses only positive portrayal of African Americans in films, which, as it is concluded, is beneficial for shaping values of the nation. The article does not pay attention to the effect the films with negative portrayal of black people produce on African American children. The same is true about the article Television and Social Identity which examined the reaction of both black and white people to depiction of harmonic relations between different races. The article did not trace the effects of negative portrayal of black community in films. The article A New Piece to the Puzzle, on the contrary, examined the effect of presentation of African Americans only as criminals in films, as well as No Accident: From Black Power to Black Box Office stated that negative portrayal of black people in films worsens relations between black and white people without grounding this assertion properly.

Conclusion

In conclusion, all four articles under consideration give a firm idea about the portrayal of African Americans in films. The authors of the articles concluded that positive portrayal of black people in films facilitates African American childrens socialization process and helps them realize certain values of their nation; it was also discovered that such a portrayal contributes into fighting with racist ideas whereas negative portrayal of African Americans, on the one hand, evokes willingness to help in white audience and, on the other hand, shapes erroneous attitude towards black community. Though the studies failed to cover some areas regarding the depiction of black people in films, the information presented in them is objective and the articles themselves are educational and contribute greatly into studies of African Americans portrayal in films.

References

Berry, G.L. (1998). Black Family Life on Television and the Socialization of the African American Child: Images of Marginality. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29(2), 233.

Coover, G.E. (2001). Television and Social Identity: Race Representation as White Accommodation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45(3), 413.

Cozby, P.C. (2003). Methods in behavioral research. 8^th edition. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Diawara, M. (1993). Noir by Noirs: Towards a New Realism in Black Cinema. African American Review, 27(4), 525.

Lyne, W. (2000). No Accident: From Black Power to Black Box Office. African American Review, 34(1), 39.

Rada, J.A. (2000). A New Piece to the Puzzle: Examining Effects of Television Portrayals of African Americans. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(4), 704.

Vaughn, S. (2002). Ronald Reagan and the Struggle for Black Dignity in Cinema, 1937-1953. The Journal of African American History, 83.

The issue being examined refers to the problem of police brutality on African Americans. The question concerning this issue could be formulated as follows: what are the causes of police brutality on African Americans? The mentioned problem is a burning one and is vividly expressed in modern society. Besides, the recent murder of George Floyd led to devastating outcomes across the US, which makes the suggested topic even more interesting for further investigation.

This issue is compelling to me because I deeply regret that in the age of democratic liberties and globalization, 155 years after the abolition of slavery in the US, events like this still occur. According to Mapping Police Violence, last year, police killed 1,098 people, 24 percent of whom were black. This share is relatively small; however, black people constitute only 13 percent of American citizens (Mapping Police Violence). I would like to investigate how society affects the brutality of the police, which premises motivate police officers to kill the representatives of African Americans. Additionally, I would like to learn how the number of such incidents varies in different states of the US and whether the states with the smallest degree of police brutality have some distinctive peculiarities.

To conclude, it should be mentioned that the issue has passed the twelve tests, which implies that it is arguable. Some thoughts conserving this test are listed below. This way, this problem has not been resolved yet, and some people believe that this is critical trouble while others reckon that its importance is exaggerated. Even though I perceive this problem as a serious one, it would be curious to know the arguments of the opposing side. Furthermore, the question of police brutality on African Americans worries many people for a long time, and it could be proven by the Black Lives Matter movement. I predict that the investigation of the described issue would make the audience more engaged and concerned with the existing problem.

Work Cited

Mapping Police Violence. 2020.

The violence of police officers in the USA is usually investigated in the framework of political and cultural studies. However, there is a variety of disciplines that are also concentrated on this topic but rarely taken into consideration. For example, among such fields of research are education and sociology. These sciences provide a more precise and in-depth understanding not only of police brutality but also of its consequences. The reasons for the racial discrimination may come from schools (Dunbar, Leerkes, Coard, Supple & Calkins, 2017; Nieto, 2017). The solution for this situation can be found in raising children with love for their country and traditions and upbringing a self-confident person (Grills et al., 2016; Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). The purpose of this paper is to describe diverse approaches to examining the problem in the sphere of educational and sociological studies and to analyze the differences and the similarities of the particular articles.

