Category: Aerospace

Introduction

Aerospace engineering is the division of engineering representing the design, assembly, and research of aircraft and spaceships. Aerospace engineering has been divided into two key subdivisions, aeronautical and astronautic engineering. The former is related to crafts that stay within Earth’s ambiance, and the latter is directed towards the research of crafts that operate outside of Earth’s atmosphere. While “aeronautical” was the initial term, the broader “aerospace” has succeeded it in custom, as flight technology proceeded to entail craft functioning in outer space.

In engineering design matters one can use topology structure and material optimization. Optimal configurations are normally unsteady; consequently, the total image of all loading stipulations has to be regarded. Arrangements should be efficient but steady. Analytical tools are being expanded, and the large Finite Element Method grounded codes obtainable by the chair are applied.

Structural optimization

The total aero-structural design matter entails the concurrent optimization of the aerodynamic form of a design and the construction that is created to maintain its consignments. The cost meaning to be optimized necessitates a grouping of aerodynamic presentation and structural influence, to tackle two of the main constituents of the Breguet variety equation. Design variables are adjusted to parameterize the exterior aerodynamic form of the construction and the shape and material values and features of the underlying configuration. The construction matter should also compel different restrictions on the elements of the configuration, such as the yield stress measure, minimum skin thickness restrictions, and fuel amount prerequisites. (Angelo, 2003)

On the aerodynamics elevation, parity and disparity restrictions may be imposed on both the complete lift and somersaulting instance. Details of the pressure allocation for a transonic wing design matter, such as the position of the upper surface fright, the grade of the pressure recuperation, and the amount of aft loading, may also be compelled as design restraints.

To permit the likelihood of utilizing a subjective finite component replica for the explanation of the arrangement, a detailed Application Programming Interface (API) has been elaborated. This API openly delineates both the content and format of the data that must be offered by a Computational Structural Mechanics (CSM) solver planned for aeroelastic design. The API description has also been kept universal essentially to permit a diversity of component categories within the same replica.

The research of structural optimization is aimed at expanding sufficient practices for optimizing aerospace constructions. The matter of optimization had been investigated for structural optimization creation with the following, dependability centered design of constructions, reliability optimization entailing data and model indecision, resourceful multi-level and multi-fidelity construction optimization, design for robust and conventional progressive breakdown, biomimetic construction of structural topology, and damage and fracture analyses of composite materials. The research in addition to applying existing software also elaborates its systems for state-of-the-global and limited optimization, replacement and meta-modeling, nonlinear finite element study, and reliability analysis and optimization. Investigational justification of products is done using the structural testing lab facilities. (Tsang & Vidulich, 2003)

Most visibly, by offering lateral and plumb data in two various display boards, the coplanar display compels a cost of image scanning, which is not obvious when cross and upright data is amalgamated in a single image. It follows from the immediacy compatibility standard that the scanning cost for the coplanar exhibit would be intensified, to the level that the task necessitates.

However, previous researches display that structural optimization can also impose some particular charges, and some task constraints can deactivate their benefits. For instance, if a task only necessitates that people deem or concentrate attention on one plane of space at a time (e.g., two axes, shaping the horizontal aircraft), then the advantages of optimization integration are eradicated, and improvements of the less-integrated coplanar exhibit may materialize, as offered also by the immediacy compatibility standard. Instances of tasks necessitating such a focus would be merely lateral choreography with no mounts or plunges or purely perpendicular maneuvers with no turns. To the amount that pilots consider and perform their vertical maneuvers disjointedly from their cross maneuvers, the benefits of the coplanar display will be augmented. For instance, the design of aircraft flight mechanization is adequately classified in terms of vertical routing and lateral navigation. The pilot just is not supplied with data to the side, above, below, and behind the aircraft, the data that could be significant for flight security, chiefly traffic on a conflict itinerary from the side, or in hostile combat surroundings. It is necessary to mention, that the extent of this “keyhole cost” will be augmented or reduced by decreasing or growing, correspondingly, the Geometric Field of View (GFOV) of the exhibit. (Warren & Wertheim, 2005)

An essential understanding of local optimization in aerospace structural construction with the optimal application of achievable software and the suitable selection of optimization algorithms has been attained. The likelihood exists for the future expansion of MSC.NASTRAN to integrate a parametric optimization ability and for interfacing MSC.NASTRAN with other optimization encloses to maintain the CRC-ACS research actions. Further work could either entail implementing the offered global optimization tactics or comprise implementing rapid techniques for classifying multiple local optimization strategies, such as trajectory ruled or homotopy systems into slope-grounded algorithms. (Angelo, 2003)

Conclusion

This construction surrounding has been used to execute RANS aeroelastic study of absolute arrangement flight and wind-tunnel replicas with an extra cost which is less than 10% of the cost of a customary rigid-geometry CFD decision. These decisions can be applied to conclude a priori whether essential aero elastic alterations will or will not be required for the resulting wind warren information.

Lastly, a structural pressure penalty purpose was added to the coefficient of drag of the absolute pattern to permit the exclusion of artificial breadth restrictions that are generally inflicted in aerodynamic form optimization practices. This elementary coupling of aerodynamics and constructions in the design not only eradicates the obligation to impose reproduction constrictions but also constructs designs where trade-offs among aerodynamic and structural presentation are regarded.

References

Angelo, J. A. (2003). Space Technology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Tsang, P. S. & Vidulich, M. A. (Eds.). (2003). Principles and Practice of Aviation Psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Warren, R. & Wertheim, A. H. (Eds.). (2005). Perception & Control of Self-Motion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Introduction

The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is one of the most important countries not only in the Middle East, but also in the globe. This is because this country is known for the quantity of oil that it produces in the world. Furthermore, this nation is recognized for two important mosques and key in the lives of the Muslims across the globe.

Due to this, this republic is working towards ensuring that it bears a sufficiency in all fields. Especially in this time and age, this country is working towards ensuring that the defense and security sectors are catered for. In order to achieve this, this nation has entered into agreements with the British aerospace in order to supply the kingdom with the most modern technology in the defense.

During my cooperative training I had the opportunity to work with the British Aerospace. During this period I was able to get more information about the tornado Aircraft. This aircraft is the nucleus of Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF).

This report consists of a summary of my experience during this training period. It provides details about the Tornado engine, its maintenance, and some of the problems that were encountered and suggestions to set them right.

Organizational history

The British Aerospace Company is a company which is located in Europe. It is a company which is regarded as Europe’s largest and it is the third largest aerospace company in the world. This company has a turnover of 10 million pounds and booked orders which are worth more than 11 billion pounds. The number of staff who is working in this company total to 88,300 qualified personnel.

The main operations of this company dwell in the commercial and defense aircrafts. Alongside this, the company is also involved in aircraft maintenance, flight training, advanced navigation and communication systems, rockets, arms and ammunition, civil engineering, optical systems, satellites, ground defense systems, and the ship services.

The company has or is divided in three divisions. These divisions are the helicopter systems, naval systems and the Al- Yamamah project. Tornado Aircraft

This aircraft is a two seat supersonic combat aircraft which is capable of great flexibility of purpose and design to fulfill a wide range of operational requirements. It has variable geometry wings, multi – spool, reheated turbofan engines, giving it a speed in excess of Mach 2 at high altitude. The variable geometry wings together with high lift devices, ensures that it can land and take off at slow speeds at dispersed sites.

During the time I was in this company, I realized that there are two kinds of Tornado Aircrafts. That is the Tornado Air Defense Variant (ADV), and the Tornado Interdictor Strike (IDS). The difference that exists between these two aircrafts is that the ADV and IDS, is based in the reheat section.

Furthermore, the IDS is 1.39 m longer than the ADV which is the main external difference in front fuselage section to accommodate the AL radar, Sky flash missiles, avionics and extra fuel tank. It also has wing nips which sweep at 68 degrees rather than 60 degrees as on the IDS aircraft.

The Tornado is not a pure British design, but Italy and Germany also joined in designing and producing this aircraft. The Tornado weapon system represents the closet approach yet to an ideal multi –m role combat aircraft, sought by military aircraft design engineers. Its success is attributable to the skilled application of a number of high technology features incorporated into a basic airborne vehicle. The major roles of Tornado

The Tornado is designed to fulfill a number of roles. These roles include close air support, interdictor strike, air strike superiority, interception, land based maritime strike and reconnaissance.

