Category: Aesthetic

Introduction

For theme selection, I deeply researched on internet, magazines and design related books and then I finalized the theme by merging two themes, Strega fashion and gothic architecture. I merged these two themes because I wanted to add different elements in my final collection garments and I thought it will look great and different at the same time if I would use elements of two different theme and come out with one new element which I would use in my garments

Strega

Strega fashion is used to describe ‘modern witch’ style. Witches do exist and can wear whatever they want to wear, but the style of witches has grown up a lot. Mostly the style is in monochrome black or with minor touches of muted, other colors. As long as it’s dark and ‘witchy,’ it’s Strega.

Strega fashion is very famous in Japanese, Mori Kei fashion which is all about a cutesy, cottage-in-the-woods aesthetic.in which they use black color palette with darker accessories. Muted tones of grey, deep dusky red, and plum could be great additions to a Strega look. But it’s always better if there is more black than any other color. Other than this, not a lot of patterns are used in Strega fashion, we can use layering of fabrics which allows to add detail in garment without adding a lot of colors or patterns. We can also use fabrics of different textures.

There are a number of reasons why I was really interested in this kind of fashion. First off of all, it’s pretty gender neutral. Strega in particular is very easily masculine, feminine, or androgynous. It’s also quite flexible. Secondly, it’s pretty modern and also practical for daily wear. The amount of layering and cozy materials also makes it perfect for the autumn and winter months.

Gothic Architecture

The term ‘Gothic style’ states the style of European architecture, which consists of different sculpture, a lot of panel, different painting, stained glass and other minor and small arts. Gothic art was developed in Northern France out of Romanesque art which was style of medieval art in the 12th century AD. The period is divided into Early Gothic (1150-1250), High Gothic (1250-1375), and International Gothic (1375-1450).

Some of the characteristics of Gothic architecture are large areas of glass, structures made from stones, a lot of columns, complicated sculptures, sharped pointed edges, and flying buttresses. One of the other main characteristics of gothic architecture is the pointed arch.

List of some of the Gothic Artists

Sculptors

• Andrea Pisano (1295-1348)
• Nicholas of Verdun (fl.1181-1210)
• Nicola Pisano (1206-78)
• Filippo Calendario (pre-1315-1355)
• Tino di Camaino (fl.1323-37)
• Tilman Riemenschneider (c.1460-1531)

Painters

• Cimabue (Cenni di Peppi) (1240-1302)
• Master Honore (fl.1288-1300)
• Duccio di Buoninsegna (c.1255-1319)
• Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337)
• Ambrogio Lorenzetti (fl.1319-48)
• Simone Martini (1285-1344)

Gothic Fashion

Gothic fashion is a clothing style consists of mysterious, dark and edgy features. These clothes are worn by members of the Goth subcultures. Typical gothic fashion consists of a pale skin tone along with colored black hair, black lips, black accessories and black clothes.

The concept behind merging these two themes; Strega fashion and gothic architecture was making modern clothes which were inspired from Strega fashion, and to add different shapes and panels from using elements from gothic architecture so, that’s why I decided to merge this theme; Strega fashion with gothic architecture. Second reason of selecting this theme was that I wanted to make my final collection in dark colors especially black so this theme was perfect for me. There was a lot of black color in Strega fashion and I could easily add a lot of different elements from gothic architecture. I though all black garments would look modern and witchy at the same time which would represent my theme perfectly.

Romanticism was a time that deeply changed the physical and listening art during the nineteenth century. Romantic music is an era of Western, classical music that started in the late 18th or the beginning of the early 19th century. It has a connection with Romanticism which began as a response to the neoclassical love for logical analysis and forms that very dominating in the century before. The inventive and very unique people that started and pushed for artistry independence are known as romanticists. This movement affected every shape of art and music all over Europe then advanced to the United States and other parts of the world.

One very important piece of art that comes to mind is ‘The Raft of the Medusa’. This particular piece of art signifies hopelessness and terrible agony. The painting of Theodore Gericault, a French artist, known as the ‘The Raft of the Medusa’ describes a scene of severe agony and hopelessness. The typical French work illustrates an approaching storm at sea warning the powerless and hungry remnants of ship wreckage. Romantic painters the likes of Gericault used the bold colors and chose to draw their course in motion rather than motionless drawn representations. Romantic artists prefer to use bold tone colors as it is a description of a particular musical instrument.

With the extension of the tone color, there was the addition of a new apparatus to the orchestra which included the triangle, big amount of percussion, tuba, celesta and concert harp, and a piano lookalike. With the great orchestral aesthetic taste, songwriters could easily come up with affectionately good music. One of the music composers that made good use of the symphony was Pyotr Tchaikovsky. His music in illustration of Romeo and Juliet’s story catches the intense emotions of the two young lovers and the extent of the battle between the two families.

Romantics frequently developed arts established on current happenings particularly those associated with politics. One such example is Ludwig van Beethoven’s third orchestra. It was initially composed to praise Napoleon Bonaparte, a man that Beethoven held in high regard to for his self-governing attributes. Beethoven then later tore the page with Napoleon’s loyalty in annoyance after him acknowledging himself emperor. Beethoven then renamed his work ‘Heroic symphony’ which acclaimed remembrance of a Great Man by the nickname ‘The Eroica’. The harmony was one of the ancient respected works of art. The Gericault’s painting together with the music of ‘Heroic Symphony’ includes deep verbalization of emotions from cheery to sadness within no time.

‘The Raft of Medusa’ was also established on a current occurrence of the much-disputed 1816 shipwreck that belonged to a French naval craft. In that wreck, the ship captain and the chief seagoing officer rescued themselves leaving behind 147 commuters, and only 15 of them managed to escape death.

