Category: Aesthetic

The instrumental theory of art claims that art serves an external purpose of some sort. According to Professor Goodyear’s class handout, “a typical function of instrumental theory includes expanding and shaping our perceptions, offering new models for interacting with the world, stimulating nationalism, pushing some ideologies, generating a catharsis for psychological health, generating certain feelings appropriate for a certain ritual or event and obtaining profound religious insight.” The physical functions of art are often the easiest to understand. A physical art work is created to perform something in the physical world. The social function of art is when it addresses aspects of collective life as opposed to someone’s point of view or experience. Political art always carries a social function. The personal functions of art are often the hardest to explain. There are many types of personal functions, and they are subjective and will, therefore, vary from person to person.

Many artists around the world, which includes the United States, are being tormented and silenced for their freedom of expression. It seems strange that, in the 21st century, individuals are being suppressed and persecuted just because they are trying to express themselves. But a growing number of artists feel like they are “left alone in the pouring rain” while everyone else is protected by the government’s umbrella of freedom of speech. Art, whether you recognize it or not, exists all around us. It is present in the music we hear, in the poetry and books we read, and even in the history books we use in our schools. All and more is art, and by censoring it, we take away a person’s right to express themselves, something which is needed in a democracy. Of course, the people’s right to express themselves has its limits; hate speech, and speech that endangers others should be prohibited. Art has been censored throughout history for different purposes, by religions, governments, schools and across cultures. Censorship and the instrumental theory of art are connected.

By definition, censorship is suppressing any work that is considered obscene, politically, socially, or religiously unacceptable, or that threatens a nation’s security (Oxford Dictionary). But who exactly should impose or say what is acceptable or not? The National Art Education Association has made it clear that “the individual has the right to accept or reject any work of art for himself or herself personally but does not have the right to suppress those works of art…with whom he or she does not agree.” By censoring any form of art, we not only take away the individual’s basic civil rights, but we also limit diversity and exclude the number of artists in society. On the other hand, we don’t want to trample on other people’s beliefs, and make sure that the art does not violate their rights.

In democratic countries like the United States, we have the First Amendment of the Constitution to protect our freedom of speech as long as the rights of other citizens are not violated, but that is not entirely true. Like many other laws, there are always loopholes. The loopholes cannot and should not be tolerated. Pro-censorship forces use surveys and scientific research to make their ideas seem official and appealing to ordinary people, but their presentation of this research is not necessarily true. Their belief, for example, that exposure to violence causes people to react in destructive ways is not yet proven according to the current research (New York Times). A private company with plenty of money and resources can misuse “scientific research” to say that fictional violence leads to real-life crime. They can hire their researchers to say and prove exactly that. For example, research by the psychologists L. Rowell Huesmann and Leonard Eron proved through their research that elementary school children who watch excessive amounts of violent videos tend to show higher levels of aggressive behavior in their teenage years. There is a contradiction between their interpretation and reality. There is virtually no hard evidence that shows that fictional violence leads to crime. In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations Center for Law, “Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing, or print, in the form of art or through any other media of his or her choice” (Mendel 2). As an educated, and forward-thinking society, if we are in some way disturbed by a form of expression, we as a people should be able to decide for ourselves whether to simply walk away and decline these ideas or accept them.

Some religions have played a role in censoring works of art at certain times in history. Most religions, if not all, have censored art throughout history for various reasons. The art world, a realm populated by masterpieces often hailed for their transgressive, controversial and taboo characteristics, regularly clashes against standards of decency and good taste in the fight for freedom of expression (Frank). Throughout history, works of art have been altered, silenced, and even erased due to “unacceptable content,” and the motivations for censorship were religious and political. During the Renaissance, Michelangelo’s “The Last Judgement,” became controversial as soon as it was seen, and was immediately deemed obscene by the Catholic Church. At that time it was forbidden to paint nude religious art. Michelangelo got back at the Pope by painting him in Hell. Another sculpture made by Michelangelo was the statue of David, but the Catholic Church made him cover the statue’s genitals with a fig leaf because they considered the statue obscene. These two are example of instrumental theory.

Religious censorship is defined as the act of suppressing views that are contrary to those of an organized religion. It is usually justified on the grounds of blasphemy, heresy, sacrilege, or impiety. Censored works are typically viewed as being obscene, challenging a dogma, or violating a religious taboo. It is an ancient concept dating back to the times of Socrates, who himself was sentenced to death for corrupting the youth of his time.

Generally, defending against charges of obscenity and censorship are often difficult since some religious traditions allow only the religious authorities (clergy) to interpret doctrine, and the interpretation is usually dogmatic. The Catholic Church, for example, has banned hundreds of books because they are obscene and offensive. These books were viewed as dangerous by the Church’s Holy Office. The Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list of prohibited books, implemented by the Catholic Church in 1559 banned hundreds of books until its abolishment in 1966.

In Islam, censorship of art is on a whole different level. Although the Quran does not directly state anything about the censorship of art, Islamic theocracies have imposed Fatwas (religious orders) on content that they considered blasphemous. Several Islamic countries even employ religious police, who seize consumer products, art, and media that are considered un-Islamic. They have seized books, clothing material, CDs/DVDs of various Western musical groups’ performances and films. In Saudi Arabia, the religious police prevent the practice of proselytizing by non-Islamic religions. Visual art is also censored. According to the Sunni Islamic clergy, it is considered haram or forbidden to paint a human being and make any sculptures, play music, or perform dancing. In Shi’ism, another sect of Islam, it is permitted to render pictures of humans, but dancing and music are prohibited. In Sufism (another sect), it is only permitted to dance in a way called, “Sufi Whirling” which shows devotion to God. In short, different sects of Islam have different points of view when it comes to art and impose different censorship mandates. My own experience relates to religious censorship. In my house, there are no pictures or sculptures. This is because my family follows the Sunni sect of Islam, which forbids Muslims to have pictures in their houses.

I believe that censorship of art occurs because of society’s norms. In those societies whatever is viewed as threatening to that norm is censored under the religious umbrella. In pre-Christian Rome, it was normal to make nude sculptures. After Emperor Constantin made Christianity the state religion in 323 AD, nude sculptures became taboo. Similarly, in Pre-Islamic Arabia, making sculptures of gods was viewed as devotion to the gods, but once Islam came to Arabia, making a sculpture to worship its aesthetic beauty became a capital offense by the Islamic clergy.

As a counterargument, censorship of art may be helpful. It provides a level of defense against the corruption of youth, demoralization of religion and values. A sexual painting in a public area for example will be viewed by all ages, even children. Children are innocent by nature. Their minds are still developing, and such visuals can impact their mind negatively. According to my psychology professor Paul Siegel, children form mental representations of things they see around them. Children cannot understand the meaning behind the art. They just imitate what they see. Therefore, it is understandable that many people want sexual references or violent depictions in art to be censored in public places.

In addition, art should not be used to spread hatred among communities or to demoralize a religion. For example, “Innocence of Muslims”, a video featuring an offensive depiction of Islam and the Prophet Muhammad prompted protests around the world, and more than 20 governments demanded Google to either block or remove the video. This video led to the banning of YouTube in Pakistan for 3 years and created tension between Western and Islamic governments. Many terrorist organizations showed that video to innocent children to convince them that the West is humiliating the prophet and Islam; therefore, they should avenge the prophet’s insult. Furthermore, in another incident, a Nepali artist received death threats when his mashup painting of Hindu gods and Western superheroes went on display at a gallery in Kathmandu.

Finally, censorship of art can have positive effects. For example, a school in Berlin has “removed a series of six nude paintings in an attempt to acknowledge and respect Muslim religious beliefs” (Huffington Post). The school feared that the nude paintings might prevent Muslim students from attending classes. Those paintings were in a public place, and the viewers were forced to see the images that should be censored. Understanding the situation, the school made the right decision to avoid offending the Muslim Students. In this case, censorship was essential to maintain the educational environment. These examples show that censorship is appropriate in certain situations because it acts as protection against an inappropriate display of art. In all three previous examples, the use of censorship is justified. Censoring sexual or violent visuals in public is justified because it seeks to protect innocent children. In addition, any work of art should be censored if it is spreading hatred for a particular religion. Lastly, it is justified to censor art to accommodate a group’s beliefs. These three examples show how instrumental theory functions because it instills religious ideology, and prevents inappropriate interactions between art and the public.