Police brutality against African Americans is, at the same time, the reason and the consequence of racism. That is why it is necessary to investigate the underlying causes of this issue. For example, some of the researchers in the field of sociological studies point out that the origins of this type of discrimination come from schools (Dunbar et al., 2017). Teachers have cultural stereotypes that they follow all their life (Dunbar et al., 2017). This situation is negative not only because of the fact of racism itself but also because of the wrong way of upbringing a child. From the beginning of his or her life, an African American understands that he or she is different from others and has to be treated in a diverse way (Dunbar et al., 2017). In their future life, these children might become more aggressive and less socialized.

Teachers perception of another nationality may lead to antisocial behavior of the pupils in the future and the police violence against them as a result. As a solution to this problem, Nieto (2017), a researcher in the sphere of educational studies, provides the idea of multinational schools where equity has to be one of the essential values. She claims that the communication of children from various countries is beneficial for all of them (Nieto, 2017). The pupils from multinational schools are more humanistic and democratic; they are responsible for their actions and carrying for others. What is more, it is essential to mention that they become more adopted and well-socialized in their future lives. Nieto (2017) maintains that the most crucial impact of this type of education is not having a highly-paid job or dozens of friends but raising a self-confident person without any stereotypes. It is possible to conclude that children of all nationalities finishing multicultural school would be tolerant of every person (Nieto, 2017). That means that police brutality, just as the violence motivated by racism in general, would be reduced.

The educational system and the atmosphere at school influence in a serious way the worldview of a child. On the one hand, the researchers claim that the teachers stereotypes hurt and traumatize African American pupils (Dunbar et al., 2017). On the other hand, a multinational school is a unique chance to raise an open-minded person (Nieto, 2017). The examined articles are from diverse scientific fields; nevertheless, they are both focused on the importance of emotional socialization at school.

From a sociological point of view, racial and emotional coping is a crucial skill for an African American child. An important role is also played by the parents who ask their children to be always on guard; it is called racial socialization (Dunbar et al., 2017). The article in the field of educational studies provides another thesis that only by making no difference between pupils of diverse nationalities it is possible to raise individuals without any stereotypes (Nieto, 2017). Although the two articles propose an almost opposite hypothesis, it is necessary to point out that in both academic works the main topic is the upbringing of a child. It can be noted that the reason for police brutality is in the wrong way of raising a youngster.

There are several steps proposed by scientists to decrease the level of racial discrimination at schools. Some researchers propose the idea of introducing pupils to the culture of their own country (Grills et al., 2016). Sociologists claim that would be beneficial for African American children who usually do not know the history of their nation. What is more, they maintain that understanding the cultural particularities would reduce to minimum racial discrimination and would help to construct a society with the values of equality and justice (Grills et al., 2016). A person who loves his culture and his nation are more expected to be engaged in civic life. Other scientists from the educational sphere put forward a similar thesis that deep self-knowledge is significant for being tolerant (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). The theories of the academic works contain a general description that can be implemented not only for children but for all citizens.

The analyzed articles provide a similar thesis: overcoming racial discrimination is possible only by changing the system of raising children in a multinational country. Despite the differences in the ways to present the ideas and to prove them, the researchers suggest specific actions of what has to be done to ameliorate the situation and examine the reasons for it. Police brutality is only one of the various consequences of the imperfection of a multinational educational system and mistakes in the upbringing of a child.

References

Dunbar, A. S., Leerkes, E. M., Coard, S. I., Supple, A. J., & Calkins, S. (2017). An integrative conceptual model of parental racial/ethnic and emotion socialization and links to childrens socialemotional development among African American families. Child Development Perspectives, 11(1), 1622.

Grills, C., Cooke, D., Douglas, J., Subica, A., Villanueva, S., & Hudson, B. (2016). Culture, racial socialization, and positive African American youth development. Journal of Black Psychology, 42(4), 343373.

Nieto, S. (2017). Re-imagining multicultural education: New visions, new possibilities. Multicultural Education Review, 9(1), 110.

Sensoy, O., & DiAngelo, R. (2017). Is everyone really equal?: An introduction to key concepts in social justice education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

The twentieth century was the era of the African-American cultural movements and numerous, besides, successful attempts of African- Americans to present themselves as talented art workers. The ending of the American Civil War and the rights given to the black Americans gave way to a new trend in art called Harlem Renaissance that made a lot of African-Americans well-known and popular among a wide range of audiences. Still, racial discrimination and a humiliating image of blacky still existed in American society, and many African-American writers touched upon those problems in their works, and August Wilson and Langston Hughes were among them. So, in this paper, I will compare the portrayal of African-Americans in the works of both writers.