Democratic beliefs carried away the continent and patriotism or nationalism developed into an essential determinant in supporting the rebellious exercise. As civilians rebelled, the modern painters assisted in advertising patriot programs via their art by praising the revolutionary activities. The revolt uncrowned King Charles X. A few Romantic era creators the likes of Frederic Chopin from Poland composed music that advocated for nationalism by assimilating folk tune. Other songwriters such as Clara Wieck Schumann composed songs with symbolic political words of a song, for instance, the song ‘Forward’. The song’s title belonged to the German’s motto for their socialist motion which became their rallying chant at the time of governmental manifestation of the year 1848 and 1849 (Bowie, 2012).

Trying to capture the strength and physical attractiveness of nature was an inviting dispute for the musicians as well as artists. The composer from Czech by the name Bedrich Smetana included both the nationalism and nature arguments in his piece ‘Die Mojdau’ which carries the audience on a musical excursion ahead river Vltava. Smetana enlightens the river sounds with a tender and reverberating melody produced by the orchestral strings. Nature was an origin of poetic enthusiasm and gave a religious measure or aspect to life established on a natural association between man and the character in local society.

A romantic planet is a vital changing world. Whenever there is the presence of beauty, it is short-lived because of competence and intense weather. Intensity is present in humans too. Romanticism is the insistence of sensation, intense emotion, and insights. It is different from the 18th century that was established on a rational analysis in addition to thoughts plus it is worldwide as everybody makes use of corresponding science of reasoning but with intuition, feelings, and with passion individuals differ as it is quite egocentric and narrow. Passion is one vital essential feature of romanticism (Labbe, 2003). By Nietzsche, a great sensation is “past good and the bad”. Keats’ ‘Isabella’ or the ‘Pot of Basil’ takes place in Italy. Isabella’s lover murdered by his brothers where she then digs up the grave and takes her lover’s head. She hides the head in a basil container with a flower and as she weeps daily the flower blossoms beautifully. The story illustrates the attachment of love and death. Dialectics is the existing standard at the heels of entirety with doctrinal reawakening and the idealized style.

In romanticism existence there comes an eruption of edifying loyalty. The romanticism of the Germans bloomed from indigenous kinds of literature. In ‘The Idiot Boy’ by Wordsworth handled the regular life. It is about a lady in need of drugs for her ailing baby, so she sends that idiot young man (Lacoue-Labarthe, & Nancy, 1988). The writer’s goal symbolized the first strong emotions of a human character. Walter Scott who came up with Waverley in the year 1814 and Ivanhoe in 1819 contributed to a feeling of history with precise individuality analysis brought about by archival faces. The plan talks of principles’ disagreement of decisions made by a young and sentimental guy in a moment of desperation. Scott tried to indicate harmony between optimism and facts of existence.

According to Todorov’s theories, du symbol of the year 1977, Romanticism stresses on imagination or artistry unlike in the 18th century. Before, art was a simulation and mimicry. A procedure was followed in choosing the stuff that had illustration importance. From the romanticism point of view, art is the development of an entity. It does not emulate character, but instead, it delights in it. It is a different kind of existence. Same as nature, art is essential completeness in both the mode and signification. Coleridge described extravagant and artistry or imagination in the Biographia Literaria. Artistry representation can be in many forms, like a God, an inventor, or a curse (Rosenblum, & Jason, 1984).

The songwriters used various techniques. One was the chromatic harmony where the curve or harmony borrowed the chromatic scale. The second technique is rubato distinctive romantic music that assists in adding passion to a piece of melody by repressing the rhythm. The last one is a thematic transformation in the case where the musical aspects of a subject matter change when that idea is paraphrased in an ensuing motion.

It’s 6 pm, Alessandra Strozzi is busy making dinner for her family when she hears the news of her husband’s exile and the whole world comes crashing down for her. Alessandra Strozzi was married to Matteo Strozzi and everything was going well until he was exiled from Florence. After they moved to Pesaro, a plague hit which killed three of Strozzi’s children and her husband. While devastated from her loss, she moved back to Florence. This is where her roles as a woman in Renaissance Florence took a turn and she was able to do everything not possible by other women. The typical roles of women in Renaissance Florence would be becoming a housewife and a mother as soon as possible, however, Strozzi goes against the norms and becomes the head of the household and manages finance while still continuing to keep the family reputation in their town.

Would you be blessed to lose your husband in a plague? Maybe not if you are living in the 21st century. However, things were much different in the 15th century where you had very constricted rights. In such cases like that one of Alessandra Strozzi, you would probably be glad because now you can be the head of the household and do many things that were only done by men at that time. She had to become the one to raise their children and arranger marriages for their daughters to families that would keep their family reputation. “In addition, she had to keep the household afloat financially, and she sought through family connections to get her sons established in business.” Alessandra Strozzi decided not to remarry, mainly because that would mean she has to go back to being in the house and staying low. She would have to give up her opportunity of being the model for her sons. Strozzi was also a very independent and strong woman. She did not let emotions or feelings get the best of her. Death was so common in this century that when someone died, it was like, “Oh okay, let’s move on.” Same with Strozzi, when her husband died and also when Filippo died, she was strong and moved on with her life instead of suffering from the griefs.

Strozzi made all her decisions based on her finance. For example, she didn’t want to get Caterina married to a nobler family because that would be more dowry which she can not afford. Marco, Caterina’s husband, has a silk manufacturing business and he was the only son. They take a part in the government meaning they have some status in the community which will enhance Strozzi’s family reputation. Strozzi has to give one thousand florins of dowry and she is taking a loan for five hundred and the rest will be in cash and trousseau. Dowry is money or property the bride’s family gives to the groom’s family. It is interesting that there is such a thing as a dowry fund that helps families to give dowry, almost as if they are paying for their daughter. The dowry makes it seems like a girl is a burden to their family because they have to pay a price to get her married. However, Caterina’s life is an example of what the life of Florence women looked like. Her husband molded her in luxurious clothing and jewelry which will show off his wealth when she goes out. “When she goes out she’ll have more than four hundred florins on her back.” Another example is when she took out insurance on her pregnant daughter. It sounds harsh but money was a big deal for people and she was going to lose a lot of money if Catrina died. Since dying in childbirth was a common thing, taking insurance was not as strange as it sounds. “… we should take out some insurance so we won’t lose the five hundred florins they’re owed from the (dowry) fund, as we can lose her and the money at the same time.” Another example is when she tries to get her son married. Strozzi uses her prior financial knowledge to plan out the reasons why the Francesco family would give their daughter to her son. She states how they’re lacking young men of good family, has a small dowry and a big family that needs to be settled.