Characteristics of the Tornado

The Tornado has got specific characteristics which make it stand out from the other aircrafts. This is based on the fact that it is designed in order to fulfill the above stated functions.

The main characteristics of this aircraft include the short takeoff or landing and the ability to accelerate rapidly to a high subsonic speed to permit operation from dispersed or damaged airfields in forward areas and immediate reaction to quickly changing battlefield conditions. High speeds at low level so that the enemy defense receives little warning during the time of attack.

The smoothness of the low gust with the wings swept at low levels ensures that the crew maintain their fighting efficiency. High specific excess power or rate of climb and good acceleration ensure efficient interception or, in the reconnaissance role, evasion. All weather capability enables the Tornado to maintain round the clock pressure on enemy targets and to intercept enemy aircraft by day or night, or in bad weather.

Good load carrying ability and flexible weapon or fuel load interchange ensures that most effective interdictor or close air supervision use over a wide range of target distance combinations. This plane has a good sustained maneuverability which ensures excellent self defense and attack capability against enemy aircraft.

Lastly the multi – spool engines ensure that the aircraft has got a good specific fuel consumption which produces a long range in the strike reconnaissance roles and a prolonged loiter capability in the air superiority role. The table below gives a summary of the IDS and the ADV aircrafts in terms of their specifics. (See Table 1 and Diagram 1)

Tornado Aircraft dimensions: The aircraft construction

During the study, I discovered that the aircraft has got an elaborate structure which demands the construction process to be elaborate. In essence, the aircraft structure can be divided into a number of major components. These parts include the Fuselage, wings and the tail unit. The fuselage is further divided into the front, center and rear fuselage sections.

The method which is used in the construction of this aircraft known as the, “Semi – Monocoque.” This method utilizes frames, sub-frames, lonegrons, diaphragms, webs, beams and skins in the construction of the fuselage, with spars and ribs used in the construction of the wings, fin, ailerons and flaps.

The frames, longerons, spars, ribs and skins are designed to withstand the bending, twisting, compression and torsion loads that an aircraft feels during flight. It is worth noting that the materials which are used in utilizing this aircraft should be able to withstand the loads which the aircraft feels and at the same time be light.

Front Fuselage

The fuselage consists of frames, diaphragms, webs and skins, manufactured to form an assembly consisting of pressurized structure, forwards equipment compartment, the left hand gun avionics compartments, left hand gun compartment, liquid oxygen compartment, rear equipment compartment, right hand avionics compartments, right hand gun compartments, nose landing gear compartment and the spent cases compartments.

The center fuselage

This extends from the forward transport joint at the frame 9 to the rear transport joint at frame 16, and it is constructed of closely spaced frames and skin assemblies. The frames vary depending on their functions. The wing box contains the wing pivot bearings which are mounted in the top structure. This wing box is usually manufactured from high strength machined titanium alloy.

The internal frames are located between the forward and the rear face walls to provide additional strength to the structure. The wing slots seals exist to maintain the fuselage shape. They are also used in order to reduce drag. These pockets are closed by inflatable seals. The wing pocket has got two seals, that is, the upper and lower seals on each side of the Tornado.

There are usually interconnected to allow for pressure variations due to the various altitudes which are attained during flight. The main landing gear is usually placed in two compartments. These compartments are located on the underside structure of the center fuselage.

The main landing gear retracts forward and inward, the struts being rotated to allow the wheels to be housed flat within the shadow compartments. Fuel is usually stored in the fuselage which is located in the center of the tornado. There are a total of 16 fuel cells in two groups, six in the front fuel group and 10 in the rear fuel group.

Rear fuselage

This fuselage extends from the transport joint which is located at frame 16 and extends to the frame 19. This is done so that two engines can be mounted in the compartments which are on each side.

In addition to the makeup of the engine, the rear fuselage also provides fittings for the fin, air brakes the engine doors and the arrester hook. The rear fuselage consists of frames which are divided by beams. The hydraulic system components are located in these regions.

The engine bay is a part of the Tornado which is enclosed by two doors. These doors are locked in position using a mechanism which is known as the release shoot-bolt. Air breaks are also mounted in the recesses of the fuselage. They are made up of aluminum alloy. The air breaks are located in a closed position sustained by a hydraulically operated lock units.

Wings

Wings are crucial components of the Tornado Aircraft. Their ability to sweep wing and rotate a pivot axis by means of an actuator is one of the aspects of this aircraft that makes it outstanding. The wings are designed in such a manner that they can carry two wing pylons for the carriage of external stores.

The wings are attached to the trailing edge flaps which are installed on the lower side of the trailing edge. These flaps are equipped with carriage rib and a roller system which has two screw jacks.

Damage evaluation and inspections

There are two main categories of this section. These include the reference system and the inspection of damages. The reference system is a method which is used in defining surfaces, positions and contours. It is a system which operates using a basic system which is supplemented by an auxiliary system. This system is used to locate places on the plane which might be having repair issues.

On the other hand the inspection of damage is an action which takes place when a person seeks to establish if there are aspects of the aircraft which are not in good working condition. There are several aspects which are taken when carrying out this inspection. These include the access for inspection. In this case, it is necessary to ensure that the structural damage of the aircraft is assessed.

The preliminary visual inspection is the process which involves the visual inspection of the exterior surfaces of the aircraft. Detailed visual inspection involves the deliberate process of establishing the actual problems which may be noticed on the airplane.

Tornado systems

The Tornado has got several systems. These systems include the fuel system, the environmental system, the electric system, and the wheel or tires system. The fuel system; the aircraft fuel load is usually located in the front fuselage, the center fuselage, the fin and in the wings. The main fuel tank is usually located in the center fuselage.

The main fuselage consists of numerous fuel cells which are interconnected in a way that form two separate groups which are designated in the front fuselage. The environmental system; the main task associated with this system is to convert the liquid oxygen into a form that can enable the pilot to breathe in flight.

The oxygen system is made up of two parts. These parts are the main oxygen system and the oxygen emergency system. During the emergency cases when the pilot needs to come of the plane, this system ensures that the pilots get 100% oxygen.

Tornado Engine

The study process made me realize that the Tornado has got a very unique engine. This engine matches the unique characteristics which are used by the engine. The Engine KB 199 was developed by Turbo Union in order to ensure that the Multi – Role Combat Aircraft is realized.

The required characteristics demanded the engine to have a bypass engine. This should have a capability of reheat for both the hot and cold gas streams. The thrust reverser is basically fitted with the intention of short landings.

In addition, for the sake of maintenance, the engine is divided into several basic modules. These modules enable one to be able to note what they are working on at any given point.

It is worth to mention that when removing a module, its identification plate must be kept with its own module, and when refitting a module, that plate must be refitted to the carrier. This eases the process of maintenance. See (Table 2: Table of engine modules, Diagram of the engine and the attached diagram)

Types of engine modules

During my experience I learnt that the Tornado has got sixteen modules. Some of these modules include the Low pressure compressor module. This is a three stage axial flow unit which comprises two main assemblies, that is, the engine and the rotor. See (Diagram 2 Compressor module (M01).

The intermediate pressure compressor module is a compressor which comprises alternative rows or rotor and stator blades. These consist of an integral disc assembly to which the blades are secured by dove tail roots and retained in the discs by the segmented plates.

The high pressure compressor module consists of an outer casing and an inner casing. The outer casing is a part of the intermediate casing module. The inner casing consists of a number of rings bolted together in each pairs. See (Diagram 3 Intermediate pressure compressor module (M02)).

The intermediate casing module is a module which forms the foundation unit of the engine which is known as the Master base Module. Their thrusts are attached to the outer case of the module. Engine performance parameters

There are several parameters which are used in establishing the functionality of an engine. In this case the parameters include the engine thrust and the specific fuel consumption. The thrust is a gas jet exhausting at a high velocity from a nozzle in the opposite direction of the jet. I later realized that the aim of the designers of these natures of engines is to aim at having engines which have higher thrusts.

The specific fuel consumption may be considered to be what is next to thrust. This is because it is one of the most important aspects regarding the performance of the engine. This aspect is used to determine the amount of fuel which is used to achieve pone unit of thrust over a finite period of time.

Engine maintenance procedure

The maintenance of the Tornado engine is carried out at the engine shop. When the engine arrives at the engine shop it is subjected to various diagnostic tests to check on its functionality. In this case they include the baroscopic, hardness test and the MCD check.