From pre-historic times, mankind has been involved in the creation of art. Curiosity of objects and ideas has allowed people to evolve into a better society. Art has played a major role around the world. Throughout history, art has been used to instigate revolutions. For example, in 1938, a visionary poet named Muhammad Iqbal used his poetry to spark a revolution for a separate state for Indian Muslims. “Words, without power, is mere philosophy (Muhammad Iqbal). Iqbal was convinced that through his poetic verses, he would inspire Indian Muslims to fight for a separate nation. This again refers to the function of instrumental theory because it stimulates nationalism. Many governments around the world have censored art to prevent revolutions. For example, in China, a communist nation, there is no individual ideology; beliefs are determined by the government. Those who are brave enough to spout a different ideology put their life in danger. Ai Weiwei, one of the few in the small groups of activists in China, has demonstrated to help push his country out of its old thinking and into modernism. Ai Weiwei believed that “modernity cannot exist without freedom of speech” (Kunzru, 3). Together the group of activists pasted advertisements on the so-called “Democracy Wall” as a sort of attention grabber. Weiwei writes, “We want to be masters of the world and not instruments…We want a modern lifestyle and democracy for the people. Freedom and happiness are our sole objectives in accomplishing modernization” (Kunzru, 4). Wei was arrested later and sentenced to 15 years in a labor camp. (Kunzru. 4). Wei is a man whose wishes are for all humanity to live in the present not in the past. He is a firm believer that “Creativity is the power to reject the past, to change the status quo and to seek new potential” (Kunzru, 6). The example above again shows the function of instrumental theory because it is pushing Ai Weiwei’s ideology of democracy.

Although those who are silenced by the government in the United States are not classified as torture victims that is only because of the eight amendment in the Constitution that states: “Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” Artists in other countries – mostly communist – are tortured. Communism has a much unpersuadable perspective of individual human rights. If individuals create works of art that are against the government, they are punished. The UN Human Rights Committee and the UN Committee Against Torture have both concluded that prolonged solitary confinement may amount to torture (PEN International). Aron Atabek, a Kazak poet who has written against President Nursultan Nazarbayev and his government, has been in prison since 2007 (PEN Internationals). His punishment is appalling. According to Atabek’s son, he tells Pen International, a worldwide association of writers, that his father is “being kept under 24-hour surveillance and access to writing materials, natural light, phone calls, and letters from his family is denied. Every day, handcuffed and hooded, he is taken for a brief walk, during which communication with other prisoners is strictly prohibited.” The only reason that he has not been physically beaten is because “international organizations know about me” Atabek said (Watch Dog). Another example of censorship of art can be seen in China today. Xinjiang is an autonomous Uygur region where China has banned the Uygur’s language, costumes, religious practices, books, media, and poetry. China has imposed complete censorship on Uygur’s cultural art to integrate them with Han Chinese forcibly. In the case of these examples, a government should not impose censorship upon its citizens. The examples in this paragraph again connect with the functions of instrumental theory because art is being censored to deny a group their rights and to suppress an ideology.

Different religions impose different types of sanctions on art, similarly, different cultures impose different sanctions on art. For example, in Pakistan, it is a capital offense to paint a picture of Prophet Muhammad while, on the other hand, in Iran, it’s okay to paint pictures of the prophet and saints. Similarly, in Western Europe, depictions of God are seen as a devotion to God, but not in Africa. Different religious societies also have holy colors which are associated with a religion. For example, in India Hindus associate their religion with red while Muslims associate their religion with green. Therefore, it is offensive to Hindus to offer something green in a Temple.

In conclusion, censorship of art can have both a negative and positive impact on society. Positive effects of censoring art include protecting children, avoiding chaos between communities and religions, and respecting others’ beliefs. While a person will argue that censoring hate speech will take away his First Amendment rights, it is justified to censor art to maintain peace. On the other hand, the negative effects of censoring art are that it suppresses the individual’s right to expression, reduces diversity in society, and spreads hatred among people. I am not against censorship of art unless it is spreading hatred between people. I believe that most art has meaning behind it, but we should be more careful what we are exhibiting in public. For example, if we show sexual and violent artwork in public and a child sees it, it will affect him negatively. In psychology class, I learned that children form mental representations of things they see around them. Because children cannot interpret the meaning behind the art, they just imitate what they see. Therefore, art should be in museums. By doing only this, those people will view the art who have the desire to view it. No one will be forced to see it.  

German expressionism is not distinguished by a particular style or method of creation, it is better described as a portrayal of the artists’ inner feelings and emotions. This essay explores how Expressionism as a movement emerged across various cities in Germany from approximately 1905 to 1920 and how the prominent artists of that time created a movement that would challenge societies perceptions of art in way that created a more personal experience for the artist and the viewer. (ref1) Prior to the rise of the expressionist movement, people began Immigrating to the city from the yin the name of industrialisation, they were threatened by the impending war and were living in a period of religious doubt, this was thought to create an existential crisis for German people (ref8) across cities such as Munich, Dresden and Berlin. Artists were feeling discouraged, constrained and frustrated by the rigid traditional state-sponsored art education that dominated Germany which went on to influence artists to take a new approach to art which had strong influences to the fauvists, primitive art and Art Nouveau. (ref2) This was a contrasting way to present art which differed greatly from the impressionist’s academic landscape paintings which is what society was primarily used to viewing. How did these factors go on to create a movement that differed from any of the previous works? and how did the German group of expressionists such as Die Brucke and Bleu Reiter create a shift within the art world aiming to consciously forge modern art in an international context in a response to living within a colonial Germany at the time? This essays also aims to contextualise how and why the German Youths revolted against the nationalist social party within Germany and rebel against the wishes of the Hitler youth to conform to a certain idealistic view. The second world war caused a great divide, founding two separate German states and an operation against expressive art which was labelled as “degenerate art” with German National Socialists confiscating many expressive works and showing them within a museum called “the exhibition of shame”. How did the rise of the National socialist party effect artists and scrutinise expressive and modern art? This essay will also look at how the Socialist Party attempted to democratise the state and society and how after 1933 this brought an end to the aesthetic and intellectual civilisation of Germany.

Vincent van Gogh, Edvard Munch and James Ensor are some of the early artists that lay roots to the expressionist art movement, each of whom, from 1885 through 1900, developed a painting style that proved to be highly personal. Using bold colours and strong lines to explore emotional and dramatic themes helped to convey the intensity of the artist’s current perception of themselves and their awareness of their emotional state. These artists were known as post-impressionists and were rebelling against the impressionist art movement which had become mainstream during that period. This compares greatly to the rebellion of the expressionist artists against academic art, which then set to challenge how people viewed the creative world and the paintings created by the German expressionists.

The post-impressionists used various approaches to convey their eclectic view of the world, they would include geometric shapes and definitive forms with simplified colours, often experimenting with abstraction, paying close attention to the artificiality of the painting by using cropped and flattened characteristics. (ref 10) James Ensor (13 April 1860 – 19 November 1949) was a Belgian painter who’s work was illustrative in style but also had the bold colours and expressive strokes similar to expressionist paintings. He had a way of turning reality into something strange and expressive through the use of masks and circus themes within his work. These masks hide the identity of the individuals while exposing the wearer’s true personality often being something foolish and crude. (ref11) This illustrative style of painting was a way of portraying one’s emotions and would go on to inspire modern artists to look at the meaning behind their work, rather than creating realistic landscapes that were just aesthetically pleasing to look at.

Creating work that would shock and propose to convey a story and emotion was the late 19th-century Norwegian artist Edvard Munch (1863-1944) and he was a huge source of inspiration for German expressionist artists. His work was full of vibrant colours and expressive strokes. Munch’s famous painting ‘The Scream’ (1893) expresses the anxiety he felt concerning the newly modernised European society, which led to an attack on materialism and longing for the nostalgia of a lost organic unity between art and society. (ref6) Munch’s works often depict life and death scenes and the feeling of loneliness. These emotions were depicted by the use of darker lines, sombre tones and the human form which was exaggerated and concise. Munch was and still is, considered to be a father of expressionism, his work being enthusiastically received within Germany.

Munch was often compared to Van Gogh due to the obvious post-impressionist style they both harbour within their work. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and other artists of the rebellious German expressionist group Die Brücke were influenced by Van Gogh’s work particularly being drawn to his powerful brushwork and strong contrasting colours which is prevalent within his work. The highly admired Van Gogh for his heavy use of colour and visible rejection of academic rules to landscape painting within his works. This rejection of the societal norm appealed to the German expressionists because of the dissatisfaction they also felt towards impressionist still life and traditional landscape paintings. Museum directors and private collectors in both Germany and Austria were some of the first institutions to start buying Van Gogh’s paintings and in 1914 there were more than 160 of his works in German and Austrian collections. This led to many Germans being exposed to his work and thus becoming inspired to create work in a way that expressed their feelings as Van Gogh’s expression was brought to life in paint.