Everything comes to an end, and so did Strozzi’s responsibilities. Although, until her last breath she was worried about her family’s finance and how they are going to be. In her last letter, she mentions about the chaotic situation in Florence and how it has impacted the families in Florence. Things were looking bad and she had no grain. “And apart from this great trouble, there’s been an earthquake….” She was becoming poor but she was happy to see her sons and daughter in places that they were happy in. She put her sons in business and her daughters with families that adore them. Alessandra Strozzi became the model she wanted to be for her sons and did everything better than her husband would have done. She went against the norms and stereotypes to become an empowering and independent woman in Renaissance Florence.

Throughout history, women were always seen as inferior to men. Their contributions were always overlooked and most times were denied access to basic necessities in life such as education. The renaissance was a period in history when people started to move away from the dark age and enter a period that was defined by art and literature. People started to move away from religious to more secular ideas. However, that did not mean the hierarchy was going to change which reflects since when we talk about the Renaissance, we only hear about the accomplishments of Nobel men. To answer the question, How did women react to expectations imposed upon them by men during the renaissance, I looked at things women at that time did and whether or not they had a renaissance. If you were a woman during the Renaissance, there were only a few options as to what you could be and they ranged from being a wife, a prostitute or a nun. So, the answer to that question would be that women did comply to the expectations imposed upon them by men in public but also lived a different life in private in which they fulfilled their artistic desires.

To differentiate between the two lives women during the renaissance lived, we would have to define what were the expectations that women had to meet. Women during this time were expected to be very obedient, dependent and sophisticated. They were to be kept home and only be seen when it was time for them to be married. Marriage was a big part of peoples’ lives in the renaissance. “For the middle- class family man, the choice of a wife involved complicated issues- gaining alliances with the family and the relatives of the bride, receiving the all-important dowry along with the bride, and- most important- fathering the legitimate children who would guarantee the continuity of the all-important family line.” Women were judged from top to bottom to determine whether or not they will be able to carry children. In a way, that was the main role women served and they had no value otherwise.

One notable woman named Alessandro Strozzi goes against the norms and becomes the head of the household after her husband’s death. She manages finance while still continuing to keep the family reputation in their town. Alessandra Strozzi decided not to remarry, mainly because that would mean she has to go back to being in the house and staying low. She would have to give up her opportunity of being the model for her sons. Strozzi was also a very independent and strong woman. She did not let emotions or feelings get the best of her. However, “in her feelings about her children, their progeny, and the importance of preserving her family’s wealth and social rank, Alessandra was quite conventional, reflecting the mentality of her class. She accepted without question or reservation the hierarchical structure of Florentine society, and she also accepted its patriarchal ethos, based on the conviction that women were inherently inferior to men.” Although, she went against the norms and stereotypes to become an empowering and independent woman in Renaissance Florence, her choices in marrying her daughter Caterina depicts the idea mentioned above. Caterina’s life is an example of what the life of Florence women looked like. Her husband molded her in luxurious clothing and jewelry which will show off his wealth when she goes out.

Women after marriage were dressed luxuriously and wore precious emeralds as a way to show off to others the wealth of their husbands and their status in society. “When she goes out she’ll have more than four hundred florins on her back.” It publicizes her character and potential to all others. “The two sides of the medal thus depict the two sides( inner and outer) of the individuals; the crystallizing of character on the reverse of medals enables others to see that, accompanying the physical beauty depicted on the front of the medal, there is to be found also, the beauty of the intellect equally bestowed on them.” This tells us that men during the Renaissance believed that if women were to be dressed in expensive clothes and wore medals embellished with bronze, silver and gold, it would also showcase their inner beauty. Women were very idealized which during the renaissance were associated with having a round high forehead, puckered eyebrows, fair skin, and rosy cheeks. All of which can be seen in portraits of women done by Fra Filippo Lippi, Antonio, Piero del Pollaiuolo and Sandro Botticelli.

Women did, in fact, have a renaissance but their renaissance was not as easy going and it was very difficult to publish their works because of their gender, which is why most writers and artists were living in private. As mentioned before, Women received a lot of medals and luxurious items. Then, “do these allusions suggest that the medals simply reinforced patriarchal assumptions, that the public notice of these women was intended only to mandate their roles of chastity, sacrifice, and confinement?” The book states how some medals women received depicted virtues more masculine and how some had things like armed women which would mean women were to be strong and brave. Women during this period started to play parlour games which they would dominate over men. “The Parlour game in particular afforded a transition from a private to more public life, just as the parlour was a literal and metaphorical space mediating between the private world of the family and the public world of conversation, competition, and fame.”5 Women were able to express themselves in these parlours where they were able to socialize without being judged by men.

Another sphere that women during the renaissance took part in was the religious sphere as becoming a nun was one of the options women had. “Cultural productions by women in that sphere contribute compelling evidence of the reinvention, appropriation, endurance, and revival of the medieval within the early modern that marks the new thinking about periodization in English literary history.” Nuns were highly educated and had many connections which gave them great social and political influence. They were scribes, stewards, artisans, writers, teachers, and community leaders who had great influence during the renaissance. “Whether or not Lanyer had explicit knowledge of this tradition, her Salve Deus recalls—and renews—a past that likewise recognized the creative and critical potency of women’s speech and writing from a religious ground.” These writings and speeches gave women a chance to be heard in a world where they were meant to be silenced.