No one can deny how difficult it was to be an African-American writer living in the white American society of the XXth century, making poems praising the talents and perfect erudition of African-Americans. However, this is exactly what made August Wilson and Langston Hughes popular and recognized writers all over the USA. Their poetry touches the hearts of those who care about racial discrimination, injustice, and abasement that black people confront. So, let us consider the portrayal of African-Americans by each of them in particular.

When talking about August Wilson, we should mention his own life experience of being insulted and humiliated, that was reflected in his plays and poetry. Many black American critics found Wilsons plays utterly similar to their own life experiences.

I felt that this man had somehow peeped into my own past to reinvigorate a part of my life that had for years lain dormant in my memory (Sandra G. Shannon, vii).

In one of the New York Times publications, Wilson was considered as the playwright considered devoted to the alternative culture of black Americans (Isherwood, Charles).

In Wilsons play Radio Golf African-American identity is the main focus. Moreover, the author represents different modifications of this identity. Each character has his/her own variation of identity. Roosevelt sees his identity in what he can receive from life right now. Sterlings identity lies in the framework of what is good and what is bad. Old Joes identity lies in his memories from the past. Another important theme disclosed in Radio Golf is the theme of money. Money is not only the means of dictating the actions of the main characters, but it also determines the characters themselves. The author focuses on the main story line of the play, which is monetary transactions: Old Joe has back taxes; Aunt Esters house is illegally sold.

In Fences Wilson discloses the theme of race and racial discrimination. Fences is a story of a black American man, Troy Maxton, and his family.

They live in the late 50s to early 60s when the African-Americans seem to have the same rights as the white ones. The idea of being insulted by white people still exists in Troys mind, that is why he refuses to allow his son to join the football team, thus, ruins his sons future.

His wife, Rose, dreams about having a happy and friendly home and family. She had an unstable past and now she is afraid her agonizing past may repeat again. That is why when she finds out that Troy has love affairs with another woman, she is devastated, disappointed, full of regret and despair.

Fences is a play in which Wilson wanted to depict African-Americans living in a new age but still having distressful past memories of being disgraced by white people.

He presents new Afro-Americans having the past consciousness.

His ability to stimulate his audiences consciousness to produce atavistic images from their cultural past or memories of actual experiences is fundamental to his skills as a dramatist (Sandra G. Shannon, vii).

When talking about Langston Hughes, one should mention that the vast majority of African-American writers roundly criticized his works first. They regarded Hughes manner of portraying black life to be unattractive (Poetry Foundation). Some of them even called the poet low-rate of Harlem. Hughes himself used to say that his works were about

workers, roustabouts, and singers, and job hunters on Lenox Avenue in New York, or Seventh Street in Washington or South State in Chicagopeople up today and down tomorrow, working this week and fired the next, beaten and baffled, but determined not to be wholly beaten, buying furniture on the installment plan, filling the house with roomers to help pay the rent, hoping to get a new suit for Easterand pawning that suit before the Fourth of July. (Langston Hughes (1902  1967)).

With the lapse of time, Langston Hughes was becoming a more and more popular and recognized among the wide range of black critics. Throughout his works, he uses various themes to analyze the interrelations between people of different racial backgrounds in the USA. In his Song for a Dark Girl, he expresses his views about injustice in society and cries out to the white God Jesus. While reading Jazz Band in a Parisian Cabaret, the reader can track the way Hughes expresses the idea of national unity. Despite the color of skin, he depicts African-Americans to be the members of American society who can contribute a lot to its culture.

Critics have often focused on his passionate love of the blues aesthetic and the artistic labors he devoted to making the blues into a nationally popular literature (Scott, Jonathan, 106).

The play Harlem is a kind of response to the dreams about freedom of African-Americans living in the USA. Wilson made an attempt to represent people of American descent who were deprived of freedom and normal attitude towards them. This idea arises in the very first line of the poem where Hughes depicts the society where millions of individuals have dreams which are put off indefinitely:

Does it dry up
Like a raising in the sun?
Or fester like a sore 
And then run?
Does it stink like rotten meat?
Or crust and sugar over 
Like a syrupy sweet? (X.J. Kennedy, Dana Giola, 291).