Fauvism was also among one of the movements that went on to influence German expressionist artists which were seen to be by many as an extreme extension of the post-impressionist work by Van Gogh. The name Fauvism applied to describe the work produced by a group of artists from around 1905 to 1910 and, similar to the artists of the post-impressionist movement, was characterised by the strong use of colour and powerful brushstrokes. Fauvism was a short-lived art movement from France that was considered to be an early form of expressionism and it shares the characteristics of some of the expressionist paintings that followed in Germany. One of Fauvism’s leading contributions to modern art was its innate goal of separating colour from its descriptive, authentic purpose and allowing it to exist on the canvas as an individualistic element. There was thought to be a revelation of fauvism in 1905 at the end of World War I. (ref 16)

In this critical review, I choose two readings. The first one is An Annotated Translation of Yan Yu’s “Canglang Shihua.” Pp. 8-20. And the second one is Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts and the Universe in the Six Dynasties (Cai Zongqi) pp. 123-140.

For the first article, An Annotated Translation of Yan Yu’s “Canglang Shihua.” Pp. 8-20. It is an analysis of the Chinese poetry manual of the early thirteen century and is titled,

“An Annotated Transition of Yan Yu’s Canglang Shihua.” The dissertation, written by Ruey-Shan Sandy Chen in 1996, highlights Yan Yu’s early Chinese poetry. The dissertation offers a translation of the poetry works of Yan Yu while at the same time criticizes the Chinese literary tradition. The article begins by providing a detailed annotation of the classical words used in the Chinese literary tradition as well as the figures, textual allusions, the philosophies, the cultural concepts, religious beliefs, the political and social conditions and the legends of the Chinese literature. The translation and explanation of these concepts make it easier for the modern reader to access and understand the early works of Chinese literary writers. In the introduction, the author explores various perspectives of Yan Yu and later critics of the early Chinese literature.

As a poet and literary theorist, it turns out that Yan Yu was an archaist who advocated for a return to High-Tang poetry due to its possession of magnificent imagery and atmosphere. Similarly, according to the author, Yan Yu had an insightful analogy illustrated by his great poetry skills as well as attainment of enlightenment in Zen Buddhism (Chen 1997). The great influence of Yan Yu’s perspectives on the early Chinese literary tradition to the readers and critics of Chinese literature in and beyond China makes it necessary to explore his literature. The author analyzes the five sections contained in the Canglang shihua including the poetry argument which constitutes the main thesis on Yan Yu’s perspectives and views of poetry.

Similarly, the author examines the various forms of poetry in terms of the poetic styles and genres used by different persons and at different times in the Chinese literary tradition as well as the methods of poetry used. Under the methods of the poetry section, the author suggests various ways of writing excellent poetry. Moreover, the Canglang shihua provides various commentaries on poetry by evaluating several traditional Chinese poets as well as traditional Chinese poems followed by a section that offers various proofs of poetry. This section provides a collation of textual discrepancies in traditional Chinese poetry while at the same time discusses the dates and authorship of the various Chinese poems. According to Yan Yu, poetry creates a sense of direction and offers the truth to all members of the society regardless of their religious and philosophical beliefs. It offers a meeting point for the Confucianists who believe in the concern for humanity, the Daoists who are guided by the law of the universe and the Buddhists who believe in the emptiness and impermanence of nature.

For the second reading, Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts and the Universe in the Six Dynasties (Cai Zongqi) pp. 123-140. This article illustrates the history and development of the Chinese literary tradition is entitled “The Ordering of Literature, the Arts, and the Universe in the Six Dynasties,” by Shuen-fu Lin. The article is a detailed prologue of the historical context of Chinese literary developments during the era of the six dynasties. The author presents a comprehensive and nuanced analysis of Chinese aesthetic practice and thought in the era of the six ancient Chinese dynasties. According to the author, despite various social and dynamic upheavals experienced during the era of the six dynasties, several artists remained focused on developing various literary areas such as poetry, drama, fiction, song, prose, lyrics and parallel prose. The author presents a chronological growth of the Chinese literature throughout the six dynasties detailing the milestones achieved in each of the dynasties.

Significant developments were realized in the Chinese garden throughout the six dynasties. At first, the six dynasties saw people move from the art of building gardens and parks for utilitarian purposes such as production of goods, hunting and gathering and rearing of cattle and horses to the culture of creating gardens and parks for recreation, rest and enjoyment purposes as well as for pursuing other aesthetic interests (Cai 2004). The second phase was characterized by a reduction in the size of the emperor’s parks in Qin and Han. In an attempt to compensate for the reduction in the size of the parks, the people of China embraced the art of garden building which resulted in the construction of artificial features such as hills and various water bodies as well as the careful selection of animals, birds, plants, and rocks.

Similarly, the period was characterized by a replacement of the culture of the construction of imperial parks with the skillful management of pavilions, water, hills, woods and halls. Furthermore, this period was characterized by the use of various techniques of appreciating scenes from nature outside the garden in extending the ideal space beyond the walls. For instance, developments in Chinese aesthetics such as calligraphy, poetry, as well as the painting of the literati were infused in the art of garden development. Hence, Chinese aesthetics was used in making the garden a beautiful and magnificent place with beautiful colors, sounds, and sights throughout the entire course of the Six Dynasties.

In the third phase, artists of the Six Dynasties used a realistic and suggestive approach in improving the appearance of the garden. The beauty of the garden was improved using

What is perseverance? Perseverance means to never give up and always keep trying your very best. The theme of perseverance is showcased in the following pieces; the short story “To Build A Fire” by Jack London, Miley Cyrus’ song, “The Climb” and the painting, “Washington Crossing the Delaware,” by Emanuel Leutze.

“To Build A Fire” by Jack London is about a newcomer from the Yukon territory who senselessly goes out into the cold despite warnings not to. He plans to meet his friends at their camp at six o’clock that night. He is accompanied by a wolf-dog, a husky, that feels no feeling of love for him. The song, “The Climb” by Miley Cyrus is about proving that no matter how hard life may be at one point, it will get better in the future. “Washington Crossing the Delaware,” by Emanuel Leutze shows George Washington leading his soldiers across the Delaware River in 1776 during the American Revolutionary War.

Perseverance is shown throughout the short story, “To Build A Fire” by Jack London. “To Build A Fire,” tells the story of a man who travels along the Yukon Trail against the warning of an old man from Sulphur Creek. The Yukon Trail was new territory for the man and instead of traveling with a partner, he travels with a wolf dog. He started his journey at nine o’clock in the morning and hoped to reach his friends at the camp on Henderson Creek by six o’clock in the evening. “The trouble with him was that he was not able to imagine. He was quick and ready in the things of life, but only in the things, and not in their meanings. Fifty degrees below zero meant 80 degrees of frost. Such facts told him that it was cold and uncomfortable, and that was all. It did not lead him to consider his weakness as a creature affected by temperature” (2). The man does not truly understand how cold it is. To the man, he thinks it’s just a little bit colder than normal. In reality, he does not understand the freezing temperatures that he could face. Also, he is not aware of the consequences of the cold temperatures. The man’s lack of true meaning of the cold allows him to preserve throughout his journey. The man and the dog continue their journey for several miles. “As he walked along he rubbed his face and nose with the back of his mittened hand. He did this without thinking, frequently changing hands. But, with all his rubbing, the instant he stopped, his face and nose became numb… But it did not matter much, he decided. What was a little frost? A bit painful, that was all. It was never serious” (4-5). The man continues walking and realizes he is starting to lose feeling in his face and nose. However, he does not allow this to stop him because he preserves by telling himself even though it hurts, keep moving forward. The man was happy with his progress by the time he stopped to eat his lunch. He had built a fire for himself and the dog. Once he was warm, the man got up and started his journey again. Unfortunately, he fell into the water. He was able to get himself out but had to build another fire. “He worked slowly and carefully, realizing his danger. Gradually, as the flame grew stronger, he increased the size of the sticks with which he fed it. He sat in the snow, pulling the sticks from the bushes under the trees and feeding them directly to the flame. He knew he must not fail” (8). The man could not give up. In spite of being wet and cold, he needed to preserve, so that he could build a fire to warm his feet and dry his socks and moccasins. While the fire was burning, the man began to burn up. “He remembered the advice of the old man on Sulphur Creek and smiled. The man had been very serious when he said that no man should travel alone in that country after 50 below zero. Well, here he was; he had had the accident; he was alone, and he had saved himself. Those old men were rather womanish, he thought. All a man must do was to keep his head, and he was all right. Any man who was a man could travel alone” (9). Although the man is beginning to realize that maybe the old man was right and that he should have partnered with someone on his journey, he continues to persevere under pressure in difficult circumstances. He is determined to survive and believes that as long as he can keep thinking straight, he will be okay by himself. While trying to get warm by the fire, the snow from the tree above him fell on top of the fire and put it out. The man knew that the fire should have been in an open space. “Now, he must build the fire again, and this second time he must not fail. Even if he succeeded, he would be likely to lose some toes. His feet must be badly frozen by now, and there would be some time before the second fire was ready. Such were his thoughts, but he did not sit and think them. He was busy all the time they were passing through his mind.” (10) The man did not take the time to feel sorry for himself when the fire went out. He continued to persevere and dealt with the problem he was facing at the moment. Although he was freezing, he was able to stay focused under the pressure of having to build another fire.