Women also wrote about other things such as science, poetry and history. “Early modern English Women were directed to confine their literary aspirations to socially acceptable ‘feminine’ genres: religion, advice to children, and translation of male-authored works. These areas corresponded to traditional female moral virtues of chastity and obedience and to the domestic roles that male writers of conduct books repeatedly exhorted women to cultivate.” These genres also ranked below the ones written by male writers which were dependent on knowledge in ancient languages and literature which were unavailable to most renaissance English Women. Most women would write in hopes to gain patronage and preferment, not financial gain as most came from Noble families. “By writing about science, Renaissance women argued that they were qualified to write about science. Although they could not emulate Galileo in obtaining university posts, or seek roles as court philosophers, they could and did contribute to Renaissance scientific culture in other ways: as experimenters, readers, commentators, correspondents, and critics.” In order for their works to be read, women writers would print their works and pass along to other women in parlours or in private spaces. “The clever women in Siena’s parlour games and beyond claimed an increasingly assertive role in the festivities, as they did as well at the walls, in the emblems, in the academies, in the press- and in the conversation.”

When society poses expectations upon women, they always found a way to go around it. Although, there were women who just followed the norms, there were also others who followed their ambitions. Women during the renaissance were housewife yet also a leader. They were mothers but also writers who wrote about things they were not allowed to speak about. Complying with the expectations placed upon them, women in the renaissance also became great artists, writers and leaders.

People travel all over the world to see the paintings of Raphael. Even for those less familiar with art, his name is a recognizable one. He makes up the third person of the beloved trinity of the Renaissance, along with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. His creative output is unique from the other two in its immensity, spanning from detailed sketches and life-like portraits to exquisite altarpieces. One of his most outstanding works is his painting the Transfiguration. To best understand this work, however, it is important to first have an understanding of the artist.

Who was Raphael Santi? Raphael was born to Giovanni Santi and Magia di Battista Ciarla in the year 1483 in the city of Urbino. His father Giovanni was a painter, as well as a courtier, for the court of Guidobaldo da Montefeltro. Raphael had two other siblings born after him but both died in their youth. With the death of Raphael’s mother, Magia, in 1491, Giovanni remarried to Bernardina di Piero. When his father died in the year 1494, Bartolommeo Santi, brother to the late Giovanni, became Raphael’s guardian. Beyond this, little is known about Raphael’s early life, which provides an incomplete picture of the influences that formed his character. Despite these unknown beginnings and influences, Vasari paints a glowing picture of Raphael, not only as an artist but also as a person. He writes,

“The large and liberal hand where with Heaven is sometimes pleased to accumulate the infinite riches of its treasures on the head of one sole favorite, showering on him all those rare gifts and graces which are commonly distributed among a larger number of individuals and accorded at long intervals of time only, has been clearly exemplified in the well-known instance of Raphael Sanzio of Urbino.”

Vasari was not the only one impressed; it seems the strong feelings about Raphael’s personal traits were shared by many art patrons at the time, which served to advance him professionally. It appears he was generous, honest, affectionate, loving and reliable to all those who encountered him.

The first record of Raphael’s work as an artist is in the year 1500. He would have been 17 years old at the time. Author Jürg Meyer Zur Cappellen notes, “The fact that the [contract] speaks of Raphael… as a magister and that the contractual arrangement supplies him with a colleague, Evangelista di Pian di Meleto, has greatly puzzled scholars for a long time.” This shows two important aspects of Raphael’s early life. The first is that at a very young age, Raphael was already recognized as a great painter, partly because he had the responsibility of his father’s studio. On the other hand, it points back to the problem that there are many unknowns about the life of Raphael. One question is regarding who Raphael studied under: it is likely that he worked as a boy in his father’s studio but may have gone elsewhere after his father’s death. An answer to this question, proposed by Vasari and other knowledgeable historians, is that Raphael was trained by Perugino, especially because his earliest work closely echoes the latter. Raphael’s true career as an artist, however, with his first commission. This commission came from a citizen of the city of Castello, a city not too far from Raphael’s hometown. While visiting this city, Raphael would have had the opportunity to study the work of Luca Signorelli, which helped him develop his technique for drawing the human figure. Following the completion of his first altarpiece, Raphael was rewarded with a few commissions, one after another. From this point forward, Raphael’s career opened up before him. He went to receive commissions in Perugia next, followed by long periods of work in Florence and Rome. Author Konrad Oberhuber notes that the characteristics of each region lent something special and unique to Raphael’s skills. His growth as an artist must have been directly related to both the specific challenges, dynamics, and styles he encountered in each area. As he continued to work, Raphael became known as, “The universal painter, the master of harmony.”

While Raphael’s pieces are each well-worth studying individually, there is something special about his last altarpiece: The Transfiguration. To understand the purpose of the piece, it is first essential to understand what an altarpiece was during the Renaissance. Historian Loren Patridge explains, “Altarpieces gave visual form to beliefs about the Mass or Eucharist… [it] also generally reflected the dedication of the altar and the interest of the patron… Its commission and execution were understood in themselves as good works, as public expressions of piety and devotion, which– along with the devotions performed before it– would help merit salvation.” In this way, the piece would not only be important for the faith of those who came in contact with it, it would also be important for the faith of artist himself.

Raphael dedicated the last two years of his life to working on this piece. Oberhuber writes, “The first ideas for it were produced earlier, possibly shortly after he received the commission in 1516.” The piece was commissioned by Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici. It was intended for the Narbonne Cathedral in France, where the Cardinal was archbishop. It is obvious that the Cardinal had high expectations; in order to perhaps prompt Raphael to paint as well as he possibly could, the former also commissioned another painter to paint for the same place. This second painter was Sebastiano del Piombo, and his commission was the Raising of Lazarus. This made the process a rivalry of sorts. It is said that Sebastiano would not have truly been a rival to Raphael. However, Sebastiano did have the help of Michelangelo with some of the drawings and this made him a valid opponent. It was not only important to each of the artists to complete the commission and have their painting chosen, however. Their main concern was to create something that surpassed their own previous works (and the works of others), which would thus allow them to have a lasting influence on the world of art. This would both benefit them personally and benefit the world as a whole. For Raphael, more specifically, it would have been not only embarrassing but damaging to his reputation if he were to lose the competition.