In the poem Slave on the Block, Hughes also touches upon the theme of sex and sexuality. Anne Carraway admires Luthers physical appearance and watches him while he is sleeping, desiring to paint him naked or at least half nude. However, when she gets to know that Luther is having sex with Mattie, she is exclaims that it is Simple and natural for Negroes to make love. (X.J. Kennedy, Dana Giola, 356)

The poem I Too focuses on racial issues. It begins with the words I, too, sing America that shows Hughes as a black man proud of whom he actually is. He is not ashamed of being the darker brother trying to explain to people that he is like everyone else, though, the color of his skin is black. He declares himself as a member of the American society who should be treated just like any other member of it. Besides, Hughes does not lose hope in the happy future of African-Americans, saying:

Tomorrow,
Ill be eating at the table
When company comes.
Nobodyll dare
Say to me,
Eat in the kitchen,
Then. (X.J. Kennedy, Dana Giola, 286)

Hughes poems should not be considered from a socio-cultural perspective only. His poetry is full of a new and original rhythm. The uniqueness of Hughes works lies not only in the problems that he considered but also in the writing techniques he used. Reading his poems is similar to listening to blues that an African-American is singing  full of both submissive sorrow and in some way optimistic notes.

Both August Wilson and Langston Hughes wrote about racial prejudice and humiliation of African-Americans in their works. The ideas they conveyed in their works were identical, as both touched upon socio-cultural problems related to the American society of the XXth century. However, the form of expressing ideas was different. Wilson depicted a new African-American living in a modern American society and having more rights. Hughes works are more transpierced with the feeling of resentment for black people and objection against existing racial prejudice.

Works Cited

Isherwood, Charles. August Wilson, Theaters Poet of Black America, Is Dead at 60. New York Times. 2005.

Langston Hughes (1902- 1967). Poetry Foundation. Archive.

Scott, Jonathan. Socialist Joy in the Writing of Langston Hughes. University of Missouri Press, 2006.

Sandra G. Shannon. The Dramatic Vision of August Wilson. Howard University Press, 1995.

X.J. Kennedy, Dana Giola. Backpack Literature An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. 2nd Ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008.

Foundation of the African American Law

Thesis: American Laws has attained maturity because they recognize the different cultures under a single law.

The purpose of this outline is to indicate the challenges faced by African Americans and their quest for a law that governs equality in the United States of America. African American citizens experienced oppression and desegregations in the past (Kluger, 2011).

Bottlenecks experienced by African Americans

The need to facilitate equitability in social and economic grounds between the African Americans and the whites were overdue. Research indicates that the level of intolerance and disagreement between the African Americans and the locals became so intense that a solution to counter these issues had to be established (Kluger, 2011).

Achievements made Through the Introduction of the Law

The economic standard of the United States has significantly grown in the United States since the introduction of the equality law. The level of mistreatment and hatred reduced drastically since freedom of all was established (Ball, 2006).

Experiences that Founded the Equality Law

The level of oppression experienced by the black Americans in the yester years produced different political and economic debates on individual rights for freedom. The experiences witnessed by the African Americans were active for so many years until the devolvement introduced from the past two decades (Wallenstein, 2004).

Occurrences of Hate and uncontrolled Governance

The citizens of the United States of America experienced a divisive acknowledgment that developed so much hatred between individuals based on the color of their skin. Research indicates that brutality decreased steadily with the introduction of the new law (Siegel, 2004).

Establishment of Cohesion

The African Americans and the whites decided on interrelations in the facilitation of equality and achievement of common goals. Research indicates that equality reduced the murder and burglary accounts rapidly.

African American citizens experienced oppression and desegregations in the past.

The need for Freedom and Independent Governance

The need for equality of schooling, involvement in business fields, and freedom of speech arose to stabilize the inequitable experiences that existed in the earlier years. The color of the skin was the main issue of desegregations, and various factors in developing essential mutual understanding between the blacks and whites had to be established to favor development and national cohesion.

Segregation Rule

Freedom of expression and speech established the independence of the citizens leading to national cohesion and understanding. Mutual understanding between the African American and White community resulted in an understanding that has governed the states for years.