Sadly, the man’s journey got worse and everything the old man told him about traveling alone in the cold was proving to be true. “It was his last moment of fear. When he had recovered his breath and his control, he sat and thought about meeting death with dignity” (15). Throughout his journey, the man persevered to survive. He bravely faced various extreme conditions. Although the man did not always make the best decisions, his final decision to die with dignity continued to show bravery and perseverance.

The theme of perseverance is evident throughout the song, “The Climb” sung by Miley Cyrus. “The Climb” is a ballad about overcoming obstacles. The image of the mountain symbolizes the difficulties of life. The act of climbing symbolizes the ongoing struggles of life. The main instruments used in the song are piano, guitar, and violin and blend nicely with the lyrics. The instruments are played softly at the beginning of the song. The tempo starts slow with a somber tone. Then, the beat picks up throughout the remainder of the song and becomes cheerful and full of hope, especially during the big progressions in the chorus. As the tempo increases, the impact of the lyrics becomes intensified, giving the listener a strong feeling of empowerment. Miley sang the song in the movie, “Hannah Montana: The Movie;” therefore, the target audience was preteens, but the song’s message can impact older teens and adults as well.

“That dream I’m dreaming, but There’s a voice inside my head saying, you’ll never reach it, every step I’m taking, every move I make feels, Lost with no direction.” These lyrics express not giving up on one’s dreams without giving a fight. Regardless of the negative thoughts one may be thinking, one needs to persevere and try to move past the negativity. “There’s always gonna be another mountain. I’m always gonna wanna make it move. Always gonna be an uphill battle. Sometimes I’m gonna have to lose.” These lyrics show that no matter how many difficulties lie in one’s path, one has to continue trying the best they can to overcome the obstacle. Life is going to be full of struggles and one needs the perseverance to help push them along. It will not be easy to overcome the obstacles, but persevere, do not give up! “Ain’t about how fast I get there Ain’t about what’s waiting on the other side It’s the climb.” These lyrics tell that it is not how quickly one can jump over their hurdles or reach their destination, but instead, one should learn from the journey. Emphasis should be placed on doing the best one can and learn through the process of conquering life’s obstacles. “Just keep pushing on, ‘cause There’s always gonna be another mountain, I’m always gonna wanna make it move, Always gonna be an uphill battle, Sometimes I’m gonna have to lose.” These lyrics explain that there will always be other obstacles in life that one must face to achieve their goals. Life is filled with little battles to conquer, and one must persevere to work through them and learn from them. At this point in the music, the tempo intensifies and Cyrus sings the lyrics confidently and strongly. The listener cannot help but feel strength and energy from the song. “Keep on moving, Keep climbing, Keep the faith baby, it’s all about, It’s all about, The Climb, Keep the faith, Keep your faith, Whoa oh oh.” The ending lyrics suggest that the challenges and obstacles people may encounter in life are like the mountains. To get to the top, people must persevere and push ahead to get up and over their hurdles. Attaining one’s goal may be difficult; however, faith, courage, and perseverance, will help one to stay focused and continue to move forward. The lyrics offer words of encouragement, to never give up, to continue dreaming, to move on, and to live life the way one truly wants to.

Perseverance is evident in the painting, Washington Crossing the Delaware, painted by Emanuel Leutze, a German-American artist in 1851. Washington Crossing the Delaware is one of the most famous American paintings in history as Leutze shows General George Washington crossing the Delaware River with his Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War on December twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth in 1776.

Perseverance is shown in the facial expressions of George Washington and his troops. It is visible to see that the troops were not rowing in smooth waters and their determination is seen as they maneuvered their oars around the large pieces of ice. In this oil on canvas painting, Leutze creates a scene showing a realistic image that Washington’s soldiers were experienced rowers. The darkness of the colors used presents a serious tone. However, the lightness of the sky in the background gives a sense of hope that Washington will be successful in his voyage. The crossing of the Delaware River before the attack on the Hessians at Trenton, New Jersey. One may explain that Washington instilled perseverance in his troops that Christmas night, hoping for a victory in Trenton that would boost the soldiers’ morale. In looking at General Washington, his posture alone, gives off a sense of pride, determination, and perseverance that no matter what he and his troops may encounter, they will not give up and push forward.

In conclusion, the theme of perseverance is shown in the following pieces; the short story “To Build A Fire” by Jack London, Miley Cyrus’ song, “The Climb” and the painting, Washington Crossing the Delaware, by Emanuel Leutze. “To Build A Fire” by Jack London told about a man and a wolf-dog on their journey in the Yukon Trail. Both the man and the dog showed perseverance as they travelled in below-freezing temperatures with little supplies. “The Climb” by Miley Cyrus is an inspirational song that sends a message about how having perseverance can help one get through the obstacles and struggles of life. Lastly, the painting, Washington Crossing the Delaware, depicts the perseverance and determination of General George Washington and his troops as they crossed the Delaware River in uneasy waters during the American Revolutionary War. In closing, each of these three pieces shows that perseverance is an important trait to have in life. If one can persevere, then one can reach their goals no matter what obstacles they may encounter in life.

When it comes to comparing and contrasting the Greek and Christian views of the artist, it is understood that they are on different sides of the spectrum. Although there are some similarities between the two, Greek art holds a humanistic view while art from a Christian standpoint showcases man’s expression of God’s beauty. Biblical scripture clearly states the responsibility of artists in creation and how art should and should not be used. Understanding both the Greek and Christian views of the artist is important in discerning between right and wrong while applying Biblical commands to daily life.

As mentioned before, the Greeks took a humanistic approach when creating art. This perspective places a human’s journey or experience at the center of everything. It is understood that the comparison between human emotions is complex, yet beautiful. Mankind is both heroic and imperfect as well as giving and selfish. When humanism in Greek culture is discussed, philosophy and religion are not emphasized, but rather complexity in moral and psychological terms (“Greek Humanism”). The starting point of this view can be seen in Greek history as a king named Agamemnon is esteemed, but also deeply flawed. Other characters, such as Achilles, are deemed heroic, yet troubled. Why is this the case? Despite all of their redeeming qualities, they are still presented with the struggle of overcoming life’s imperfections. Greek humanists are interested in the beauty behind man’s struggle to come to terms with their flaws (“Greek Humanism”). The Greek artist interprets this inward brawl as extraordinary and captivating. The Greek view of the artist can be debated between two things: a demigod whose work should be accepted, or an imposter. What differentiates the two depends on whether or not their work depicts this belief in contrasting humanity’s qualities.

Greeks also emphasize the outward beauty and athleticism of human bodies. Ancient Greek art symbolizes the accomplishments and pride of mankind. The term “arete,” meaning excellence or the ability to reach full potential, was one of their culture’s fundamental principles (Independence Hall Association). Much of the ancient Greek culture that is showcased throughout their history may seem strangely familiar to modern-day forms of art. Greek civilization has been embedded into our culture through Hollywood and technology. The constant struggle of man is seen through visions of epic battles, white temples, and athletic performances. Although much ancient Greek art has been lost in time, hints of it are still being revealed today (Gondek).

Most Greek art was created to worship false gods, but those gods were represented through the image of man. Stone or wood sculptures mainly depicted men as masculine and strong in an effort to glorify themselves. Much of them were nude and freestanding, as artists saw beauty in this form. Earlier sculptors showcased a more rigid form of man, specifically known as “kouros,” but as time progressed, more natural poses were adopted (Independence Hall Association). Action sculptures, such as Myron’s Discus Thrower, presented an athletic human depiction. Very few Greek paintings remain, but ancient pottery also portrays stories of both tragedy and heroism.

