Over the past century, the study of human behavior has gained prominence. To this end, various scholars have formulated different theories that seek to explain how human behavior is developed from childhood to adulthood. One of the most influential theories in this regard is Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.
This theory aimed at explaining how different behavioral tendencies are developed through various developmental stages in ones lifespan. Research indicates that ones personality plays a pivotal role in determining the behavioral characteristics an individual will exhibit. Similarly, there is a general consensus among behavioral scientists, which indicates that personality is developed from childhood and consists of biological and environmental influences.
This paper shall set out to explore and describe the causes and development of sociopathic tendencies in early childhood that would be carried into adulthood. This shall be achieved by analyzing various theories and performing a literature review of credible sources focusing on this issue.
Sociopathic Behavior development: A brief overview
Juvenile crimes have been on the rise over the past few decades. As such, most parents are concerned about sociopathic behaviors exhibited by children. In most cases, parents attribute these tendencies to defiance and aggression. However, research indicates that there is more to it than meet the eyes.
Johansson et al (2005) define sociopathic behavior as a product of personality disorders, which is characterized by total disregard for authority and social norms. From this definition, a sociopath can be described as a manipulative and exploitative individual suffering from long-term behavioral problems indicative of an antisocial personality disorder.
As mentioned earlier, sociopathic behaviors may result from biological or environmental influences during childhood and in most cases, individuals display these behaviors even in adulthood. Some of the common indicators of sociopathic behaviors include but are not limited to violence, aggression, sadism, vandalism, suicidal, and homicidal tendencies.
Causes of sociopathic behavior
Biological causes
According to Siegel and Senna (2004), biological causes of antisocial personality disorder in children include abnormal development of the nervous system and genetics. Results from the Texas Adaptation Project indicated that a person’s tendency to exhibit certain sociopathic behavior is to some extent innate.
The results conclusively suggested that sociopathic tendencies are inheritable. To support this statement, Pratt et al (2002) state that an average of eighty percent of all ADHD variations are transmitted genetically from the parents to the children. As such, a parent with antisocial behavior is more likely to pass the same to his/her children.
Siegel and Senna (2004) reiterate that in most cases (2/3), fathers of delinquent boys have criminal records and there is a high likelihood that if a father is a criminal, his sons may become criminals too. On the same note, research indicates that abnormal development of the nervous system may induce sociopathic behavior in children, which if not treated, may manifest in adulthood. For example, brain studies have suggested that there is a close link between abnormal secretion of serotonin and aggressive and impulsive behavior.
In addition, Johansson et al (2005) state that differences in brain functions may result in sociopathic behavior during childhood and later in adulthood. For example, the brain of a normal person react faster to emotional words such as love or hate than it does to neutral words such as house or car. However, the brain of a sociopath cannot effectively process these words. This means that a sociopath’s ability to process emotions is limited, which explains their apathy, callousness and lack of remorse towards others.
Environmental causes
According to Erikson, childhood is the most important stage of personality development. The theorist argues that during this stage, a child learns how to interact and adapt to his/her environment by observing and emulating different influences. As such, a child brought up in a loving, trusting and caring environment will most likely develop these traits.
On the other hand, a child who observes violence, hatred and mistrust emulates these traits even in adulthood. In the oral-sensory stage (below 1year old), the child develops trust. As such, if parents are consistent, reliable and loving, the child will trust them and view socialization as a positive thing.
However, if the parents are unreliable, inadequate or harm the child, he/she develops mistrust and withdrawal tendencies characterized by depression, paranoia and in some cases psychosis. Depending on how children are treated during this stage, they may learn to trust their bodies and their urges or develop withdrawal tendencies due to mistrust.
If this is not changed at the early stages, it may develop into a sociopathic trait even in adulthood. For example, a person with trust issues developed during childhood may try to hide from others and may find it hard to establish meaningful relationships with others even during adulthood.