Fortunately, Raphael embraced this challenge. Preliminary pieces show that his original plan was to paint only the actual Transfiguration scene. The Transfiguration takes place in the New Testament of the The Bible. It occurs when Jesus and three of his followers, Peter, James and John go up to a mountain-top. While praying, Jesus is transfigured and two men of the Old Testament, Moses and Elijah, appear. Following this, God’s voice is heard, which stood as confirmation and proof of Jesus’ identity as the divine son of God. With its supernatural element, it seems like this narrative would have been enough for Raphael’s altarpiece but with the addition of the competition, Raphael changed course. Partridge adds, “To compete more effectively with Sebastiano, he added the story of the miracle immediately following it in the Bible– but never before linked with it in a painting– the Healing of the Lunatic Boy.” This story, also from the New Testament, shows the apostles trying to heal a demon-possed boy and failing, due to the absence of Christ. In the story, upon his return, Jesus casts out the demons and reprimands his apostles for their lack of faith.

With the narrative in place, Raphael painted the piece itself. The work he produced is so incredible that it is seen as, “A summation of his art and his bequest to humanity.” Oberhuber explains that this painting shows the short but important time period in which Raphael interacted with his “consciousness soul”. Oberhuber is referring to the period between the ages of 35 and 42, in which man experiences both the full aspect of his identity and his approach to life. In the painting, Raphael’s experience of this as a positive time is especially visible in the top half of the painting, in the lighting and uplighting qualities. The concept of this soul is explained by Rudolf Steiner: the consciousness soul lives in the head, the sentient soul lives in the limbs, and the rational soul lives in the heart and lungs. Oberhuber applies this to the painting, stating how the demonic boy in the bottom is an example of the sentient soul of Raphael, the apostles around the boy show the rational soul, and the spiritual atmosphere of the upper half point towards Raphael’s consciousness soul. Unfortunately, as Raphael died young, this is one of his only works while in this stage of life.

How does Raphael tell the story? The Transfiguration is considered a crucial event because it provided proof of who Jesus was; Raphael emphasizes this in the way he positions Christ: showing him looking upward toward heaven while rising upwards, in defiance of gravity, in a great whirlwind. Vasari goes into detail in his praise of Christ’s face, saying,

“Clothed in snow-white garments, Christ himself extends his arms and raises his head, and seems to reveal the Essence and Godhead of all three Persons of the Trinity, fused in him by the perfect art of Raphael. And Raphael seems to have summoned up all his powers to demonstrate the strength and genius of his art in Christ’s countenance.”

Mosesa and Elijah are caught up on either side of him. The sky and clouds directly around Jesus are blazing with light, so much that the apostles below on the ground are blinded. This light surrounding Jesus draws special attention to him, as the rest of the painting’s atmosphere is far darker, almost ominous. In addition, Raphael emphasizes Jesus’ power by showing the weakness of the disciples: as Jesus rises, the apostles fall downward to huddle on the ground. Partridge writes,

“[The painting] stresses the absolute power of Christ and the dependency of all humankind on the redemptive sacrifice of his crucifixion. Raphael visualizes this sacrifice… by Chirst’s cruciform posture and by the landscape light produced by either a setting or rising sun, ambiguously expressive of either death or renewal (or both).

In saying this, Partridge is not only observing what Raphael is painting but also what the painter believed, which makes it a powerful representation of Raphael’s own faith.

Also notable in the upper half of the painting is the presence of two saints, Justus and Pastor. These two, from the early days of Christianity, are watching the Transfiguration not in the present, like the disciples, but rather through a vision from their prayers. Raphael seems to be drawing our attention to these other spectators by lighting up their cloaks in a ray from Jesus’ own presence. Like ourselves, they also are watching and participating in the blessing of seeing the event, even though they are not physically there.

The lower half of the painting has a different tone. The left shows nine of the twelve disciples, those who did not go with Jesus to the mountaintop. They are struggling to heal the demon-possessed youth. The different disciples can be recognized, especially by those familiar with the Bible:

“Andrew, holding the books of the Law, is Peter’s brother, and bears a family resemblance [to him]. Judas, at the extreme left, cannot be mistaken. Matthew looks over the shoulder of Bartholomew, who is pointing to the demoniac, while Thomas– distinguished by his youthful appearance– bends over the boy with a look of intense interest.”

The figure kneeling and making known the lack of Christ’s presence by gesturing with his left hand is Simon, while Philip stares at Judas and points in Christ’s direction. The brothers, James and Jude, are together, with Jude looking intently at the boy’s father. The emotion in their faces and gestures is intense: they show frustration, compassion, worry, and even anger at their own helplessness. Some are referencing books for help, while others seem to be pointing the task back to Jesus. The group on the right, the demon-possessed boy and the group with him, have equally strong, but different, emotions. The youth seems to be mid-seizure, and those with him express fearful, skeptical and angry. Although some of the figures’ cloaks are illuminated, the bottom half lacks the glowing light of the upper half. In this way, Raphael has created a perfect contrast that shows at the same time how the scenes are fully separate and fully related. Partridge describes, “In contrast to the circular perfection unity, harmony, luminescence, and transcendence of the upper half, here all is angular, disjunctive, disharmonious, shadowed, and earthbound.” While these two narratives seem fully separated, she adds that the motions and the diagonal gap between the disciples and the demon-possessed boy develop a charge that highlight the motion of Jesus above. This contrast in the piece makes it extraordinarily memorable.