Economic and Political gains

The introduction of freedom and enactment of laws that govern the individual rights experienced drawbacks but attained quality and acceptable results in the end.

Cohesion and Economic Growth resulting from Inaction of Freedom

The controlling factors resulted in hate, recognition of different colors, and an unending war between the black and white Americans. From history, African Americans were migrated to American soil to serve as slaves, but the evolvement of freedom developed an initiative to govern the negative implications (Kluger, 2011).

Establishment of Devolved Enterprise

The inaction of the freedom of speech and establishment resulted in various reactions among the whites and African American citizens. However, this resulted in a mutual understanding and establishment of economic development and growth.

Established Results

The result of the research indicates that the level of intolerance and disagreement between the African Americans and the locals became so intense that a solution to counter these issues had to be established (Minow, 2009).

References

Ball, A. F. (2006). Introduction. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 105(2), 1-13. Web.

Kluger, R. (2011). Simple justice: The history of Brown v. Board of Education and Black Americas struggle for equality. New York, NY: Vintage. Web.

Minow, M. (2009). Confronting the Seduction of Choice: Law, Education and American Pluralism. Yale Law Journal, 120(814), 819-820. Web.

Siegel, R. B. (2004). Equality Talk: Antisubordination and Anticlassification Values in Constitutional Struggles overBrown. Harvard Law Review, 117(5), 1470. Web.

Wallenstein, P. (2004). Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and LawAn American History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Web.

The psychological consequences of slavery for African Americans are discussed widely in society. In order to discuss the problem in detail with references to the statistical analysis, it is necessary to find the answer to the following research question: Do those African Americans who identify themselves as the descendants of slaves experience more stress and psychological problems in their personal and social life? In order to find the answer to the proposed question, it is appropriate to use a two-sample t test based on the independent samples.

The t test can be effectively applied to the research because it provides the opportunity to understand the differences between the groups of African Americans whose identity is influenced by the concept of slavery and those African Americans whose identity is not affected. Furthermore, this test is appropriate to discuss the connection between categorical and numerical variables. The research is focused on testing the following hypotheses:

• H0: There is no relationship between African Americans understanding of themselves as former slaves and psychological problems in their personal and social life.
• H1: Those African Americans who identify themselves as the descendants of slaves experience more stress and psychological problems in their personal and social life.

Methods

The participants of the survey are the African American students studying in colleges and universities. The test requires the focus on two independent groups of students, including 15 participants. The size of the whole sample is 30 participants. The required 30 participants will be selected according to the convenience sampling principle where the focus is on students of the colleges and universities located within the community. Such demographics as the age between 21-29 and the belonging to the black race are required. Participants will be selected according to the principle of 50% male and 50% female population.

Procedures

The dependent variable is the level of the stress and psychological problems experienced by the African American participants in their personal and social life. The ratio scale of measurement will be used to assess the changes in the variable. While referring to the variables characteristics, it is important to note that the focus is on the continuous variable because of the necessity to examine the changes in the level of stress and other experienced problems.

Thus, the operational definition of the dependent variable is the following one: the level of the stress and psychological problems is frequency according to which the African Americans note that they feel stress, suffer from anxiety, they cannot cope with daily problems, and they are discriminated, violated, and oppressed. The variables will be measured with the number of noticed psychological problems during a week, a month, and a year to state frequency and percentage.

The independent variable is the identity of the African American as a descendent of a slave or a non-descendant. The scale of measurement is nominal to assess the categories. Thus, the variable can be characterized as categorical or qualitative. The operational definition is the following one: the identity of the African American referred to the aspect of slavery is the vision of oneself as a descendent of a slave or a non-descendant. As a result, the variable will be measured according to such categories as the discussion of oneself as a descendent of a slave or the acceptance of the slavery aspect and as the discussion of oneself as a non-descendant or the rejection of the slavery aspect (Huck, 2012, p. 124).

Results

The statistical test which will be used to conduct the assessment is a two-sample t test based on the independent samples. This test provides the researcher with the opportunity to discuss the differences between groups and conclude whether a certain factor can influence the determined phenomenon or process. The significant focus is on the differences rather than on the relationship.

That is why the t-test is chosen to state whether the African Americans who discuss themselves as descendants of slave experience more psychological problems. The test is appropriate for the research because it discusses the obvious connection between categorical and numerical variables, which identified as the independent and dependent variables in this research.