Conclusion

Just like any other machine or aircraft, the Tornado engine has got its share of the problems which have solutions. When I was under training in this company I realized that some of the problems which are associated with this engine include the interference with the foreign objects which damage the engine (FOD). The high hours can also lead to bearing debris circulating in the engine oil system.

This leads to massive wear and tear of the engine. Other problems are associated with thermal fatigue and operating in an environmentally hostile environment.

Despite the challenges and problems, one of the sure ways of maintenance of these engines is through subjecting them to thorough inspection and system evaluation. Consistent servicing of these aircraft reduces the risk of the problems which are associated with them thus they are able to function properly for a much longer period of time.

Works Cited

Rouhollah, K. Ramazani and Joseph A. Kechichian. The Gulf Cooperation Council: Record and Analysis, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1988. Print.

Introduction

The engineers working for the aerospace industry are always searching for new materials that can help them solve the problems faced by astronauts. Extreme temperatures outside the Earth’s atmosphere make it difficult for astronauts to live in outer space. Aside from difficulties created by extreme temperatures, aerospace engineers are also looking for ways to cram equipment and other important materials into a small spacecraft. Thus, there is a need for versatile materials. Shape Memory Alloys (“SMA”) satisfies the requirements of the aerospace industry because of its shape memory effect.

How It Works

In order to understand the shape memory effect, it is important to review the principles of elasticity and plasticity. Consider for instance a solid object, such as a matchstick. A matchstick has a tendency to stay in shape unless an outside force is introduced that will cause it to break. One can expect this type of behavior, because a matchstick is an example of a solid material. On the other hand, a rubberized object, such as a dog’s chewy toy is also an example of a solid material. However, it is possible to stretch or squeeze the said rubbery material because of the principle of elasticity.

Solid materials that are made of plastic exhibit a property called plasticity. In other words, if one introduces an outside force strong enough to bend the plastic into a different shape, the object stays in that new shape even after the bending force was no longer applied to the said object. The matchstick and the rubber toy have no memory of their shape (Lin 1). Shape memory alloys are different because the object reverts back to its original shape in response to heat or electromagnetic fields (Lin 1).

Design and Examples

The primary requirement is a special type of alloy, such as: nickel-titanium and iron-manganese-silicon alloys (Popovic 67). Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the three main types of shape memory alloys are: 1) copper-zinc-aluminum-nickel; 2) copper-aluminum-nickel; and 3) nickel-titanium alloys (Popovic 67). It is possible to demonstrate the shape memory effect of an SMA because it can change its structure while remaining solid (Popovic 67). In contrast to most objects found in nature, it is impossible to change shape without changing its phase. For example, the transformation of ice cubes into potable water requires the change of phase. In the case of an SMA, it is possible to go through a radical change in shape while remaining in a solid state.

The ability to transition from one structure to the next while remaining solid is made possible by the ability to change phase in response to heat or electromagnetic fields, because shape memory alloys have a high temperature phase called the austenite and a low-temperature phase called the martensite (Woodford 1).

Experts in crystal physics made clarifying remarks that the structural changes occur at the atomic level (Woodford 1). These changes are imperceptible to the naked eye. In order to develop materials and designs that are beneficial to the aerospace industry, engineers must determine the “parent shape” of the material. Once the “parent shape” had been identified, it is imperative to hold this position and heat the SMA-based material to about 500 degrees Celsius (Lin 1). The application of high temperature forces the atoms in the material to arrange themselves “into the most compact and regular pattern possible” (Lin 1). Once the heated material reaches a certain point and the atoms are arranged in a rigid and stable manner, engineers call this the austenite phase (Woodford 1).

The removal of heat forces the material to revert to the martensite phase. In this particular phase, it is easy to manipulate the SMA-based material into various shapes. In other words, it is possible to flatten or twist the material. Engineers are able to manipulate the shape of the material, because they know that once the material is exposed to high temperatures it will revert to its “parent shape” (Motamedi 151).

The United States of America’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration discovered a practical application of SMA-based materials when designing the Hubble Space Telescope. Engineers needed to secure the fragile solar panels within the body of the telescope while being launched into outer space. Using shape memory metals, the said space telescope was packed inside the Space Shuttle (Lin 1). However, when the said telescope was released from the transporter, the rays of the sun heated the special alloy, and as a result it was compelled to return to its predetermined shape. Once the heat from the sun activated the alloy, it extended outward and caused the solar panels to spring out from the body of the telescope (Lin 1).

Other applications include the creation of “morphing wings of aircraft, self-deployable sun sails inside a spacecraft, and cold hibernated memory foam products” (Meng and Li 5). As a result, aerospace engineers are now able to develop better aircrafts because they are no longer limited by conventional materials. For example, engineers can use SMA-based technologies to eliminate the use of socket welds and compression fittings in order to create lighter but stronger aircrafts (Rao, Srinivasa and Reddy 22). It must be made clear that the elimination of certain materials made it easier to reinforce the aircraft without integrating additional elements to the design.

Conclusion

The shape memory effect capability of SMA-based materials enabled engineers to develop cutting-edge design for the aerospace industry. Shape memory materials are made possible by the ability of engineers to change the shape of the material while in a solid state. The unique properties of the alloy enabled the manufacturers to determine the “parent shape” of the material after applying heat. Interestingly, the absence of heat makes it easy to deform or shape the material based on the requirements of aerospace engineers. The best example was the manipulation of the shape of the Hubble Telescope when it was stored inside the Space Shuttle. The ability to deform the shape of the arms of the telescope allowed the engineers to secure the sensitive solar panels within the body of the telescope. However, when the telescope was ejected out of the Space Shuttle and floating in outer space, the sun’s rays significantly increased the temperature of the alloy. After reverting back to its “parent shape” the telescope was able to extend its arms and release the solar panels without the need of additional gadgets. SMA-based materials are not only useful when it comes to creating compact designs. It is also useful in creating strong but lightweight aircraft. This is made possible by the elimination of conventional materials, because engineers have found a way to secure joints and edges without using weld and other fittings.

Works Cited

Lin, Richard. Shape Memory Alloys and Their Applications. 2014. Web.

Meng, Harper and Guoqiang Li. “Controlled Activation Schemes of SMPs for Aerospace Applications.” Shape Memory Polymers for Aerospace Applications. Ed. Gyaneshwar Tandon. Lancaster, PA: DESTech Publications, 2016. 1-31. Print.

Motamedi, Edward. MOEM: Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical Systems. Bellingham, Washington: The International Society for Optical Engineering, 2005. Print.

Popovic, Marko. Biomechanics and Robotics. New York: CRC Press, 2013. Print.

Rao, Ashwin, A.R. Srinivasa and J.N. Reddy. Design of Shape Memory Alloy. New York: Springer, 2015. Print.

Woodford, Chris. Shape Memory Materials. 2014. Web.

After going through the presented Executive Summary, I have agreed that Flourinert is the most appropriate fluid for the Gateway Station heat exchange. Many professionals prefer it over Triol due to its ability to offer multiple functions. Engineers could customize this product to meet the unique demands of every system and support the intended performance (Wright, 2015). Experts have identified this fluid as efficient and safe when applied in different aerospace systems and applications. Its toxicological attributes and safety profile explain why it remains preferable in the field of engineering. Since it is an odourless and non-irritating liquid, Flourinert can meet the demands of astronauts while withstanding huge fluctuations in temperatures. The current knowledge about this fluid should become the foundation for completing additional experimentations and researches to discover additional health, toxicological, and safety benefits and expand its possible applications in different heat exchange systems.

Unfortunately, the current analysis fails to offer concrete information regarding the stability of this fluid when used in heat exchange systems. For instance, engineers do not fully understand its nature and period of degradation, thereby being unable to predict the most appropriate period to allow it in the targeted machine before they can change it. The substance could leak and affect the overall performance of the targeted system. Without proper warning mechanisms or odour, astronauts would be unable to detect it. Future experimentalists and researchers could consider the importance of adding new agents to make it easily detectable after spillage while maintaining its overall integrity (Wright, J2015). Despite these issues, it is evident that Flourinert has the potential to provide the required fluid mechanisms and dynamics without affecting the intended safety and health goals.

Reference

Wright, J. (2015). Cooling system keeps space station safe, productive. Web.