In making the two halves so completely different and choosing two stories that seem completely separate, Raphael is creating a magnificent sense of unity. In The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, it is explained that every good piece of art should have “‘organic unity’”. This means that even while there are two distinctly separate parts to the work, looking at one part should lead to the necessity of the existence of the other parts as well. It is well-explained as “The common life of the whole work.” Simply explained, this common life is the central idea.

Art is a very wide discipline that is used to convey messages in current communities or remind people of how things used to be some years back. Through art, the current generation can learn the culture of earlier generations. The future generations will also be able to know the culture and religions of the present generation by studying the art pieces which are being created by the present generation. Artworks of earlier civilizations are currently preserved in various museums around the world. The artworks give a lot of information about the people who lived during those early civilizations. Artworks in early civilizations revolved around religion, leadership and the general culture of a given society. However, artworks have not been always the same throughout the world. It is on this basis that this piece of work describes the cultures and arts of the Italian Renaissance and Northern European renaissance.

In early years there were various genres of artworks that were done in Italy. For example sculpture, painting and architecture were some of the art pieces that were common in Italy. Another category of art that was common in Italy is performance art which was a form of art that had both features of songs and poems. The performance art was known as opera and it has given Italy an identity throughout the world to an extent that it is now referred to as ‘Italian opera’. The Italian opera was a type of song that was composed with verses similar to a poem (Smith, 2005). The lyrics of the opera were mostly in praise of the beauty of a bride and sometimes they were in praise of a bridegroom.

Art renaissance in Italy began very many years ago at the time when Italy did not actually exist as a state but as a combination of many autonomous city-states such as, Vatican, Rome and Florence (Guillermo, 2005). Arts in other parts of Europe other than Italy are generally referred to as arts of the Northern European renaissance. Artworks have always been used to convey messages to the people and therefore artists always try to convey the intended message as accurately as possible. This is one aspect of art that was always considered by artists in Italy and Northern Europe (Guillermo, 2005).

This is a painting showing the images containing Joseph in Egypt after being sold by his brothers (Smith, 2005). This is a good example of Italian renaissance painting which reveals that Italians believed in the teachings that were found in the bible. Most Italians were basically Christians and most paintings were done to convey messages about Christianity. During the time of art renaissance in Italy, most artworks that included paintings were the improvements made from ancient Greek and ancient Roman arts. Some notable artists made major contributions to the arts of the Italian renaissance and their artworks are currently preserved in museums in Italy and other major museums around the world. An example of such artist is Leonardo who painted the images of the scene of ‘The Last Supper which was a scene of Jesus Christ taking the last meal together with His disciples before being betrayed by Judas Iscariot.

Arts of the Northern European renaissance were similar to those of Italian Renaissance in the sense that in both cases art was used to convey some specific messages to particular groups of people. In both two regions, art served the same purpose concerning religion because paintings showing religious events and sacred places of worship were done the same way. In addition, paintings that were done on fine-weaves in Italy were very much similar to paintings that were done on canvas in the Netherlands (Boardman, 1998). Sculptures of temples in Italy were also made in similar ways as sculptures of temples in Northern Europe.

The major difference that existed between the arts of Italy and Northern Europe renaissances was the languages that were being used to describe the artworks. After a sculpture or a painting was made, it was usually described by a few words written below it. During arts renaissance in Italy, Greek and Latin were the two major languages that were used to describe artworks. On the other hand, artists in Northern Europe used vernacular to describe their artworks. The widespread use of vernacular languages in Northern Europe influenced the formation of new nations in which particular vernacular languages were being spoken (Boardman, 1998).

This is an image of Mary Magdalene whose story is found in the New Testament of the bible. It is an art piece from Northern Europe and below it, writings were made in the German language to describe it (Boardman, 1998).

Another notable difference between the two art renaissances is that arts in Northern Europe represented political powers that were centralized but in Italy there were various arts from city-states that existed independently. For example, in Italy arts from the city of Rome were different from those in Florence which also existed as an independent city-state. Art of the Northern European renaissance focused on the protestant reformation of Christianity while art in the Italian renaissance was more linked to the faith of the Roman Catholic Church than any other faith (Smith, 2005).

In conclusion, it is important to note the relationship between arts of Italian and Northern European renaissance is that both regions borrowed art techniques from each other. For example, ‘Gothic painting’ started in Northern Europe before it spread to Italy. The emergence of new nation-states due to arts in Northern Europe influenced the unification of city-states in Italy to form a unified Italy with a central government.

The Renaissance is the period of European history, characterized by significant progress in sciences and humanities, as well as philosophy. This has been reflected in all forms of art, including music, painting, literature and architecture. Originating in Italy, the Renaissance took inspiration from the Greek and Roman antiquity and coupled it with recent scientific findings and the dominant philosophy of Humanism, which has led to unique and distinctive style in all forms of art. An excellent example of the Renaissance art is The School of Athens, one of the most famous frescoes by Raphael. The fresco was painted between 1509 and 1511, making it an example of the High Renaissance painting. Thus, it prominently features all the characteristic features of the period, including visual aspects, composition, themes, and symbolism.

The fresco, painted by Raphael on the upper floor of the Vatican palace, depicts the crowd of famous philosophers of antiquity in the ongoing debate inside the immense domed basilica. The interior of the basilica prominently exhibits arches, pilasters, and a hemispheric dome, which are characteristic of Renaissance architecture (Anderson 18), but also contribute to creating the feeling of orderliness and reason through canonical geometric shapes (Gamwell and Tyson 77). The artist clearly takes advantage of the linear perspective, emphasizing the symmetry and drawing the viewer’s attention to the center of the painting (Kubovy 164). In the center are two of the most prominent philosophers of the antiquity, Aristotle and Plato, in the middle of the argument. Plato is seen pointing upward, while Aristotle points downward.