The information obtained from the results of the test will include the numerical data on the frequency of experiencing psychological problems and stress by the African Americans who identify themselves as the descendants of slaves. The frequency of experiencing psychological problems will also be assessed with references to the African Americans who reject the slavery heritage. The comparison of the numbers will provide the information necessary to state whether the identification of oneself as a descendent of slaves can influence the psychological state and frequency of stresses to affect more frequent problems. These numbers will be necessary to draw conclusions in relation to the state hypotheses.

Discussion

The expected biases and faults associated with the research are connected with the fact that the selected participants can hide their real attitude to their African American identity in relation to the slavery aspect. Furthermore, it is necessary to avoid the biases connected with the idea that all African Americans discuss themselves as oppressed or discriminated in personal and social life. While using the identified statistical test, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that not only the frequency of the experienced psychological problems but also the percentage related to the incidents should be taken into account while concluding about the results.

Possible conclusions made in relation to the research problem can be associated with the fact that the majority of African Americans do not identify themselves as the descendants of slaves; the levels of stress are higher, and the psychological problems are more typical for the African Americans who identify themselves as the descendants of slaves; the levels of stress are higher, and the psychological problems are more typical for African Americans who do not identify themselves as the descendants of slaves; the connection is not obvious, and the levels and frequency are diverse (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 12). The practical significance of the results is in the opportunity to use the findings by sociologists, psychologists, and counselors working with African Americans who can suffer from different types of psychological problems.

Conclusion

The question on whether African Americans who identify themselves as the descendants of slaves experience more stress and psychological problems in their personal and social life is important to be discussed because of the obvious practical significance of the research. Using the t-test, it is possible to receive accurate results and make appropriate conclusions while concluding about the appropriateness of the stated hypotheses.

References

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Huck, S. W. (2012). Reading statistics and research. Boston, MA: Pearson.

In the United States, the black minority has a marginalized status due to the existing racial prejudice. Disenfranchising is noticed in many fields, such as education, employment, entrepreneurship, healthcare, and public safety. The problem puts into question the principle of equality considered important in the country. Thus, there is a need for social changes to create equal conditions for both white people and African Americans.

Several statistics prove the existing problem of discrimination in the U.S. American Psychological Association (2017) reports that in 2013, about 12.4% of African-American graduates were unemployed. This number is twice as large as that of their European college counterparts. The Greenlining Institute (2015) found out that dark-skinned peoples enterprises have access to less than 2% of government contracts. According to Matthew et al. (2016), people of color are imprisoned for sentences nearly 20% longer than white men. Thus, black individuals have an unprivileged status in American society.

To solve the issue of discrimination, multicultural and family approaches are implemented. First, both types of consulting need to accept differences as persons of various backgrounds may be members of one family (McLeod, 2013). Second, mutual respect and trust are important for both perspectives since they improve the quality of communication (McLeod, 2013). The third crucial factor is learning a persons beliefs, culture, and daily life to address clients appropriately (McLeod, 2013). As a counselor assisting African-American household residents, I would learn about their ethnic identity, family history, and cultural background (Vereen et al., 2008). I would further talk to them to understand their fears and pains (Origins Behavioral HealthCare, 2019). My method will develop a sense of togetherness and build their self-esteem.

In conclusion, the Unites States experiences inequality among African-American people due to their skin color, which violates their rights. To settle the matter, multicultural and family assistance need to be utilized and interconnected. An adviser is the one who should deal with biased individuals to overcome their stress and raise their dignity. Thus, it is important to learn the culture and feelings of a person who needs assistance.

References

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethnic and racial minorities & socioeconomic status.

Origins Behavioral HealthCare. (2019). Can people with addiction change? [Video].

Matthew, D., Rodrigue, E., & Reeves, R. (2016). Time for justice: Tackling race inequalities in health and housing. Brookings Institution.

McLeod, J. (2013). An introduction to counselling (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

The Greenlining Institute (2015). Office of minority and women inclusion: 2014 snapshot of financial regulators diversity and inclusion.

Vereen, L., Hill, N., & McNeal, D. (2008). Perceptions of multicultural counseling competency: Integration of the curricular and the practical. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 30(3), 226-236.