It is important to use work breakdown structure in developing a project plan in many industries as it predicts risks and states the future potential. According to Ramadhan et al. (2019), WBS builds a scope of the particular project. Work breakdown structure can consist of the lowest level of components and include work packages which are schedules and stay under serious control. The concept is crucial in the production of aero products like aircraft as hierarchical breakdown helps to follow all safety regulations. The main aspects of WBS that allow for building a structured plan are deliverables (Ramadhan et al., 2019). One of the key deliverables of the aerospace industry is risk control, and budgeting, as the production of many elements requires support from the government. The quality of products is defined by quality assistance and the integration of safety elements, as these aspects can build trust from people who use aviation services and those who want to work in the industry.

Some projects have an insignificant number of tasks that should be done in a small period of time, but the aircraft industry has a wide range of tasks that can be completed in two months. For example, Flouris & Lock (2008) created a chart for the aircraft creation project where they showed that about 44 days would be required to achieve the goal. However, some problems can appear, and the completion of some tasks can be delayed.

The project can only be executed with the complete mission description from the customer. When all requirements are clear, such tasks as design production and development of additional details can be done together by different departments. In this case, WBS helps to make the work for every worker efficient and ensures that the time spent on production is decreased and the customer stays satisfied. The work breakdown structure is also commonly used in the airport building to regulate such mechanisms as labor, material supply, and customer support (Ramadhan et al., 2019). Identification of the problems should be the first stage in the WBS, and then relevant solutions should be written as deliverables to reduce risk and manage costs.

Cost management can bring success to the development of new technologies in the aerospace industry. For instance, Terrell (2018) explained that WBS allows estimating costs, budgeting, and accounting at the same time. NASA is one of the main representatives of aerospace manufacturing, which uses WBS effectively and shows other companies a good example of how budgeting should be regulated. Conceptual, preliminary design, and detailed design estimates are the main frameworks used in the production of budgeting with WBS, and other aviation businesses should use these concepts to build the life cycle of costs (Terrell, 2018). Detailed financial plans allow businesses to predict future expenses and make forecasts more accurate. Even though NASA is a huge company with an enormous turnover over a year, other aviation organizations should not underestimate the importance of budgeting in the production of a scheduled plan.

In conclusion, the work breakdown structure is a useful tool in producing a schedule plan for business development or improvements which should be used by all companies that want to survive in the competition. The concept promotes the regulation of many aspects, starting with the client’s requirements and finishing with customer support. When organizations understand what tasks should be achieved within a specific deadline, efficiency can increase, and bankruptcy might be avoided.

References

Flouris, T. G., & Lock, D. (2008). Planning the Aviation Project Timescale. Aviation Project Management, 109-134.

Ramadhan, A., Latief, Y., & Sagita, L. (2019). Development of risk-based standardized work breakdown structure for quality planning of airport construction project. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1360. Web.

Terrell, S. M. (2018). NASA work breakdown structure (WBS) handbook. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 39. Web.

The rapid development of technology and its widespread use is apparent in examining magazine publications even in two weeks period. For example, in metalworking, companies recently started developing training programs for future manufacturing professionals who will utilize technology to provide more cost-effective services (Quality Magazine). Another significant article from the Quality Magazine published by Martinez on the 8th of March explores the use of 3d laser trackers for measurements in aerospace companies. According to Martinez, the details for the construction of aerospace transportation require very accurate measurements. Even the slightest incompatibility in measurements of the manufactured parts can result in the details being scrapped or redone. The article points at how technologies and newly developed technological devices can benefit for resolvent of complicated manufacturing issues in more technologically advanced and expensive aerospace transportation.

In discussing the manufacturing process of details in aerospace vehicles construction, the article states that all aerospace mechanisms, including space travel transportation and jets, are subjected to strict selection through post-machining inspections. Thus, the specifics of aerospace constructions required a complex approach, which was provided in the form of new portable equipment of metrology, such as sophisticated software for 3d metrology and laser trackers. While the use of 3d metrology software allows the manufacturers to inspect the details and identify potential issues prior to starting making the details, laser trackers provide higher measurements accuracy. In addition, the laser trackers include the feature that allows calibration of the final product through a comparison of actual and intended positions. Some companies suggested that with the use of 3d metrology software and laser trackers, the quality control process became significantly faster, reducing the cost of manufacturing the details (Martinez). In my opinion, the article presents valuable insight on a wide range of technology applications and illustrates that soon all areas of human activities will be involved in the digitalization process.

In conclusion, the article illustrates how the application of new technologies can help solve complicated engineering and manufacturing issues. According to Martinez, the introduction of portable metrology software and equipment provided an easy and effective solution for problems that existed for a long time. As technology has a wide variety of applications, the aerospace construction area is one of many areas in engineering that can benefit from the implementation of portable metrology technologies.

Work Cited

“Heidenhain Introduces Education Support Program for Manufacturing.” Quality Magazine, Web.

Martinez, Leo. “Aerospace Companies Flying High With 3D Laser Trackers.” Quality Magazine, Web.

Introduction

Aerospace legislation represents the laws, rules, and regulations enacted by the legislature to govern the conduct of the aerospace industry. In Europe, the task of air regulation and civilian aviation safety are under the docket of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA 1). This agency was created in the year 2002 and has been effective in performing the duty of regulating the aerospace industry in the European Union. EASA achieved its full functionality in 2008 (EASA 1). Its main tasks include:

1. Providing advice to the European Union on ways to draft new legislations.
2. Implementing safety rules and maintaining the air standards of member states.
3. Certifying the type of aircrafts within the EU region.
4. Certifying the quality of components used in aircrafts.
5. Approving organizations that design aircrafts and their components.

EASA has the power to issue approval certificates to aircrafts. Moreover they approve airworthiness of aircrafts and approve the quality of aircraft parts such as engines and propellers. EASA works in collusion with the aviation authorities within the European Union to ensure that maintenance of aircrafts is up to the required standards (EASA 2). The aviation industry in Europe has formulated rules and regulations that govern aircraft maintenance, organization structure, and planning(EASA 11). This paper will therefore discuss the management procedures involved in maintenance, the functions of the maintenance department and maintenance processes. In addition, the paper discusses the rules and regulations of maintenance procedures and safety as per the European Aviation Safety Agency manual.

Aircraft Maintenance Planning Procedures

Technical Log

It is a data sheet that records all information on technical procedures and operation for each aircraft that has taken flight. Technical data includes information on defects, malfunctions fuel consumption and maintenance data. The purpose of the technical log is to ensure that all details on problems are recorded and distributed within the company for smooth operation. EASA uses the data in a technical log to determine if an aircraft is airworthy. Management is responsible in the task of certifying a technical log. Usually the maintenance manager is the one responsible in this matter but the Accountable manager may appoint any competent manager to certify a technical log.

Data Recording

This is the process of storing information in a data storage device. The devices may range from a simple data sheet to complex computer programs (EASA 15). Different information is recorded using different devices. Information can be recorded using a computer, or simply be written down using a pen. Data is recorded in form of technical logs, job cards, and a data maintenance sheets. The main purpose of data storage, in the maintenance department, is to determine the scope of work, to provide records for future analysis and to act as evidence of work completed (EASA 15). Managers of different departments are responsible for data storage in their departments. Therefore each manager can appoint a data storage expert to assist in data management.

Maintenance Schedule

A maintenance schedule is an organized plan for matters that require specific attention in the maintenance department. The maintenance manager has the responsibility of preparing the maintenance schedule. The duty of approving a maintenance schedule bestowed on the Accountable manager. Preparation of a maintenance schedule requires the manager to consider the management system of company, the planning process, available time and amount of resources available. Moreover, the maintenance manager has to consider factors such as human performance, limitation of performance and the level complexity of the work (EASA 28). Types of maintenance checks include: maintenance on aircraft components and equipment, servicing, fuelling, de-icing, and maintenance on new defects and repetitive defects. Specific maintenance procedures include, aircraft towing, engine run up, technical wash and scraping of parts (EASA 29).