The painting has all of the formally recognized characteristic features attributed to the Renaissance artistic form of painting – the strong presence of perspective, the dynamism, as it captures a moment of action, the realistic manner of depiction of humans (contrasted to earlier, more schematic approach of Medieval painting), and the accurate depiction of light and shadows. The color palette is also characteristic of the period, used to control the viewer’s attention and emphasize the important elements (“School of Athens” par. 3), and the setting chosen by the artist reflects the influence of antiquity. However, what is more valuable, and, in my opinion, defines how the School of Athens epitomizes its era are its philosophical and symbolic implications.

First, the main theme of the painting is a debate. This aligns well with the notion that Truth is acquired through reason, the centerpiece of both antique and Renaissance philosophy (Soccio 220). The gestures of two central figures – Aristotle pointing downward, to the realm of things, and Plato pointing upwards, to the realm of Forms – represent not only their standpoints but also the central argument of Humanism – the conflict of ideal and material, of man and Heavens (Bohn and Saslow 177). Besides, the secondary characters, while not unanimously positively identified, almost certainly represent philosophers from different time periods. This, coupled with the prominent display of the sky in the open places and the vanishing point, gives the School an unearthly quality. It appears to be an ideal place on some higher plane of existence rather than a real building, and thus better suited for such an argument.

The Renaissance was the period of change. The advancement in science gave humanity an opportunity to better understand its nature, and possibly challenge its long-established belief in the divine and the role of a human being in the Universe. The Mind and Reason were considered suited best for this task. As we can see, all these tendencies have found their reflection in School of Athens‘ theme, setting, and composition, making it a perfect example of the Renaissance Art.

Introduction

American art before World War II reflects the dynamic and diverse cultural landscape of the United States during the early 20th century. This period witnessed significant artistic developments, with artists exploring various styles and themes that defined American identity and captured the spirit of the times. In this informative essay, we will delve into the major movements, artists, and themes that shaped American art before World War II.

Early 20th Century Art Movements

The early 20th century in American art was marked by a wide range of artistic movements, each with its distinct characteristics. One of the prominent movements was the Ashcan School, which emerged in the early 1900s and focused on depicting urban life and gritty realism. Artists like George Bellows and Robert Henri captured scenes of working-class neighborhoods, portraying the vitality and challenges of American cities.

Another influential movement was American Impressionism, inspired by its European counterpart. Artists such as Childe Hassam and Mary Cassatt employed vibrant colors and loose brushstrokes to capture fleeting moments of everyday life. Their works celebrated the beauty of the American landscape, particularly in the New England region.

Regionalism and the American Scene

During the 1930s, a movement known as Regionalism gained popularity. Artists like Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, and John Steuart Curry celebrated rural America, depicting scenes of farms, small towns, and everyday people. Regionalism aimed to capture the distinct character and unique qualities of different regions across the United States, emphasizing a sense of local identity and cultural heritage.

The Harlem Renaissance

One of the most significant cultural movements in American art before World War II was the Harlem Renaissance. Centered in Harlem, New York City, this vibrant and influential movement showcased the talents of African American artists, writers, musicians, and intellectuals. Artists like Aaron Douglas and Jacob Lawrence depicted the experiences, struggles, and achievements of African Americans, contributing to a broader cultural renaissance that celebrated black identity and creativity.

Modernism and Abstraction

As the 20th century progressed, American art witnessed the rise of modernism and abstract expressionism. Artists like Georgia O’Keeffe and Marsden Hartley explored abstract forms, pushing the boundaries of artistic expression. Abstract art aimed to convey emotions and ideas through non-representational forms and colors, challenging traditional notions of artistic representation.

Conclusion

American art before World War II was a vibrant and transformative period that saw the emergence of diverse artistic movements and styles. From the gritty urban scenes of the Ashcan School to the regionalist depictions of rural America and the groundbreaking expressions of the Harlem Renaissance, artists captured the essence of American life, identity, and cultural diversity. These artistic developments paved the way for future artistic movements and shaped the trajectory of American art in the decades to come. By exploring and appreciating the art of this period, we gain insight into the social, political, and cultural contexts that defined the early 20th century in America.

The Renaissance was a very impactful time in history in all aspects but mainly art. Although argued by historians it is said to have approximately begun in 1300 and ended around 1600. It is seen as the transition from the dark ages to modern times. The renaissance allowed for the creation of a dramatically new culture and view of man. It allowed for the apparent rebirth of the people into a more idealist true version of society and life. Giorgio Vasari (1511-74) wrote a critical document about Art and inveterately about the man at the time in Lives of Artists (1550). Vasari described art in the past and compared it to art in the 16th century.

As described in Vasari’s Lives of Artist “…art [is] the design, which is their foundation, nay rather, the very soul that conceives and nourishes within itself all the parts of man’s intellect…”. Meaning that art represents what the artist is thinking at the time and can be a representation of society at the time. Vasari mentions that prior to the Renaissance art was mainly created by pagans, Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Vasari states that the way they created art was a way “…to make the statues of those for whom they wished that they should remain famous and immortal in the world.” Much of the art was of the gods worshipped at the time and those in positions of power such as rulers and philosophers. Although much of the art was destroyed during raids, wars, and changes in power that what did remain was seen as art without recognition. It is mentioned that many of these artists prior to the renaissance were slaves and not those of status. As well, they received little to no compensation or gain for their work.

Art in the time of the Renaissance is said to have grown along with the idea of humanism in society. Humanism is a movement towards the study and application of the humanities such as grammar, poetry, philosophy, etc. It was said to have been studied to create a more informed high society among the civilization. Humanists were looking back towards the ancients in Rome and Greece for influence on how they could recreate such a modern, impactful society. Humanism reared its head in the renaissance with the creation of universities and higher learning. The “Italians of the late Renaissance regarded the flowering of humanistic studies and the flowering of art as merely two parallel examples of a comprehensive cultural renewal, a rebirth of true civilization.”