In contrast to the motivation behind Greek artists, Christians place God at the center of handiwork. Greek art was used as a medium for mankind’s ennoblement, while Christian art expresses the artist’s individual philosophy. Greek art portrays a more political aspect, however, Christian-influenced artwork perceives a heavenly aesthetic (Greek Thesaurus). More specifically, God’s beauty is revealed. God is the Creator of everything that is beautiful, including humans, and the artist’s job is to showcase that. The art Christians create is another way beauty can be displayed through the power of the Holy Spirit. Art is an essential aspect of the Christian religion. It forms a community, a place for reflection, and helps to nurture humanity as a whole. A sense of longing within a Christian is evoked when beauty is displayed through art. That homesick feeling stems from a desire for heaven. Hints of heaven’s beauty and a glimpse of God’s complexity are shown through art leaving the observer wanting more.

The Christian artist’s mandate found in Philippians 4:8 commands followers of Christ to appreciate transcendent and value-laden creative things that make our existence noble. Because mankind has been created in God’s image, as Genesis 1:27 states, being part of His kingdom entails serving as both creators and critics of artwork. When observing creation, followers of Christ are told to see the world as God sees it. Renewal of the mind and nonconformity to the world’s beliefs, as mentioned in Romans 12:1-2, is a necessary aspect of the Christian lifestyle when one is either creating or viewing art. This includes discerning what is deemed as appropriate expressions of art and proper uses of art in a Christian worship environment.

A Christian’s approach to art must not consist of aiming to show the validity of Christianity through art, but, “Rather the validity of art should be shown through Christianity” (Rookmaaker). Just as genuine Christians do not only go through the motions, but they live out a Godly life, the artist should focus on showcasing their renewal in God through creativity. The ability to claim something as art stems from whether or not it conforms to reality and things we know to be true. Artists can also prevent any misleading doctrine that may be presented in other artwork, such as the Greek’s, and instead help promote biblically sound creations. The job of a Christian artist is to produce this. The motivation behind the Christian artist stems from a desire to use their God-given talents and glorify God through art for others to see. A Christian artist is someone who aims to advance the kingdom of God through expression no matter the audience’s beliefs.

Both Christian and Greek artists aim to worship and glorify something through their work. There is meaning behind each piece no matter the artist’s religion or cultural background. Differences do although stem from the artist’s specific motivation, as in whom or what is being glorified. Ancient Greek artists promoted a more humanistic view, while Christian artists attempted to glorify God as the foundation of all creation. Both similarities and differences are found between Greek and Christian artists, but both have played an important part in the development of modern society.

Introduction:

Gustav Klimt, a renowned Austrian symbolist painter, created a masterpiece known as ‘The Tree of Life.’ This iconic painting, characterized by its intricate patterns and symbolic imagery, holds a significant place in the realm of art. In this critical essay, we will explore the meaning and symbolism behind Klimt’s ‘Tree of Life,’ delving into the rich layers of interpretation and inviting a deeper understanding of the artist’s intentions.

Body:

Symbolism of the Tree:

The central motif of the painting, the tree, represents the interconnectedness of life, nature, and the cosmos. Klimt’s portrayal of the tree, with its sprawling branches and intricate patterns, suggests a sense of vitality and energy. The tree serves as a metaphor for the cycle of life, growth, and interconnectedness, reflecting Klimt’s fascination with the harmony between the natural and spiritual worlds.

The Golden Background:

One of the striking elements of ‘The Tree of Life’ is the abundant use of gold leaf in the background. This choice of material imbues the painting with a sense of opulence and divinity. The golden backdrop symbolizes the transcendence of the earthly realm and alludes to spiritual or mystical experiences. It signifies a connection to the divine and highlights the sacredness of life and existence.

Symbolic Imagery:

Klimt’s ‘Tree of Life’ is adorned with a variety of symbolic imagery, such as geometric patterns, human figures, and animals. These symbols represent various aspects of the human experience and the interconnectedness of all living beings. The geometric patterns reflect the order and balance found in nature, while the human figures symbolize the unity and diversity of humanity. The animals depicted may represent primal instincts or archetypal forces. Together, these symbols create a visual tapestry that speaks to the complexity and richness of life’s interconnectedness.

Feminine Symbolism:

Another notable aspect of ‘The Tree of Life’ is the presence of female figures intertwined within the branches. Klimt often portrayed women in his works, and in this painting, they represent fertility, creation, and the nurturing forces of nature. The feminine figures embody the life-giving and regenerative aspects of existence, reinforcing the theme of interconnectedness and the cyclical nature of life.

Conclusion:

Gustav Klimt’s ‘Tree of Life’ is a captivating artwork that invites viewers to explore the depths of its symbolism and meaning. The tree, with its intricate patterns, serves as a powerful representation of interconnectedness and the cycle of life. The golden background evokes a sense of divinity and spirituality, elevating the painting to a realm beyond the mundane. The various symbolic elements, from geometric patterns to human figures, contribute to the overall message of unity, diversity, and the sacredness of life.

Through ‘The Tree of Life,’ Klimt challenges viewers to contemplate their place in the vast web of existence and recognize the beauty and interconnectedness that permeate all aspects of life. The painting serves as a testament to the artist’s mastery of symbolism and his ability to convey profound ideas through visual art. ‘The Tree of Life’ continues to captivate and inspire audiences, inviting us to ponder the mysteries of existence and our role within the larger tapestry of life.

In conclusion, Gustav Klimt’s ‘Tree of Life’ holds profound meaning and symbolism, reflecting the artist’s fascination with the interconnectedness of life and the spiritual realms. The painting’s rich imagery and intricate details invite viewers to embark on a journey of contemplation and self-reflection, unveiling the profound beauty and complexity of existence itself.

Aristotle was a philosopher who wrote many works about ethics, politics, metaphysics, and aesthetics. His conception of beauty was classical, indeed he saw beauty as “an arrangement of integral parts into a coherent whole, according to proportion, harmony, symmetry (…)” (Sartwell, 2016). The main idea of his concept is that beauty is a sort of middle between excess and deficiency; indeed, beauty is not the concept of sublime neither is the concept of ugliness, it is in the arrangement between those two.

Moreover, Aristotle used this conception of ‘middle’ for other concepts, such as virtue; virtue was described as the middle arrangement of boorishness and buffoonery (The School of Life, 2014). Aristotle relates the conception of beauty to science, where a perfect symmetry is the idea of beauty; he named this chief form of beauty summetria (Celkyte, 2013, para. 16).

This form of beauty is referring to a mathematical formula, something that is universal and that is following a rule. Aristotle believed that mathematics was closely related to good and beautiful (Celkyte, 2013); in ‘Metaphysics’ he wrote: “The chief forms of beauty are order and symmetry and definiteness, which the mathematical sciences demonstrate in a special degree” (as cited in Sartwell, 2016, para. 36).

In some way, the idea of aesthetics is related to the idea of perfection; someone’s face has to be symmetric and uniform to be beautiful, to be perfect. However, Aristotle’s conception of beauty does not only include symmetry, but also body size. “In Nicomachean Ethics 4.3, beauty is said to imply a good-sized body, so that little people might be well-proportioned, but not beautiful” (Celkyte, 2013). To understand both of these theories, it is important to differentiate the first theory of physical beauty, and the second as internal, moral, beauty.

Concerning those concepts, some questions need to be addressed, like the fact that can someone be physically beautiful but not detain moral beauty? Moreover, are living things always morally good? Is beauty subjective since symmetry seems to be its universal criterion for it? Or, which beauty is found the most attractive, moral beauty or physical and symmetrical beauty?

With this said, I am going to look at what other scholars say about Aristotle’s concepts of beauty.

Beauty in Symmetry

Sartwell (2016) explains that Aristotle wasn’t the only one that believed in this theory, it was a classical conception of beauty that first come from the western conception of beauty. Beauty defined as perfection was an idea that was spread among many philosophers according to Sartwell (2016), and so beauty was perceives a mathematical formula.

Celkyte (2013) add that this form of beauty which is related to proportion and symmetry was called ‘summetria’, and was described as the cause of beauty. The Stoics described physical beauty the same way, as the harmony in proportion that brings satisfaction in the eye of the beholder (Celkyte, 2013).