Service Bulletins

Manufacturers, supplier, contractors, and subcontractors may improve on the original design for the purpose of reducing maintenance costs. These changes are usually communicated to the customer through the service bulletins. The use of service bulleting is optional at the discretion of the customer since they are provided at extra cost. However, service bulletins can be made mandatory by bodies such as the EASA. For example, EASA can make it compulsory for management to provide information on management systems, organization structure, and scope of work. These components must comply with EASA’s required standards for the organization to be approved to participate in aerospace business. Changes in these components must be communicated to EASA otherwise EASA is bound to change the conditions of issuance of an approval. Part 145 A. section 85 of the EASA exposition requires that the organization should notify the authorities in matters related to:

1. Changes that may occur in respect to change of an organizations name
2. Changes or cancellation of maintenance sites that were recognized by EASA
3. Changes that may occur in terms of Accountable Manager or changes in personnel management as a whole

Airworthiness Directives

These are rules and regulation issued by aerospace authority to correct unsafe conditions in a plane or its components (DGCA 27). A company will consider an aircraft safe to fly when it has fulfilled all the conditions necessary as per EASA’s requirement. However, an aircraft may have certified all the requirements of EASA but still experience problems (DGCA 27). These problems are usually not anticipated and may not have been detected in the prototype test. When these cases arise, EASA or the aviation authorities in charge may issue airworthiness directive to owners of such certificates and other global owner of such aircrafts. These directives usually consist of new methods that can be used to correct and restore the airworthiness of the affected aircraft. Airworthiness directives may also be issued when there are changes in EASA’s rules and regulation (DGCA 27). Changes in global aviation rule also warrant change issue of aircraft directives. Airworthiness directives are usually mandatory due to the fact that safety is paramount in the aviation industry

Certificate of Airworthiness

It is a certificate issued by national aerospace authority. The certificate proves that the aircraft has certified the national aviation authority’s requirement on its type design. Moreover, it proves that the aircraft is safe for human use thus deemed as airworthy (EASA 32). Airworthiness certificate is issued for different categories. For example, an airworthiness certificate may be issued for continuing airworthiness of a plane after maintenance (DGCA 20). The certificate may also be issued to new planes that are breaking into the aviation industry. The validity of an airworthiness certificate depends on the age of the aircraft. The following table shows the and the validity according to procedure manual issued by Directorate General of Civil Aviation(DGCA 57)

Stores Procedures and Structure of Jar 145 Organization

Quality System

These are organizational systems, structures, processes and procedures used to enhance the organizations consistency in providing quality services to their customers (Wai and Stewart 143). These quality systems are broadly divided into four subsystem; quality planning, quality assurance quality improvements and quality control (Rose 41). In the aviation industry quality systems include; quality audits of the aircrafts, quality of staff in the organization, competence assessment of personnel and many other quality procedures. All these processes and procedures are incorporated into the four subsystems mentioned above. Therefore a quality subsystem is required to have the four subsystems that combine to make a quality system.

EASA Part 21

EASA part 21 outlines the certification procedures of products and components of aircrafts (EASA). Subpart A is about general procedures involved in certifying components. Subpart B, C, D, elaborates on the types of certificates issued by EASA and alternatives for issue of certificates (EASA 11). EASA part 21 subpart G focuses on organizations that are responsible for making and designing the components of an aircraft.. A design organization list contains all the names of companies that have been approved by EASA to trade in aerospace parts and components. These organizations must be holders of an approval certificate or must have applied for a certificate of approval before beginning business. In case the design organizations need to change their design or mode of maintenance they must apply for a design organization approval certificate. EASA part -21 subpart J defines the production organization. A production organization is a company licensed/ certified to build aircrafts and its parts.

Functions of Light Aircraft Maintenance Schedule and Aircraft Category

The light aircraft maintenance manual CAP 520 contains the information that provides guidance on application of the schedule (EASA 12). LAMS address the maintenance requirements of light aircraft. The function of light aircraft maintenance schedule is to provide engineers with guidance on how to carry out maintenance on different categories of aircrafts. Moreover, LAMS lists the mandatory requirements of EASA, general inspections and servicing requirements. Also listed are standards of maintenance and recommended practices that the design organization needs from its customers (EASA 23).

There are several categories of airplanes. In 2003 the ultra light/ very light aircrafts were added to the existing categories. This category of airplanes include single passenger plane and the home built crafts. The other categories are: the light aircrafts which include the helicopters and turbine engine planes, the medium planes include the leer jets and lastly the heavy aircrafts are the large commercial aircrafts. This classification of aircrafts is according to the weight and number of passengers an aircraft can carry. Other categories exist of aircrafts exist; these categories may be classified according to speed and other relevant components of the plane(EASA 12).

Log Books Required for Large Aircrafts

The federal aviation regulation requires that large transportation aircrafts should have logbooks. The large transport aircrafts require four major log books. The major log books required are; engine logbook, aircraft log book, propeller logbook and airworthiness directive logbook. A commercial transportation also requires a technical log on the current air certificate in addition to the logs mentioned above. An aircraft log book would contain; the type of the aircraft, the registration mark, the date of flight, total flight time, flight cycles and landing. A typical entry on the engine book would include entrance on service and maintenance.

Mandatory Occurrence Requirement

Mandatory occurrence requirement requires the company to report occurrences that meet the CAA’s mandatory occurrence reporting criteria. The purpose of the MOR is to ensure that useful information on safety is gathered, stored, reported and disseminated. Therefore, the purpose of the MOR is to ensure accidents can accidents are avoided at the earliest possible time. In addition, the MOR ensures that an aviation company minimizes its liability in case of an accident. The regulatory framework within which an aviation industry can operate is bestowed on the CAA. Moreover, the CAA monitors the performance of the aviation industry. Mandatory occurrence reporting is embedded in the CAA monitoring function. An aviation company obtains information on occurrences from pilots after every flight. This information is then shared with the CAA. The CAA and the appropriate bodies or organizations will then investigate any occurrences.

Function and Structure of Joint Aviation Requirement OPS (Commercial Air Transportation) and Subpart M of the Organization

JAR governs the manner in which the commercial aircrafts operate in the European Union. The main function of the JAR-ops is to reduce the challenges experienced on joint ventures and to facilitate the import and export trade on aviation components and parts. JAR- OPS requires every aircraft in the EU to comply with the standards they provide. One of the standards requires the aviation companies to maintain proper operations manuals. JAR-OPS provide regulations on documentation procedures, training processes and compliances to be maintained(EASA 40). The structure of the JAR-OPS contain the basic regulations, under the basic regulations are the personnel requirements, authority requirements, air operation requirement, and third country operation requirement. JAR-ops subpart M covers aircraft maintenance. It provides the rules and regulations on airworthiness and maintenance(EASA 40). Moreover it specifies conditions to be fulfilled by organizations that are involved in continued airworthiness.

Requirements of an AOC

An air operation certificate is an approval that allows aircrafts to operate commercially. The national aerospace authority is responsible for the issuance of an AOC. The requirements to be fulfilled in order to get an air operation certificate will depend on the national aerospace authority of a given state (EASA 50). Generally requirements for an AOC certificate are: availability of airworthy aircrafts suited for the function they are meant to perform, well documented and implemented scheme of training staff, a well defined organization structure, well documented statement on the financial position of the operator, the operator’s liability insurance cover and a sufficient and appropriate employee base.

Issue of EASA Permit to Fly in Accordance to A#9 and what it Replaces

A company will be issued with a permit to fly once they fulfill some conditions set by EASA. When there is need to approve flight conditions, an aviation company must ensure that the flight circumstances and the required flight conditions align with EASA’s legislated safety design. On fulfilling this condition EASA can approve for a permit to fly to be issued to the company. The approval outlines the conditions under which the flight can be conducted. Once EASA has approved the flight conditions, an application may be made to an approved continuing airworthiness Management organization (CAMO) or the CAA for issuance of a permit to fly. The EASA permit to fly can be used in place of airworthiness certificate therefore it eliminates the need for an airworthiness certificate(EASA 43).

Conclusion

Aerospace legislation is a collection of rules and regulations generally accepted and applied by the court of laws when prosecuting cases pertaining infringement of law in aerospace industry. Therefore, legislation is as important as management strategy in aerospace industry. Aerospace managers are usually educated on both management aspects and legislation on aerospace. This has been attributed to the fact that the aviation industry is delicate. Therefore, the management of various aviation companies has to use strategies that will ensure that this delicate nature of the industry is not aggravated. European Aviation Safety Agency works together with the aviation authorities of European Union to ensure that the maintenance of aircrafts is standard. Moreover, they have enacted rules and regulations in respect to aerospace maintenance procedures, organizational procedures, and manner of planning. These rules provide guidance to managers in aerospace industry. The process of maintenance in the aerospace industry requires taking into consideration the rules and regulation of EASA. This ensures that the quality safety procedures must be observed at all times. This also ensures that organizations recognize safety of passengers as a major aspect of law at all times. This can only be achieved by working with auditors who checks the aircraft for quality maintenance and safety procedures. Maintenance managers therefore have to know how to use knowledge management to ensure they can perform their tasks efficiently and effectively.