The beginning of Renaissance art began with Giotto di Bondone (1266-1336). Although his style is seen as more gothic and more similar to the style in the prior age, he was successfully able to illustrate the way the city centers of the Renaissance such as Florence “bubbled over with social, political, economic, and artistic energy.”. As the popularization of a more Renaissance art style gained, many older more gothic artists added more and more of the renaissance style into their work such as in the case of Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1455). He designed gilded bronze doors for a cathedral. At the time of the creation of the bronze doors was only seen as a craftsman and not much else. His bronze doors while beautiful lacked the so-called grace that the later renaissance art obtained. Despite this, he did maintain some recognition throughout the rest of his artistic career.

The full-fledged renaissance style began around the time of Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72). He “…published a vernacular treatise, on painting, that devoted considerable space to describing surfaces and the action of light and explained in some detail how vanishing-point perspective can be attained.” This allowed for the new renaissance style to be attained more easily by all artists and something that could be learned instead of something only a few great geniuses can achieve. Such as in the case of the more gothic artists. This allowed for a movement away from craftsmen to more academically informed educated artists. Alberti himself was not only a writer by also had artistic talent, due to this he became a connection between the rich aristocrats, humanists, and artists. He wrote about art and played a direct role in “raising the social standing of the artist from craftsman to practitioner of a liberal art.” He stated that a renaissance artist could not rely on only his craftsman skills or his manual skills but must have the “proper intellectual equipment, including mastery of geometry… and also enough literary education to associate easily with orators (humanists) and poets, who will advise him on the choice of mythological subjects.” As the humanist became a key part of the style of Renaissance art.

As Renaissance art flourished it was becoming more common for humanists to advise rich collectors who sought the opinion of others before buying art. Another thing that was becoming more and more common as wealthy members of society to pay for public displays of art, known as artistic patronage. These wealthy members were members of the government “…or the great guilds which formed the basis of political power, or religious confraternities, which were usually dominated by a rich and pious individual.” Those who were paying for public art normally had vast collections of their own, to begin with. They also were known to “…provided humanistic education for their sons, and employed leading humanists in the office of chancellor and in other administrative jobs, as well as hiring humanists as publicly paid lecturers in the university.” Meaning they were greatly ingrained within the artist and humanist society. Cosimo de Medici was one of the most famous people to do this and he concentrated the majority of his artistic patronage on public projects.

As time continued in the Renaissance the popes become more deeply involved in political and military endeavors within Italy. This led to “…the papacy [in Rome] to become a more active patron of humanistic learning and the fine arts.” Artists were enlisted to revamp much of the city into a new beautiful Christian capital, although it took two popes, Pope Nicholas V (1447-55) and Pope Julius II (1503-13) it was eventually achieved. This leads to many artists overtime to head from Florence to Rome. Foreign rule also played an impact on art in the renaissance. France and Spain fought and invaded Italian soil and at one point or another played a role in ruling either directly or indirectly. Art as well as literature became a tool of ideological defense.

Overall the view of the artist changed greatly in society as art itself changed. In Vasari’s document, you go from having a view of the artist as something created by the leader/god who forced the real artist to create it. You go from having the artist be an unnamed slave who gained nothing from their creation. At the beginning of the renaissance when artists were craftsmen who were seen as decent and honorable people but who didn’t have the vision and the grace that the later renaissance artists were able to apply thanks to the humanist influence. Vasari describes renaissance artists such as paintings not only for their technical achievement but also as beautiful, natural, gentle, and very modest. In addition, he describes the artist themselves and the talent they exuded due to their humanist influence. Artists were also paid and encouraged to continue with their art if it was approved by those in power. Some artists were rich and many had fame not only in their lifetime but to this day. As well a change from the prior time is that art was prioritized in society as something that needed to be done to help improve cities and gain more growth and expansion. This is a huge change from how artists were pre-renaissance. Society itself was shaped and changed by the artists and art, just as much as art and artist changed society.

Nature can be seen emerging in architecture right from the beginning in ancient Egypt. Natural elements inspired forms, seen in tombs carved into mountains, and use of local materials; mud brick made of the clay from the river Nile. These are examples of the ancient concept of vernacular architecture. Ancient Egyptian and Greek civilizations developed their thoughts on natural forms and human bodies and interpreted them into geometry. They proportioned their structures, such as temples and shrines, using basic shapes. This influence of nature can be seen drifting through architectural history, however, some modernist architects delved deeper into the true relationship between architecture and the earth’s natural elements. Initially, Louis Sullivan recognized a building should respond to its particular surroundings, just as a plant would grow and thrive naturally in its surroundings. This idea was developed through his exploration of organic ornamentation, eventually wounding up to the idea that ‘form ever follows function’. Also seen in the expressionist style, nature is represented particularly in geological forms. Similar to tomb carving, in 1917 Bruno Taut envisioned Alpine Architektur, crystal-like buildings emerging among the peaks of a utopian landscape. Another concept within this style is dynamism, something Mendelsohn played with, fusing organic form with modern materials.

However, it was Frank Lloyd Wright, a keen observer of the natural world, who really immersed himself in the idea he dubbed ‘organic architecture’. After working for Sullivan, Wright tried to develop his ideas further. He rejected Sullivan’s well-received idea of ‘form follows function’ and insisted that form and function should be one, representing the unity of nature. On the surface, Wright suggests influence from nature should not be imitated; instead, it should be followed as a guide for materials, textures, and colors. Often, Wright integrated various organic analogies into his work. One of particular interest was his metaphorical usage of a tree, which suggests a building should provide a capacity for growth and change while sustaining order and rootedness. This thought is well represented in his earlier work on Winslow House. Moreover, it could be considered this metaphor is not only a correlative representation of the structure and hierarchy of buildings, but potentially a symbol of human freedoms rooted in moral principles.

Overall, organic architecture represents the unification between nature and architecture. This not only concerns the literal relationship between the building and nature but also how the forms of nature are integrated within the design. The idea seeks to consolidate human habitats with nature and reflects this in every element of a building. Moreover, every component must relate to reflect nature’s symbiotic ordering.