Nonetheless, in his article ‘The Aesthetic Calculus’, Arntfield (2007) tries to show us how the Aristotle’s idea on beauty in perfect symmetry paired with technologies is corrupting the idea of beauty. He blames it to make beauty a synonym of ‘mathematical visuality’; he states that with this culture of beauty people are changing their body and face on their picture, ‘matrixing’ their body with numbers. He explains that this idea of beauty residing in numbers, in symmetry as Aristotle said, is changing the way people are seeing and expecting beauty in others.

Additionally, the way people think about beauty and perceive it may also be influenced by culture and other people’s perspective on beauty. According to Robson (2015), some cultures are more attracted to more ‘masculine’ looking men, while others are more attracted to ‘feminine’ looking men. In an experiment conducted in Business school in Baltimore people were asked to rank others on a dating app. During the experiment researchers show the users other people’s score, after that, the users’ taste changed and they were ranking the people on the app according to the score of other people (Robson, 2015). This experiment proved that our perception of beauty is affected by the ‘herd effect’, their conception of beauty shifted (Robson, 2015). Moreover, even though our conception of beauty can be shifted easily, it also appears that the attraction for symmetrical face is in some way universal because people unconsciously see it as a sign of strength, where non-symmetrical faces appear like a health weakness (Robson, 2015).

In fact, Meisner (2013) has proved with a number of studies that nowadays, people are more attracted with symmetrical faces. In a 2009 study, where people were asked to identify attractive faces, researchers discovered that everyone was attracted to symmetrical faces; all of these faces had in common the ‘golden ratio’, a number that appears to be our invisible reference to perceive beauty in others. It proves that Aristotle’s theory wasn’t as wrong as people thought.

For further support, Wargo (2011) argues that the faces that people find handsome are average; that is why symmetrical faces are found so attractive, because they average and not distinctive. As Aristotle thought, it is in a certain middle between the sublime and the ugly. People seem to find those faces attractive because they are easy to process for the brain, and have a ‘familiar looking’ component (Wargo, 2011, para. 10-12).

Beauty in Goodness

When it comes to the other theory of Aristotle of beauty in Goodness, Mirus (2012) explains that Aristotle’s judgement of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ was wrong in a way that living things can’t be good or bad in themselves, but for an appropriate thing. Moreover, he states that all living things are obviously not good, and so not beautiful; beauty seems to have no relation with goodness or the fact of being alive (Mirus, 2012).

Baker (2017), argues that Aristotle was seeing goodness in every living being, as a virtue. Aristotle’s perception of the existence of human being was focus on absolute goodness and virtue, he didn’t take into consideration the fact that people would want to do bad. By this mean, he saw goodness as the absolute end of human’s life; indeed, Aristotle wasn’t thinking of being good for something, but as being intrinsically good (Baker, 2017).

Moral beauty was so related to virtue by Aristotle, and if a person is moral, it suggests that she is good. According to Diessner et. al. (2013), moral beauty may be a factor of attractiveness for people on the same level as symmetrical faces as we talked earlier; more than attract other people to us, moral beauty seems to reveal the good in us by dealing with our emotion as well as behave in a more social way ((Diessner, Lyer, Smith, & Haidt, 2013). A study showed that moral beauty is also engaging people to do good, which relates to Aristotle who was saying that with good comes beauty; it seems that they are actually related (Diessner, Lyer, Smith, & Haidt, 2013).

Discussion

The two Aristotle’s theories on the aesthetic judgment seem to be challenged as well as supported by multiple scholars and scientists. Beauty seems to evolve with culture and time, nonetheless, Aristotle’s theories suggest that the struggle of aesthetic judgment stayed the same through centuries; the importance of physical beauty and moral beauty is still discussed and overlooked today. Therefore, it is essential to look at what modern scholars and scientists are thinking about ancient theories of aesthetic as Aristotle’s.

The Judgement of External Beauty

Aristotle believed that external beauty was found in the average, in a sort of ‘middle’ between the concept of ‘sublime’ and the concept of ‘ugliness’ (Sartwell, 2016). Proportion and symmetry were the keys to beauty, a mathematical formula that proves the beauty in someone (Celkyte, 2013).

In his article ‘The Aesthetic Calculus’ Arntfield (2007) describes Aristotle’s idea of finding beauty in proportion and mathematic as something that is “engineering an insidious mathematical visuality for the world like never before” (p.37). He explains that he disagrees with theories that implies that beauty, whether it is of the body or the face, have to follow some mathematical rules. Arntfield (2007) follows up by stating that the idea of proportion ruined the idea of an attractive or unattractive person, “all things deemed attractive and unattractive are now part of a new mathematical milieu” (p.37). Indeed, the idea of proportion seemed to have influenced people to even change their bodies, “a digital camera transforms the human body into a matrix of numerical codes” (Arntfield, 2007, p.37).

However, a common ground can be found between those two ideas, moral beauty. Aristotle believed in moral beauty by relating aesthetics to virtue; moral beauty is also a kind of beauty that can’t be seen externally, so Arntfield would agree that it is not a question of perfection or visual preferences but a question of intrinsic beauty. Moral beauty is defined by loving, being empathic, and caring for others (Diessner, Lyer, Smith, & Haidt, 2013).

To engage in moral beauty is something that both Aristotle and Arntfield would agree on, it overlooks physical perfection to concentrate on intrinsic beauty; this beauty causes a desire to become a better person, and both Aristotle and Arntfield recognize the importance of virtue over physical beauty (Diessner, Lyer, Smith, & Haidt, 2013). Aristotle believed that the purpose of human life was to be good, to engage in moral. In fact, he stated that to reach happiness a person had to be virtuous and good, he never talked about having a symmetrical face to be happy. So, we can suggest that Aristotle estimated being virtuous and good more important than being physically beautiful.

Beyond intrinsic beauty, external beauty is still the first judgement of aesthetic that people make when meeting someone for the first time; so, the issue is, is beauty subjective since symmetry seems to be its universal criteria for it? It was scientifically proven that people are more attracted by “perfect” faces based on symmetry, which are defined by the ‘golden ratio’ (Meisner, 2013). In a 2009 study, researchers found that people are more attracted by faces matching this ratio (Meisner, 2013).

Unfortunately, not everyone has a symmetric face, so we need to ask which beauty is found the most attractive, moral beauty or physical and symmetrical beauty? I would agree with Arntfield (2007) about the consequences of those ratios on our own sense of aesthetic. Beauty is not something that we can find in perfection. Most people find beauty in flaws, and that is the reason why the idea of ‘perfection’ is rejected by many people in modern societies.

The Judgement of Intrinsic Beauty

In modern societies the meaning of intrinsic beauty shifted from Aristotle’s; it is now less related to goodness and moral perfection, and more related to personality. Aristotle, however, believed that every living thing is naturally good and beautiful. For him, something good is automatically beautiful; he relates moral virtues with the concept of aesthetic.

Mirus (2012) explains in his article on the beautiful and the good that “many living things are bad” (p.79). He is distinguishing that every living thing is not good, which according to Aristotle’s theory that relates the good and the beautiful to living things, also mean that every living thing is not beautiful. The judgement of goodness and aesthetic may not be as closely related as Aristotle thought. Mirus (2012) argues that “things cannot be called ‘good’ or ‘bad’ in themselves, but only good or bad “for” some sort of agent” (p.79). Through the way he analyzes the good by nature, he disagrees with Aristotle’s concept that all things are good, and that aesthetic is somewhat related to good or bad.

When it comes to the notion of what people call ‘good’ and ‘bad’ it is difficult to find a common ground, starting with the definition of good that defers for Aristotle and Mirus. Baker (2017) explains that Aristotle’s notion of ‘good as an end’ was not the same as being ‘good in a kind’, he believed in absolute goodness. For Aristotle, the only purpose of human life was to be good and virtuous, so obviously according to him every living thing is good and beautiful since he does not take into consideration the presence of evil or sin in human life.

I think that the good, as aesthetic, is subjective, but can someone be judged physically beautiful but not detain moral beauty? Generally, people reject the idea that beauty can be found in the ‘bad’, because they don’t want to associate a negative thing with something as positive as ‘beauty’. For instance, Ted Bundy was the perpetrator of multiple rapes and murders. His case was publicized, and a lot of women were saying that he wasn’t responsible for those crimes because he was so subjectively physically attractive. Yet, he was guilty. Again, is beauty necessarily related to good?