Works cited

DGCA. Airworthiness Procedures Manual, London: Directorate General of Civil Aviation, 2009. Print.

EASA. Maintenance Organization User Guide, London: European Aviation Safety Agency, 2010. Print

Rose, Kenneth. Project Quality Management: Why What and How, Florida: Ross Publishing, 2005. Print.

Wai, Tat and Hase, Stewart. “Knowledge Management in the Malaysian Aerospace Industry.” Journal of Knowledge Management 11.1 (2007): 139-151. Print.

This case study addresses the issue of inventory problems in the aerospace industry using the theory of constraints. This article is jointly authored by three management scholars from the Republic of China. The case study focuses on the aerospace industry because of its management and time-based demands.

According to the authors, management efficiency is cause for concern in various operational scenarios and the aerospace industry in particular. The case study uses a current reality tree to examine management objectives in the aerospace industry’s environment.

The authors hypothesize that if ‘conflicting inventory management activities’ are eliminated, this would positively impact the whole managerial system (Chou, Lu & Tang 2012).

The authors of this article begin by noting the unique scenarios that make the aerospace industry a high-stakes management arena. The authors note that the uncertainties that face the supply and demand of aerospace-related products make the management of these organizations a complex affair.

The theory of constraints is identified as the main solution to the complex management and decision-making processes that burden various organizations.

The authors term the theory of constraints “as a thinking process that can be applied to help organizations to identify the problems, find strategies to solve them, and eventually implement these strategies successfully” (Chou, Lu & Tang 2012).

The literature review section of this case study gives various definitions and further additional research concerning the theory of constraints (TOC). Some of the factors that have a direct influence on TOC include ‘material requirements planning, supply chain management, and enterprise resource planning’.

The case study reveals that the success of TOC is based on three separate assertions including the small number of constraints that limit performance and the goals that must be met in a particular management scenario. The authors also offer readers a step-by-step approach of the TOC process.

Another section of literature review in this article focuses on the ‘thinking’ element of the TOC. According to the authors, logic is a major element of TOC. In addition, logic is the central premise in scenarios that witness a positive change in management.

The authors of this article clarify to the readers that the TOC approach primarily answers three questions namely; “What must be changed? What is the goal of this change? How does one implement this change?” (Chou, Lu & Tang 2012).

Nevertheless, the case study notes that using logic and achieving sufficiency is important when utilizing TOC to solve management issues.

The authors continue their case study by outlining the current status of the company that is analyzed in this article. The company in this case study (Company A) uses a software program to cater to all its management needs. Most of the management issues that apply to Company A have to do with the efficiency of the SAP software.

The authors of the article outline all the problems that are encountered by the company that is outlined in the case study.

According to the case study, the material division that Company A is experiencing comes from several managerial problems including lack of a proper method of disposing ‘extra procured materials’ and false economic forecasts.

The procurement section of the addressed company is also experiencing several problems including constraints of pre-ordering materials in advance and lack of negotiating power.

Another problem in management applies to the production division of the addressed company, where estimation and forecasting issues destabilize the company’s operations. After analyzing all these problems, the article proceeds to offer a conflict resolution diagram.

The conflict resolution diagram indicates that for management to be streamlined, all divisions of the aerospace industry have to ‘maintain turnover-related inventory’ (Chou, Lu & Tang 2012).

The goal of these changes in inventory is to decrease the inventory-related problems that are faced by the aerospace company. On the other hand, these changes will result in fewer losses for the company.

The article continues by outlining the undesirable effects that result from changes in the procurement and material divisions. The undesirable effects include creation of instability in the company’s supply chain. The article offers a thorough analysis of the identified management problem in respect to a TOC-based analysis.

The findings of this case study indicate that the aerospace company has put useful measures in place and these developments are supposed to improve the organization’s performance. In addition, the article reveals that implementing the TOC also leads to problems in other areas of Company A’s operations.

The authors of this article have offered several proposals that can eliminate the conflict between the two divisions in Company A. Most of these proposals seek to streamline the scheduling processes in Company A.

The case study also proposes that Company A puts together a quality control strategy that would put checks and balances in the procurement procedures. The authors of this article conclude by noting that production scheduling is a major factor in the operations of Company A.

The article concludes by noting that this research “provides valuable insights into the prerequisites for success of TOC implementations” (Chou, Lu & Tang 2012).

Reference

Chou, Y. C., Lu, C. H., & Tang, Y. Y 2012, “Identifying inventory problems in the aerospace industry using the theory of constraints”, International Journal of Production Research, vol. 50 no. 16, pp. 4686-4698.

Executive Summary

One of the main causes of loss for businesses is the escalation of commitment to projects which are failing. It occurs when decision makers go on with a project even when there is adequate evidence and information which shows that investing more resources on the project will not change the tides and create value for the investment.

A lot of time is wasted primarily because more time is spent on useless projects than is necessary. Getting insight on this subject is important for an aerospace organisation as it will assist in ensuring that the company identifies any such problems and deals with them effectively. This will save the company a lot of resources particularly in terms of time and money.

This report aims to highlight the dangers of escalation and ways to manage these dangers. In addition, the causes of escalation and recommendations on how the company can best manage escalation are discussed.

Introduction

Escalation refers to persistence with a project or a certain course of action beyond a financially reasonable point. Some theorists claim that escalation is due to wrong decision-making (Bazerman 2004). Escalation is very costly to an organisation because large sums of money must be used to sustain these projects. The managers spend more money on past projects which have a small probability of success instead of starting new projects (Desai & Chulkov 2008)

According to theory, the main cause of escalation is self-justification whereby a manager wants to appear reasonable and capable of carrying out certain tasks. Another approach to this is the economic approach which claims that managers are rational in trying to protect their reputation in the company. (Brockner & Rubin 1975).

The objective of this report is to attempt to show the problems that can affect the aerospace defence company due to escalation and recommend suitable ways to deal with it.

Definition of escalation

The issue of escalation is a major issue in decision making in organizations. People become so committed to a certain project such that they are willing to continue pumping in loads of money even when it is clear that the project will never materialize. The escalation of commitment includes trying further actions that are deemed corrective which unfortunately only make the situation worse (Chell, 2001).

Research shows that decision makers prefer continuing to invest in a failing project because of financial commitments to these projects. It has been found that if a person invests a large sum of money and other resources in a project, he or she will allocate more resources to the project if he gets negative feedback. Conversely, if the feedback received is positive such for instance that the project will be a success, the funds allocation will be reduced (Armstrong, Coviello & Safranek 1993).

An example of escalation on an individual level includes investing in stocks which are clearly on a downward trend. Continuing in a job or relationship which is unfulfilling hoping that things will get better yet all signs show a miserable future is escalation. In the organisational level, escalation may occur when a business continues investing in a certain line of business even though past results are bad and there is uncertainty about the outcome of continued investment (Drummond 2001).

Causes of escalation

Organizational factors

The desire for justification and presenting one self in a manner that is acceptable in the organization is one of the conditions leading to increased escalation in many organizations. For example, a marketing manager may continue marketing a new product yet there has been no response from the public in 1 year. Therefore, a decision maker may support a project until it succeeds so as to avoid negative feedback (Armstrong, Coviello & Safranek 1993).

If escalation has always been the norm, a new manager may be forced to continue with the trend or suffer opposition. Inertia and passivity by management concerning the progress of projects will certainly increase escalation. Company policies such as bureaucracy may increase escalation because decision-making is often slow and unilateral (Chell 2001).

Psychological factors

Psychological determinants cause a person to view a situation which is bad in a positive and optimistic way. Self-justification makes people want to prove to themselves that they can accomplish or succeed in a given task. A study done by Staw in 1976 established that people who were responsible for the initial investment decision are usually more committed to a project than the less responsible individuals.

The study showed that people will spend more resources to justify a decision that was made in the past. Another study by Bazerman, Goodman and Schoorman (1982) found that the measure of commitment that an individual has for a project is related to the perceived significance of that project (Ross & Staw 1986).

Escalation may also be reinforced if the actions taken by an individual are voluntary and were entered into by free choice. If the actions are public and are known to other people, an individual may continue on that line of action because he does not want to look incompetent or foolish. In addition, an activity that has been performed many times in the past would cause an individual to go on investing resources because of familiarity (Drummond 2001).