On the same note, Pratt et al (2002) state that peer influence has been linked to the development of sociopathic behavior. The authors attribute this to the fact that most children (teens in particular) are concerned about their identity. As such, they are more likely to be influenced by peers as they try to fit in. as such, if children associate with criminals; they are most likely to develop criminalistics tendencies. The same applies to children who associate themselves with sociopaths.
Additionally, Johansson, Kerr and Andershed (2004) assert that while environmental factors that cause sociopathic behavior in children remain unclear, child abuse has been cited as being the most probable cause. Child abuses include an inappropriate home environment, use of corporal punishment, inadequate emotional bonding between children and their parents and domestic violence. A child who grows up in this environment is more likely to develop sociopathic traits and display them even in adulthood.
Discussion and conclusion
Rarely do sociopaths seek help at their own accord. As such, it is the duty of the parents to seek professional help whenever they observe antisocial tendencies in their children. According to Johansson, Kerr and Andershed (2004), antisocial personality disorders can be treated and managed effectively during childhood.
However, if the condition continues to adulthood, there is always the possibility that it will escalate thereby making an individual more dangerous to society. This paper set out to describe the factors that lead to the development of sociopathic behavior in children, which would continue manifesting even in adulthood. Using specific theories and a review of relevant literature, it has been revealed that genetics and environmental factors are the main cause of this antisocial personality disorder.
The characteristics of a sociopath have been highlighted and explanations as to why children may develop sociopathic traits discussed. Due to the severity of the issue, parents and other caregivers should look out for various indicators and ensure that their children get the best care in order to avoid the situation from escalating during adulthood.
References
Johansson, P., Kerr, M., & Andershed, H. (2005). Linking adult psychopathy with childhood hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention problems and conduct problems through retrospective self-reports. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 94-101.
Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T., Blevins, K. R., Daigle, L., & Unnever, J. D. (2002). The relationship of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to crime and deliquency: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 4, 344-360.
Siegel, L. J., & Senna, J. J. (2004). Essentials of criminal justice (4th ed.). New York: Wadsworth.
Aging is a function of many factors. The factors could be biological, psychological, social, or political. The work here below examines adulthood and aging from a widow or widower’s point of view. Having been faced with a loss of a partner, a widow/widower is likely to undergo critical emotional challenges. This paper tries to look at what could be the possible consequences.
A widow is a woman who has lost her husband by death and has not married again. While a widower is a man who has lost his wife by death and has not married again. A syndrome is a group of concurrent symptoms of a disease. Due to the loss of a partner, the lives of widows and widowers in most cases are characterized by grief and stress which often lead to depression. Depression has its own consequences such as impairment of the immune system thus increasing susceptibility to disease and dangerous behaviors such as excessive drinking of alcohol. The emotional disappointments coupled with emerging disease symptoms is what is termed as widow/widowers’ syndrome.
There is a street argument that goes like if a 70-year-old man dies, his wife is likely to die sooner than she would if the old husband lived. According to the information posted on the site www.impactlab.com there is a correlation between mortality and loss of a spouse.
According to the information on the site, studies have been carried out to compare the death rate for a group of widows/widowers to that of a control group. Generally, the ratio of the two is about 1 to 1.4, that is to say, 140 widowed persons die compared to 100 non-widowed. According to the researchers, widows/widowers exhibit what actuarial scientists term as “excess mortality”. Death rates are said to be highest within 6 months after bereavement and continue being high for about three years. Bereavement (as a result of loss of spouse) has shown to produce higher mortality among widowers than widows and among young than older ages. Social-economic factors do not seem to matter. Experts owe that to the widow/widowers’ syndrome. The death of one spouse affects the other spouse’s life.
The mortality risk has been observed to be higher in widows/widowers under 55 years especially when the loss is sudden. For widows/widowers in the age range of 50 to65 years, the risk is higher when the spouse has died of chronic illness. Also according to the site, mortality risk is lower when the widow/widower has a family or other social support and higher when the bereaved is socially isolated.