Conclusions

In order to understand Aristotle’s theories, it is important to comprehend the evolution of the aesthetic judgement in time. Beauty shifts according to culture, situation, and personal preferences. Aristotle’s first theory about beauty in symmetry was proven scientifically that it is true, people are more attracted to symmetrical faces. However, both Aristotle’s theory and the studies that was conducted base this fact only on appearance, in a real-life situation it would have been different. Beauty is in appearance, not in being, learning to know someone can shift the perception of beauty in the eyes of the beholder, and people can find someone beautiful for his being; that’s why people can be attracted by someone else’s flaws, because physical beauty is less important than intrinsic beauty.

The judgement of intrinsic beauty is the concept of the second theory of Aristotle, which states that the good and the beautiful are in every living thing. In today’s society it is difficult to define a person good and beautiful and good only based on the fact that she is living. Yet, in ancient culture the good was represented by beauty while the bad was represented by twisted and weird representation. Nonetheless, the representation of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ shifted with time and now it is clear that goodness and beauty are not related in any way, being beautiful does not mean being good; in fact in popular culture most of the representations of Satan, which is the incarnation of evil, in movies and series are men commonly described as gorgeous.

Finally, Aristotle’s concepts of beauty are not wrong or right, but they are subjective as the aesthetic judgement is. There is no perfect explanation for the aesthetic judgement, symmetry can be one as well as finding someone beautiful because she is good, but most importantly, everyone detain beauty but the eyes can’t detect every beauty in the world since our capacity of judgement is restrained by taste.

References

1. Arntfield, M. (2007). The Aesthetic Calculus: Sex Appeal, Circuitry, and Invisibility. Bullentin of Science, Technology & Society, 27(1), 37-47.
2. Baker, S. (2017, July). The metaphysics of goodness in the ethics of Aristotle. Philosophical Studies, 174(7), 1839-1856.
3. Celkyte, A. (2013). Ancient Aesthetics. Retrieved March 2020, from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: https://www.iep.utm.edu/anc-aest/#SSH2biii
4. Diessner, R., Lyer, R., Smith , M., & Haidt, J. (2013). Who engages with Moral Beauty? Journal of Moral Education, 42(2), 139-163.
5. Mirus, C. V. (2012). Aristotle on Beauty and Goodness in Nature. International Philosophical Quaterly , 52(1), 79-97.
6. Robson, D. (2015). The myth of Universal Beauty. Retrieved April 2020, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20150622-the-myth-of-universal-beauty
7. Sartwell, C. (2016). Beauty. Retrieved March 2020, from Stanford encyclopedia of Philosophy: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty/#ObjSub
8. The School of Life. (2014). PHILOSOPHY – Aristotle. Retrieved March 2020, from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csIW4W_DYX4
9. Wargo, E. (2011). Beauty is in the Mind of the Beholder. Retrieved April 2020, from Association For Psychological Science: https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/beauty-is-in-the-mind-of-the-beholder

We talk a lot about aesthetics in a contemporary sense, referring to art and culture but I think Dr Quigley presents an excellent point and food for thought when using aesthetics to refer to the Great Barrier Reef and further link it to idea of the human sensorium and how it can describe certain experiences. In terms of having an ethical responsibility for beauty, especially when referring to the reef it is an important question to ask ourselves. I think that when it comes to conservation and environmentalism, aesthetic experience is a great starting point and among the most common starting points. If you were to ask an average person “Why save the Great Barrier Reef?”, or even “Why save The Grand Canon?”, the immediate answer would be along the lines of “Because it is beautiful”, before diving into the science behind why we need to conserve such wonderous natural environments. But I think that not all aesthetic experience is tied to beauty and perhaps ethics is not always tied to duty either but is logically and psychologically closer to simply caring.

Additionally, environmental ethics provides a variety of forms of value and the protection of aesthetic value is especially paradoxical. Beauty in nature, typically is the first justification given for conservation. Yet aesthetic experience, at least of the kind we speak of when visiting the reef, seems not to be present anywhere in human made nature. It is not something our species can replicate. I think a critical appreciation of nature is worthwhile and crucial experience when considering how ethics play a role in our ethical responsibility for beauty.

Moreover, I do think that this concept of aesthetic experience and the human sensorium holds a lot of value, particularly when referring the Great Barrier Reef. It is so hard to describe the experience of being underwater, of seeing the colors, of being literally part of the rhythm of the ocean. It stimulates senses we did not even know we had. I think putting conservation into terms of this experience and the human sensorium is an extremely valuable tool. It adds an element of emotion and realism to the argument. It evokes emotion to think about perhaps losing one of these wonderful senses that we can only experience in one place. Once people are able to comprehend it, is so straightforward to make the link between The Great Barrier Reefs high aesthetic value and its large-scale biodiversity. The reef is so special because of the immense range of organisms living these, because of the sheer size and range of its environment and population. However, I think this argument does fall in one area. I really think that you need to have experienced the reef personally to understand the argument, otherwise it is just too easy to get up and walk away from the issue.

Overall, I believe that logically and psychologically we do not want to destroy beauty. Where aesthetics itself comes to be found in natural history, with humans emplacing themselves appropriately on such landscapes I think the human sensorium and aesthetics can be a perfect foundation for environmental ethics and conservation.

When an object is perceived as ‘beautiful’ by an individual, to use as an example, “This rose is beautiful” then that statement must then have a predetermined judgement on something that is universally ‘agreeable’. This reasoning that the rose must be beautiful is, as Kant would describe it, an individual’s subjective feeling towards the rose and as stated before must in turn be universally validified. Our aesthetic judgments interact with the world around us in the way that beauty is influenced by this universal judgement of taste. In Kant’s explanations of the moments in the judgements of taste through the theory that has been constructed there is a distinct approach towards a collective mindset that the knowledge of the world and understanding of art history is defined by these moments of aesthetics judgment.

To understand these moments Kant’s overall view of aesthetic judgments has to be broken apart to be applied to the individual. According to the first moment, for example, in the way that one would seek out a print of a famous painting to hang on their wall is the way that we aim to possess that object. Pleasure and beauty are not the same according to Kant; pleasure has the end goal to seek and find a purpose for the object of one’s desire whereas something that is inherently beautiful is appreciated without the need of a purpose. Therefore, these aesthetic judgments are universal as they are dethatched from interest, “Taste is the faculty for judging an object or a kind of representation through a satisfaction or dissatisfaction without any interest. The object of such a satisfaction is called beautiful” (Kant, 96).

One other mention is that there shouldn’t be any confusion between beauty and the sublime but are both similar in the way that they determine human knowledge towards the world. Kant begins his next chapter, ‘Second Book: Analytic of the Sublime’, “The beautiful coincides with the sublime in that both please for them-selves” as both require a moment of judgmental reflection (Kant, 128). The beautiful resides in what Kant would believe as common sense while the sublime is connected to the ability to reason. Taking the rose example from before “This rose is beautiful” does not have the same understanding behind a sentence such as “The ocean is beautiful”. There is little reason behind the statement “The ocean is beautiful” for how can something incomprehensible be the same as beauty? Rather it falls under the category of the sublime as a force of nature (nature not being defined as everything seen in nature since the rose is the beautiful and the ocean is sublime but in the idea of forces that are too vast for comprehension) that results in pleasure, “the satisfaction in the sublime does not so much contain positive pleasure as it does admiration or respect, i.e., it deserves to be called negative pleasure” (Kant, 129). Pleasure is a feeling that derives from purpose (as stated before) whereas the beauty lacks such a purpose and is without pleasure. This brings the difference between the knowledge/understanding and the imagination. When simply admiring the ocean there is a sense of pleasure there is a sense of allowing the imagination run free whereas the attempt at understanding or classifying the ocean simply as beautiful would not bring pleasure as this takes the imagination out of the observation.

The second moment applies to all that has been considered; everything beautiful must fall under a universal satisfaction. To yet again bring up the rose (as Kant is best understood through the use of such comparisons), one would be able to judge the rose in a manner that is universally understood. Meaning that to judge an object’s beauty is to acknowledge the factors that would otherwise have some people disagree with the opinion that the rose is beautiful. Although there are always people who will disagree with an opinion especially on matters of beauty there is at least the implication in one’s mind that the statement “The rose is beautiful” has to be universally true. Kant while crafting his theories on the aesthetics of judgement, was fully aware (and anticipating) new contemporary philosophical views towards his theories. To Kant he further argues his theory by stating, “…and that this claim to universal validity so essentially belongs to a judgment by which we declare something to be beautiful that without thinking this it would never occur to anyone to use this expression, rather everything that pleases without a concept would be counted as agreeable, regarding which everyone can be of his own mind, and no one expects assent to his judgment of taste of anyone else, although this is always the case in judgments of taste about beauty” (Kant, 99).