Another psychological factor that enhances commitment and escalation is the fact that people tend to process information concerning a project in a different manner that causes perseverance of beliefs. There is an inclination by the individual to search for, remember and interpret information in a way that sustains his or her belief in the eventual success of the project. For instance, a manager may receive a report stating that the business prospects are low but he or she will take this as a challenge (Arkes 1996).

Social factors

The desire to maintain credibility and not to suffer shame in the presence of other people may affect escalation. Managers may continue pursuing a falling project because they do not want to expose their mistakes to other people. Because companies evaluate the employees according to their ability to make sound choices, cases of escalation may increase as no employee wants to appear incompetent.

Research shows that people who are in situations of job insecurity and resistance to policies are more likely to carry out escalation (Ross & Staw 1986).

Modelling and social norms are other social factors which have contributed to escalation. A study done on modelling revealed that people are more likely to invest resources to projects which other people have ventured and succeeded in (Deming, 1986). The norm in society is to respect and approve of managers or decision makers who continued in a certain project until it succeeded. For instance, Henry Ford is widely respected for his persistence and tenacity which enabled his firm to develop a revolutionary engine (Ross & Staw 1986).

Economic factors

The high costs of quitting a project may bring about escalation. The presence of sunk costs makes it very difficult for management to choose to abandon a project. Sunk costs are those expenses which the firm faces incrementally. This means that this is the period when the costs of the project are much more than the returns.

These costs are accepted because the managers are anticipating that eventually business will peak and the initial costs will be recovered (Bazerman & Watkins 2008). Decision-makers have to choose between continuing with a project whose returns are much lower than the costs albeit a lot of uncertainty about the future (Wolf & Northcraft 184).

Paying compensation and penalties to subcontractors is very costly and this may deter managers from letting go of an unprofitable. An example is if contractors had been hired to build houses but it is realised after five months that there is low demand since the development is next to a cement factory. If the contractors are stopped from going one with the construction, they have to be paid a lot of money.

Low salvage value means that if the entire project is sold off, the amount of money that will be received will be much less than what was initially invested. Redundancy costs for employees who are affected by the closure of a project may be so high such that the decision makers decide to continue working on it until it becomes profitable (Wolf & Northcraft 184).

Dangers of escalation

Escalation, although widely practised is very dangerous and may cause the destruction of a company. For example, the $500 million IT venture of the London stock exchange was as a result of consistent escalation which eventually become a waste of resources. Escalation wastes a lot of money on projects which will never be fruitful. If the resources spent on failing projects are very high such that the operations of the business are affected, then the firm will ultimately close down. (Drummond 1996)

Opportunities are also lost when decision makers embark on escalation. The financial resources that are being spent on bad investments could have been used in a better way if they had been invested in projects whose returns are more than costs. The reputation of a decision maker who keeps on investing when it is obvious he or she is wasting money will be tarnished (Drummond 1996).

Escalation in the defence sector

The aerospace defence sector is not exempt from the problem of escalation. The defence sector is prone to escalation as due to the rapid expansion this industry. Aerospace defence manufacturers are under pressure to be innovative and adaptive to the ongoing technological advances. The huge sums of money that have to be invested in the aerospace defence sector could deter managers from halting projects.

The model proposed by Keil and Montealegre (2001) is the best for an aerospace organisation in the defence sector. This model is in four phases i.e. problem recognition, re-examination of prior courses of action, selection of alternative courses of action and implementing the exit plan. This model is appropriate because the defence sector is very volatile and financial investments are very high. Defence procurement can raise problems such as technical breakdown and escalation (Kenny 2006).

Recommendations

Reducing escalation can be done by reducing or eliminating the factors which are known to increase escalation.

Reducing self-justification

Self-justification produces a scenario whereby, the more the negative feedback received the more persistent the decision maker is concerning the failing project. Many managers deal with negative feedback by justifying their original course of action. A logical method of dealing with self-justification is to know that a decision made in the part is not necessarily a reflection of ones abilities or intelligence.

An individual who is involved in decision-making should be assured of confidentiality to reduce his or her need for self-justification. The above measure will enable a person to withdraw from a certain line of business with out suffering psychologically or socially (Simonson & Staw 1992).

Ensuring accurate decision-making

The decisions made by managers are what determine the future and success of a company. Therefore, it is imperative that an organisation creates conditions that are conducive for decision making. Inadequate and unreliable information was found to be a leading cause of escalation as managers did not have enough information to make sound decisions (Allison 1971).

It is important to make information about costs and the rate of return on investments easily available and accessible. This is likely to reduce the tendency for decision makers to focus on projects that will never give the expected financial returns. When adequate economic facts are available, it is unlikely that decision makers will make wrong choices (Simonson & Staw 1992).

Self diagnosing and accountability

In order to reduce escalation, managers in the firm should embark on self-diagnosing which involves examining one self in relation to a given task. This will assist in gauging ones ability to meet the requirements of the project. Accountability in the organisation is whereby an individual has to justify his or her actions to others. It can be beneficial to an organization as it will foster good decision making due thus reducing escalation (Simonson & Staw 1992).

Conclusion

The firm should examine itself to ensure that there are no cases of escalation. If there is escalation, the projects which are being invested in should be abandoned. In addition, it is important that the decision making process be sound so as to prevent escalation. It would be advisable to give decision-making powers to a group of people such as a board of directors instead of to an individual.

This will bring about control and better decisions will be made due to brainstorming. Since self-justification is one of the main causes of escalation, it is important to ensure that the identity of decision makers remains confidential. This may create more motivation or morale for the managers.

Self-justification and improved decision-making are the best measures as research has proved that they are most effective (Drummond 1996).

Reference List

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Introduction

Bigelow Aerospace is a space technology company based in North Las Vegas. The company is pioneering the development of expandable space vessels. The company was founded in 1998, by Robert Bigelow – and operations are funded, largely by the Budget Suites Hotel of America, which is owned by Bigelow (Bigelow, 2011). As of 2010, the founder had injected USD 180 million into the project.

The founder, together with his staffs, is working towards the development of configurable, flexible space habitats. This paper explores the business issues facing Bigelow Aerospace in different areas: tariffs, exchange rates, quotas, local laws and customs, marketing, and copyrights. The paper also presents possible solutions to the issues identified (Bigelow, 2011).

The business issues facing Bigelow Aerospace

According to Anonymous (2011), EIAST (Emirates Institution for Advanced Science and Technology) has partnered with Bigelow Aerospace to develop a future-looking human spaceflight initiative for the Middle East. EIAST is the organization that initiated the DubaiSat project. The two partners plan to establish the project in Dubai and the UAE, bringing into existence research and development institution (Anonymous, 2011, p. 1-3).

The center will present the potential of exploring business, space-related projects and advanced biotechnology. The deal between the two institutions is part of the UAE’s strategy, towards reinforcing space capacity, through working on the DubaiSat project as using projects like DubaiSat-1 (Anonymous, 2011). The New programs are expected to enhance business applications across the region (M. Gold, personal interview, June 2009).

The director general of EIAST, Mansoori informed Satellite Today that plans of installing other satellites were in waiting. He said that the EIAST anticipated initiating DubaiSat-2 in 2012, which would be followed by the launch of DubaiSat-3 (Anonymous, 2011).

Among the business issues facing Bigelow Aerospace is the issue of taxation due to business across the US national borders. In the particular case of a partnership with the EIAST, with the plans of launching operations in the UAE and Dubai, they face the issue of the application of tax treaties, in their current case, where it is not clear whether the partnership is allowed to enjoy treaty benefits (Seevers, 2002).

The business issue gets deeper as the states involved are different, in the tax treatment of partnerships. For instance, a classification conflict is likely to face the partnership, which may result in double non-taxation or double taxation (Rhoades, 2008). There is also an issue of the application of tax treaties in the context of the business between Bigelow Aerospace and EIAST (Seevers, 2002).

The business issues to be explored during and after the progress of the project include the tax regimes to be applied to the partnership, whether the projects can be taxed on the basis of the domestic laws of the US, and rules to be applied by the UAE and America – when classifying foreign and domestic organizations for taxation purposes. There is also an issue of the application of tax treaties to the international partnership (Seevers, 2002).

A possible solution to the taxation issue facing the business of Bigelow Aerospace, while executing partnerships with EIAST of the UAE, includes that proposed by Latham & Watkins (2011). Latham & Watkins (2011, p. 4-5) points out that it is safer and more effective for a foreigner – without the intention of physically settling at the UAE – to enter into an agency with a locally owned institution in the UAE.