The book (Social Gerontology: A multidisciplinary perspective) examines the biological, psychological, social, and political factors that influence older people’s lives. It is divided into 5 parts. Part one is mainly a general introduction to the field of gerontology; part two addresses physiological changes that influence social aging. Part three discusses the psychological context of aging that includes normal and disease-related changes in cognitive functioning (learning, intelligence, and memory). Part four explores social issues of aging and part 5 goes beyond the individual’s social context to address societal perspectives.
It is in part four where widowhood is captured. Part four could be useful in addressing the concept of widow and widower’s syndrome. The material on the internet site is useful but lacks enough background on the whole topic. The book based on provided chapter especially without part four is not elaborative about the research topic but it is excellent for a general understanding of aging. The overall learning can be the need to give social support to widows and widowers. Their lives can be greatly enhanced if supported or cared for.
When one attains adulthood the thought of death is evident in the psychological perspective of this individual. This paper is going to give a comprehensive account of late adulthood and the end of life. Unambiguously, this paper will give an in-depth account of how individuals can promote health and wellness into late adulthood and mitigate the negative effects of aging. Secondly, the paper will analyze ageism and stereotypes associated with late adulthood. Moreover, this paper will explore different views of death and dying at different points in human development. Without much ado, the paper will sum up by examining cultural attitudes towards death and dying.
Let’s evaluate how individuals can promote health and wellness into adulthood and mitigate the negative effects of aging. Several developments that ensue during late adulthood are worrying. This may make one depressed. Well, centenarians have lived healthily in the late adulthood spectrum. From the age of 65 and beyond one is preparing for late adulthood. This is a period where diseases are well correlated and may affect an individual ghastly. Gerontologists agree that the health of a person deteriorates when diseases attack during Primary or Secondary aging periods in adulthood. High blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases develop during this age are sometimes become terminal. It is a leading cause of death among the aged.
The research was carried on 5,000 adults who were over 65 years and did not have cardiovascular disease. Unfortunately, after six years, some of the adults had developed heart disease. This was later found that what contributed much to this was the lifestyle of the participants during the research period. That is, a few of the participants had a smoking lifestyle, others had diabetes, others had improper practice, and others had high cholesterol (Fried et al., 1998). Hypertension or high blood pressure is a threat to heart disease and cognitive impairment that result during adulthood. This ailment is affected by salt usage, cholesterol levels, and lots of fats in the blood. Therefore, during adulthood one is bound to have improper health.
As discussed above, cardiovascular and hypertension are the killer diseases that affect most adults. The proper mitigation of such ailments should be from an individual’s perspective. The digestive system of such an individual starts to malfunction. However, a proper lifestyle should adhere. For example, Dunlap et al (2004) identify that “sleep deficit problems are widespread in the elderly, adversely affecting memory, performance capabilities, and general quality of life”. The reason why sleep is important is that brain activity will be enhanced and improve their performance capability. They will be able to have regular exercise. Most importantly health habits should be checked. The nutrition of the elderly should conform to balanced diet requirements that incorporate few calories, fresh fruits, complex carbohydrates, and all the vitamins. Poor lifestyles like smoking and drinking should be avoided at all costs. By adhering to the above-mentioned measures, and a lot of exercises, one can prolong life and reduce a lot of negative effects during adulthood.