The third moment brings back the concept of purpose and purposiveness. Albeit this moment is one of more challenging theories that Kant produces, it can be understood as something that is with or without a concept. A purpose is the concept to which it is created to be while the purposiveness is a characteristic in which appears to have been created. In this sense then the beautiful relates to purposiveness but in turn remains without a purpose. The rose is beautiful and therefore has purposiveness but the fact that it is beautiful derives it of a purpose. This is similar to the difference between an object that is beautiful and one that gives us pleasure. The object that gives pleasure is given a purpose and that is something that one might likely have a goal in mind for (to restate from earlier, something someone might wish to own), whereas the beautiful does not need to be given the idea of beauty or a purpose and therefore is lacking. However, Kant also argues that beauty can be pleasurable and that the reasoning as to why beauty can be such is that pleasure is derived from an achievement; stating that an object is beautiful is giving it the pleasure of purpose.

The final moment is the aesthetic judgments reaching a point of being necessary. This section argues the idea of common sense and Kant begins to question the right of judgment. “Thus, only under the presupposition that there is a common sense (by which, however, we do not mean any external sense but rather the effect of the free play of our cognitive powers), only under the presupposition of such a common sense, I say, can the judgment of taste be made”, this is to further verify the idea that everyone is universally, in this way, connected, to ensure that the Kantian theory that the second moment must be correct (Kant, 122). These arguably subjectivity conditions towards beauty are what Kant believe to create the common sense (more simply put, this must be beautiful because a large amount of people derive pleasure from it and therefore it is common sense that this is universally understood to be beautiful, disregarding other opinions as this one opinion is common sense).

Understanding these four moments of aesthetic judgment it can be better understood the Kantian view on how aesthetics changes the world around it. The contemporary view of art history has taken such theories of Kant and picked them apart in order to satisfy the concerns of the modern day. There is little to be read in work of Kant that would include the ideas of beauty of other cultures or races and the same could be said for a more feminist view of beauty (a bad example of this could be that this could be related to the controversial viewpoint of leg hair on women while the universal viewpoint would be that this is ugly whereas the feminist viewpoint would see the beauty in it).

The theories of Kant have shaped the knowledge of art history in a similar manner as still today there is a struggle in accepting the viewpoints of art in the Eastern part of the world. This Eurocentric idea that beauty and art is ‘universally understood’ and that others such as Danto could argue their own thesis about ‘The Death of Art’ or referencing Greenberg about ‘The Crisis of the Easel Picture’, that European Renaissance art is what could replicate nature and be considered beautiful. These Kantian theories play a role in the art history world of classism, arguably there is still a stereotypical viewpoint that there is an upper-class that dine on cheese and wine while discussing famous paintings and artists. Larry, through his theory on the evolution of aesthetic taste, provides us with an example, “…frequent experiences of this refined sort distinguished the polite public from the ignorant poor or the boorish rich and their ‘grosser’ pleasures. Yet it was not only the laboring poor or the booby squires who were believed to lack the fine sensibility requisite to good taste but also the colored races, most women, and, on the wealthier side, the idle rich who mixed art and luxury” (Larry, 137). In its own sense, whether Kant had this goal in mind or not, the Kantian ideas presented represent and verify the racist bias that some of the art world remain to believe today. Hume, on the other hand, takes into consideration the cultures and races that are not his own into his theory of the aesthetic judgement. Perhaps there is a universal idea of what we consider beautiful (albeit to its own culture, religion, and race) but this can only be studied as through the eyes of one group at a time. Understanding that society and its determined expectations do quite obviously have an influence on one’s beliefs (whether this be applied to aesthetics, religion, beauty trends, etc.) then the Kantian theories do have their own validity.

Such philosophers like Kant have shaped and continue the shape these universal judgments of today as they are esteemed people in the world of philosophy and art history. Through the bias of what is already known and accepted as for art history (as mentioned before art history is still progressing in terms of the acceptance of other cultures) the Kantian theories, although argued consistently through the decades, have remained to shape the ideas of aesthetic judgment in the art history world. Kantian theories in the wake of the progressing art history field will be presented and considered through the contemporary theories of how to reconsider what was known as the aesthetic judgements of the hive mind mentality.

References

1. Danto, Arthur C. “Modernism and the Critique of Pure Art: The Historical Vision of Clement Greenberg”. In After the End of Art: Contemporary Art and the Pale of History, 61-78. Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, 1997.
2. Gardner, Sebastian. “Aesthetics”. In The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy, 2nd ed., edited by Nicholas Bunnin and E. P. Tsui-James, 231-256. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

In the present society, individuals appear to have a general comprehension of what can be named art and what that arrangement implies. A great number of people would state that any piece has esteem inconsequential to the physical and fiscal estimation of the item itself. There is generally representative significance in the work that consolidates with the material to convey a message or have a reason. At the point when individuals today make workmanship, one would make something that spotlights the visual viewpoint more than pragmatically. This, in any case, isn’t generally the situation with several works that the advanced world thinks about craftsmanship. In 2006, Carolyn Dean composed The Trouble with (the Term) Art, which is an article that examines the characterization of workmanship dependent on its unique creation and aim. In the article, she contends that the acknowledgment of something as workmanship is entirely adaptable and there has never truly been a solid meaning of what can be considered craftsmanship. Dignitary bolsters her contention by citing a few contrasting feelings on the importance of craftsmanship just as many different instances of works that can be considered as workmanship by a few and not by others.

One of the main issues examined is simply the issue with ordering workmanship itself, yet rather the various kinds of craftsmanship found. Senior member goes over and gives the numerous recommendations that were given when attempting to depict workmanship that ‘was made outside of the West’ (Dean 25). This straightforward model sets up her contention by demonstrating that it isn’t just the meaning of workmanship that gives individuals inconvenience, however, the arrangement of pretty much every work that does exclude current craftsmanship is very useless. She at that point talks about how some old functions that are viewed as important craftsmanship today, were not initially made to be workmanship in any case (Dean 26). This prompts the contention of how something can be viewed as craftsmanship if the first aim of the work was totally not quite the same as workmanship. This additionally raises the way that craftsmanship has not generally been a thing, particularly in the mid-1400s. The idea of making something only to be imaginative was just not made until some other time. This at that point brings into the inquiry whether one could group any old functions as craftsmanship in light of the fact that the possibility of workmanship was not made at this point.

Regardless of whether individuals can think about a portion of these old fills in as workmanship, there are still hypotheses on why a few things are named craftsmanship and others are most certainly not. Senior member gives the straightforward case of the estimation of some Incan rocks (Dean 29). She takes note of how there are many cut shakes that are viewed as workmanship, yet a similar shake, basically uncarved, isn’t craftsmanship. To the old Incans, a similar shake, cut or uncarved, had precisely the same worth. She proposes the subject of why the uncarved shake can’t have a similar characterization to the old work of art. Notwithstanding these irregular rocks, Dean centers around a quite certain Incan stone. The Funerary Rock is an enormous stone that is, generally, thought to be a masterpiece (Dean 28). Senior member contends that if this equivalent shake were to be moved away from the mountainside, where it has its emblematic importance, it would never again be craftsmanship as a result of its loss of significant worth. This at that point raises the issue of why something would be craftsmanship in one area with a particular encompassing and not be workmanship if it somehow happened to be moved elsewhere. These models just expand on the insecurity of the phrasing of craftsmanship.

In this article, Carolyn Dean has made a few points with solid proof that portray the issue that the advanced world has with the term ‘workmanship’. A clear dominant part of Dean’s contention was comprised of perceptions from the Incas. This could persuade that her involvement with this old realm has brought about a one-sided contention. One could contend that the assorted variety of models was too missing to even consider providing a sensible situation on the contention. One could likewise contend that one model that presents such a significant number of issues with the characterizing of craftsmanship is sufficient to make a solid case. In spite of the fact that practically the majority of Dean’s models are identified with the antiquated Incan Empire, there is sufficient proof to help her contention with the restricted scope of models or sources. The article seemed to now and then expound that didn’t generally give anything to help the contention. Notwithstanding these couple of events, a dominant part of the data gives unequivocal detail on the numerous ways individuals keep running into issues when making an endeavor to order a few things as workmanship. These clashing thoughts meet up to put accentuation on the adage of how magnificence is subjective depending on each person’s preferences.