In the current case, Bigelow Aerospace can enter into a commercial agency relationship with EIAST, in executing operations of importing technology and their IT products to the U.S. Bigelow Aerospace should also consider registering the contract with the Ministry for Economy and Commerce, so they can benefit from the protections offered under the commercial Agency laws of the UAE (“Federal Legislation, No. 18 of 1981, and amendment by No. 14 of 1988 as well as that by No 2 of 2010” (Latham & Watkins, 2011, p. 4).

The protections to be enjoyed by Bigelow include exclusivity, which is the right to import technology and their expertise and commissions, which is the right to the commissions realized from the deal – whether by the principal or other agents. They will also benefit from protection, in the area of contractual termination as the provisions guide that the principal can only terminate the deal for material reasons, which are acceptable before the Commercial Agencies Committee (Latham & Watkins, 2011, p. 4-5).

From the side of the US, Bigelow Aerospace could approach the issue, on the basis that partnerships are treated as entities – during the determination of the timing, amount, and the character of the income items of the business (Seevers, 2002). There is a business issue of the regulations guarding exportation and the importation of goods and services into the UAE.

Bigelow Aerospace is likely to face low tariff rates, during the execution of contract with EIAST due to the fact that the UAE is a member of the WTO (World Trade Organization) and free trade establishments at the GCC. For instance, import duty of the aerospace items will only be taxed outside the free zones, depending on the nature of the imported technology equipment (Latham & Watkins, 2011, p. 5).

As a solution to the import duty issue, Bigelow Aerospace could concentrate dealings at the free zones, so as to reduce the tax burden to be borne while operating at the UAE (Latham & Watkins, 2011, p. 5). Following the precaution of concentrating operations at free zones, they will also increase the exemptions on their partnership, depending on the majority level owned by GCC nationals as well as the free zone identity.

In the area of taxation, there is no income or federal corporate tax levied on UAE businesses, except in the areas of banking services and oil trading (Latham & Watkins, 2011, p. 5). Bigelow Aerospace will also encounter the issue of laws, including those on employment. Employment law in the UAE is governed by federal legislation, imposing minimum requirements for the employment of juveniles, public holidays and vacations, working hours, safety standards, employee records and employment termination (M. Gold, personal interview, June 2009).

In this area, Bigelow Aerospace should ensure that their partnership with EIAST is executed in line with the employment laws of the UAE, so as to avoid any issues that may result from non-adherence. Bigelow Aerospace will also encounter the business issue of projecting intellectual property, as well as patents (Bigelow aerospace, 2013). The UAE legislation recognizes intellectual property rights, in a manner similar to that of the US, UK and European systems.

The UAE is also a member of conventions like the PCT (Patent Cooperation Treaty) Madrid Convention, TRIPS and WTO (Bigelow aerospace, 2013; Bigelow aerospace, 2013b). The solution to this issue is that Bigelow should register patents with the UAE Federal ministry of economy (Latham & Watkins, 2011, p. 7). The company’s patents should also be protected under UAE’s industrial property law, so as to make them enforceable.

As a result, any parties copying the Bigelow’s patents may face imprisonment or pay heavy fines, depending on the level of patent breach (Bigelow aerospace, 2013a). Terrill (1999) points out that the “International Outer Space Treaty of 1967,” guides the operations of companies engaging in space exploration (UN, 2002).

This implies the business issue that – in the case of a space liability – during their ordinary business of exploration Bigelow Aerospace will be liable for the damage caused by their space objects, and will be required to control the objects at all times (Rhoades, 2008; UN, 2002). In their business with organizations like IAST, Space X and NASA, there is the business issue that Bigelow will be liable for any liability caused by their space vessels and will be faced with the constant challenge of managing the vessels (Writers, 2012; Matthews, 2013; Bigelow aerospace, 2013a).

The solution to the issue is that Bigelow Aerospace and partners will have to invest in the development of employees, so as to ensure that the oversight of vessels is at best (Terrill, 1999). The development of the teams involved in the engineering of the vessels of Bigelow and partners should be developed, to ensure that the risk of causing problems in space will be lower (Terrill, 1999).

According to Holmes (2011), Bigelow aerospace has been expanding business, to new areas, like the gulf region. An example of these expansion deals is the deal made between the company and EIAST, which sought to develop new-generation space flight vessels and programs (Bigelow, 2011). The expansion was a strategic move on the part of the UAE as it is the first deal they made with the countries of the Middle East.

Therefore, the deal, on own, presented the opportunity for the expansion of the program and services of space flight in the gulf region. However, as Holmes (2011) notes, the pace of the programs will also depend on the speed of the congress, in giving funding for commercial crew development, during the financial years 2011 and 2012. This aspect brings into light, another business issue facing Bigelow Aerospace.

The issues include the challenges of meeting environmental performance standards while at the same time ensuring that their accounts are not affected – to the level that they do not realize the anticipated profits or project plans (NASA, N.D). For instance, in the case of Bigelow Aerospace, the funding from the congress, which is supposed to run the crew program as well as enable involved companies deploy their hardware (Holmes, 2011).

Still, under the issue of funding, there is a concern over the channeling of funds towards environmental performance standards, which are increasing from time to time (AECOM, N.D). Still, in the area of funding, for instance, the funding by the congress – which is necessary before the launch of the UAE projects of 2011 and 2012, there was a continued uncertainty regarding the funding of the critical programs, for fear that they would impair the implementation of capital projects.

For that reason, investing in aeronautical programs is not viewed as a priority, as opposed to the projects in the line of construction, engineering and the development of national resources (AECOM, N.D). Therefore, Bigelow Aerospace faces the risk of minimal or late funding, which is likely to affect their program schedules, whether the delays are caused by the national funding of the home country (US) or that of the destination country of business, for instance the UAE (Holmes, 2011).

Hutchet-Bourdon and Korinek (2011, p. 14) discuss that trade surpluses and deficits may be attributed to variations in exchange rates. The impact of these variations on trade is unbounded as the balances could be depicted through a review of imports and exports of the UAE to the US, which may mark a considerable loss in the balance of payments (Ball, 2010).

As a result, exchange volatility affects the business of Bigelow Aerospace as the funding channeled towards space projects, for instance those at UAE will depend on the availability of funds – which is a function of exports and imports (Huchet-Bourdon and Korinek, 2011). As a result, the changes in the value of the different currencies are likely to delay the funding of projects, or delay of others.

The solution that Bigelow Aerospace could develop for this business issue would be the strategic sourcing of funds and the sourcing of resources to be used during their projects in the target countries. For instance, the volatility of currencies affects prices of imported supplies, which is likely to increase project budgets.

Another solution to the issue, which is available to Bigelow Aerospace, is the development of a strategy of purchasing all required inputs during times of less currency volatility so they can be used later, during project execution (Bigelow, 2011).

Quotas is a business issue that Bigelow deals with during execution of international programs – including the development of DubaiSat-2 and 3 in partnership with EIAST, include the restrictions of quotas. Quotas are the limitations on the quantity of a product that can be allowed into the target country (Ball, 2010).

However, the situation is favorable in this area, for the company, when it is investing in the UAE as there are no Quota limitations (Latham & Watkins, 2011). At target markets where this limitation will affect the business of Bigelow, the company should focus on sourcing the inputs required for the project locally as opposed to importing the inputs. Through this strategy, the company will not lack the inputs and at the same time, will have promoted the economic development of the target country (Seevers, 2002).

Conclusion

Bigelow Aerospace is a space technology corporation pioneering the development of expandable space vessels. The company was founded in 1998 and is funded largely by the founder. The business issues facing Bigelow Aerospace include taxation, which is stiffer at certain countries, than others like the UAE, where the company is already doing business.

The possible solution to the issue is investing through domestic agencies or investing at free zones in the UAE. There is an issue of the regulations guarding importation. This issue can be solved through investing in countries that require less import duty. Bigelow faces other business issues related to laws, including employment laws; the cumbersome funding of governments, which could be substituted with other channels of funding.

There is the issue of exchange rates, which is likely to limit the capacity of importation and export, which is a significant source for the funding channeled into space projects. The solutions to the problem of exchange rate volatility include the development of input sourcing mechanisms that collect all required inputs as the company plans space projects. In conclusion, these business issues are likely to affect the business of Bigelow Aerospace to a large extent, in case they are not addressed in a timely manner.

References

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