Secondly, let’s analyze ageism and stereotypes associated with late adulthood. Senescence is the aging process. The aging process later begets a process that is prejudiced and stereotyped. This process is called ageism. The aged individual is depicted as a person who is incapable of performing vital tasks that are associated with the young and youth. The stereotypes make one believe that the old is very tired and weak hence dependant on the youthful generation. Palmore (2005) argues that “ageism is a social disease” that depends on stereotypes that instigate “needless fear, illness and misery” to the old. A few of the youth face adjustment in life. Using this theory of ageism, the youth are subjected to restrictions that change as they grow into adulthood. Although they rebel, when they enter adult life there is a diminution in pride and social involvement. Another stereotype that is commonly associated with ageism is elder-speak. This is a debasing kind of speech that is characterized by simple short sentences and frequent repetition. Some call it baby-talk! The elderly are thus referred to by demeaning clichés e.g. “dirty old man” and “doddering” as adjectival references. Therefore, from the above brief analysis, ageism can be destructive and lead to fearful life during adulthood. Thus, care should be taken on how to handle the old and be given the proper care that has no prejudice.
Let’s explore different views of death and dying at different points in human development. There are several theories concerning death, namely: wear and tear, genetic adaptation, and cellular living. Wear and tear literary refers to the wearing out of the body after years of disclosure to pollution, drugs, and a detrimental lifestyle. Just like machines which show signs of wear and tear, humans also show signs of wear and tear. The body tries to rebuild the parts that might have been injured using platelets. But when elastic limit ensues, the body leaves scars and marks that suggest wear and tear. By late adulthood these signs are evident and what follows is death. This is because the energetic energy is depleted and cannot be made again. Genetic adaptation is a complex view of death but its argument revolves around the genetic makeup of the human body. That is, there is a genetic clock that seems to “tick” and regulate the functioning process of hormones and genes in the human body. Simply, this clock may “switch off” life-supporting hormonal genes and “switch on” aging hormonal genes. The biological premise behind this is carried in the gene. The life expectancy span is determined by the gene.
This genetic clock determines the average and maximum life span of a species. This is due to different genetic conditions that are determined by historical, cultural, and socioeconomic aspects.
Improvement in medicine, sanitation, and nutrition has improved life expectancy. The immune system is thus improved by several immunization and antibiotics. This attempt to prolong life has not been proved to last more than 120 years. Therefore, the genetic clock stops at the maximum life expectancy period of a human. Lastly, the cellular aging theory is derived from the fundamental part that supports life, the cell. That is, when people grow old it is because their cells are becoming old and exhausted. There is a continuous replication of worn-out cells in the body. This replication does not continue for life but it reaches its elastic limit too! This can be attributed to the errors in duplication and replication. When the cells duplicate they may produce aging cells due to errors that may accumulate with time. This is because the new cell is not a replica of the old ones. The new traits mutated can be of aging characteristics.
Cellular transfiguration ensues from conception. Therefore, the DNA structure changes with time and becomes imperfect! This imperfectness is multiplied by all the cells in the body of an organism and there is no further duplication of newer cells. The cells are damaged and can no longer support life. Hence, cellular duplication changes because the electrons in the body become free radicals. These damaging free radicals are unstable. During molecular splitting, they use energy from the mitochondria causing more errors and damage. This exhaustive usage of energy makes the body lose a lot of energy and finally die!
Finally, let’s examine various cultural attitudes towards death and dying. In remote vicinities in Pakistan and Ecuador, the aged have a lot of vigor that is different from other countries. That is, they are erect, have good eyesight, have also good hearing, and can perform household chores! Researchers found out that they believe in a balanced meal that has few fats. The aged are integrated into the community and work continues throughout a living span. Exercise and rest are mandatory. Unlike the people who have attained the centenarian stage seem to achieve compression of morbidity and minimize any problems, they find in their lives. The cultural perspective of these people is conforming to the scientific approach of longevity in life. This is also seconded by communities from Japan and members of the religious group called Seventh Day Adventists. Therefore their attitude towards death is very optimistic. This makes most of them live in the centenarian age and have an intellectual curiosity about dying (Aldwin & Gilmer, 2003).
References
Aldwin, C. & Gilmer, D. F. (2003). Interface between physical and mental health. Health, illness, and optimal aging: Biological and psychosocial perspectives. New York: Guilford.
Dunlap et al. (2004). Fundamental properties of circadian rhythms. Chronobiology – Biological Timekeeping, 6. Sunderland, MA : Sinauer Associates.
Fried et al. (1998). Omental and subcutaneous adipose tissues of obese subjects. Nutritional Sciences, 83. New Jersey, NJ: Rutgers University.
Palmore, E., (2005). Three Decades of Research on Ageism. Generators, 89. Web.
As people age, their normal cognitive and physical functions start to decline. Although an increase in the incidence of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and osteoporosis rises substantially in older people, one of the most common conditions in the elderly population is dementia. Indeed, the number of deaths from this disease increased by almost 70% from 2000 to 2010 (Fondell et al., 2018, p. 79). One of the most devastating examples of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease, which was found to be related to the APOE4 genotype (Fondell et al., 2018). The changes in the brain start to appear twenty years before the development of its symptoms (Fondell et al., 2018). Still, the research found that physical activity can prevent drastic changes in the human brain, even in people with this genotype (Fondell et al., 2018). The purpose of this paper is to discuss introducing sports to lower the negative influence of cognitive decline.
Physical activity is considered to be the cornerstone to the prevention of many illnesses, including dementia. Indeed, human and animal studies demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of moderate and strenuous exercise (Fondell et al., 2018). For example, twelve cohort studies showed that physically active middle-aged adults had almost 40% lower risk for dementia later in life (Fondell et al., 2018, p. 79). Furthermore, a ten-year Framingham study found an association between exercise and reduced likelihood of cognitive decline (Fondell et al., 2018). It helps prevent Alzheimer’s because a workout, combined with the proper nutrition, helps maintain muscle mass, improves tissue oxygenation, causes a release of neurotrophic factors, and increases the body’s sensitivity to insulin (Fondell et al., 2018). Overall, physical activity is essential for diminishing the negative effect of aging on the brain.
To summarize, dementia is a devastating condition for older adults who experience gradual cognitive decline. Although such diseases as Alzheimer’s can have a genetic predisposition, studies found that moderate to intense physical activity can significantly reduce the risk of dementia. The main reason for the neuroprotective effect of exercise is combinatory, altering multiple biochemical processes in the human body. Specifically, workouts improve tissue oxygenation, reduce blood sugar, and cause the release of neurotrophic factors. Therefore, moderate physical activity should be recommended for middle-aged and older adults to diminish the negative consequences of aging.
It is widely known that an individual’s obesity in childhood could potentially lead to obesity in adulthood. However, there is not much information about factors of normal diet among children contributing to the development of weight problems in adulthood. The issue is explained by the fact that experts agree that a child’s life should be focused on activities and not meals in most cases. Thus, there is a gap of information on the correlation of weight problems among adults with childhood diet. The research performed by Barbour-Tuck et al. (2018) focused on the influence of childhood fat development on fat mass during adulthood showed reasonable possibilities for the fat mass to transfer from childhood to adulthood. Although the research mainly pointed to the potential risks for obesity being constant from a young age, one could say that children’s diet could influence the overall individual’s health and weight status in the future.
As for me, I agree that eating habits from young age influence eating habits and even health in adulthood. My eating habits were not significantly different from many children of my age. I think that all children share the same dislike for vegetables and fish. Moreover, my eating habits as a young child included moderately high sugar intake and constant snacking. Although now I try to control the level of sugar intake, I frequently experience a wish to eat something sweet. However, now I prefer more natural and organic options without added sugars, so it is both similar and different from my eating habits at a young age. As I often refused vegetables and preferred sweet and savory snacks, now I try to balance the need for snacking with healthier options, which is also similar and different from my early eating habits. I agree that my early eating habits were a forerunner for my weight status now, so I try to keep a nutritious diet to compensate for the lack of vitamins from my childhood diet.
Reference
Barbour-Tuck, E., Erlandson, M., Muhajarine, N., Foulds, H., & Baxter-Jones, A. (2018). Influence of childhood and adolescent fat development on fat mass accrual during emerging adulthood: A 20-year longitudinal study. Obesity, 26(3), 613–620. doi:10.1002/oby.22111
An individual’s development has several stages, and this process is lifelong. One of the stages in the lifespan development is middle adulthood that is associated with the period between 40-45 and 60-65 years. The subject (N) selected for the developmental analysis is a 49-year-old male who is married, has no children, and performs the role of the head of the family. He currently teaches airframe and power plant studies at a local community college.
N spent much of his life in Pittsburgh, PA, living in the Italian community, where he developed his morale and beliefs. N’s lifestyle can be described as sedentary, and he suffers from obesity, the heart disease, and hypertension. Still, it is important to note that N does not consume alcohol or smoke. In this paper, the specifics of the subject’s development at the stage of middle adulthood will be described with reference to existing theories, and possible unmet developmental tasks will be discussed along with the approaches to address them.
Summary of Middle Adulthood
Middle adulthood (40-45 to 60-65 years) is associated with the period when individuals go further in their maturity, and the signs of aging become obvious. However, during this period, people usually have stable family and interpersonal relationships, developed careers, demonstrate effective performance and productivity (Lally & Valentine-French, 2017). Noticeable physical changes are typical of this period, and in a social sphere, the focus can shift from work and relationships with friends to family and parenthood.
When analyzing the characteristics of this period with reference to researchers’ and theorists’ views, it is important to note that only some of them mentioned middle adulthood in their models. Erik Erikson developed the psychosocial theory, according to which each stage of a person’s development is associated with a certain crisis.
The effective resolution of each crisis is important for a successful movement to the following stage. In Erikson’s model, middle adulthood is related to the crisis of generativity versus stagnation, and a positive resolution is observed when an individual becomes interested in helping younger generations to develop (Dunkel & Harbke, 2017). Other researchers, such as Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, were mostly interested in studying the development of children, and according to their views, adulthood is associated with developing abstract thinking, moral values, and maturity (Lally & Valentine-French, 2017).
The complete theory of adult development was proposed by Daniel Levinson, who linked adulthood to tolerance, sensitivity, balancing privacy and friendship (Perera-Diltz et al., 2016). All these theories provide the background for understanding middle adulthood.
Comparison of the Subject’s Development to Norms
For this analysis, it is important to compare N’s physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development to stated norms. Referring to physical development, it is possible to claim that N’s addresses related milestones and has typical health problems. Thus, the subject has developed the loss of hair and male-pattern baldness. Still, there are no wrinkles typical of adults’ dry skin, and there is no muscle loss (sarcopenia) because of a person’s age.
It is rather problematic to conclude regarding changes in the eyesight because N had Lasik. Noticed hearing issues are associated with the experience in the military. N’s health concerns are typical of his age as he is diagnosed with the heart disease and hypertension, as well as high cholesterol levels and obesity because of a poor diet. These changes are most common in adults at this stage (Lally & Valentine-French, 2017). N’s brain function is highly developed, and this aspect is also compared to norms.
N’s cognitive development is within the stated standards: cognitive functioning is remarkable as N teaches at college, he is focused on positive thinking, and the state of flow is also characteristic for him. Furthermore, he has developed expertise as a professional and received intellectual satisfaction from his work (Lally & Valentine-French, 2017).
The subject’s psychosocial development corresponds to norms in most cases as the man has positive relationships with his wife, pays attention to balancing work and life, and contributes to personal stability and social interactions visiting the church.
Comparing the subject’s development to Erikson’s crisis of generativity versus stagnation, it is possible to state that N has successfully coped with this stage with the help of his work. During this period, people are interested in leaving a legacy and educating children (Dunkel & Harbke, 2017).
Although N has no children, he realizes his potential working with a younger generation in an educational institution. According to Levinson, during this period, adults face a midlife crisis (Perera-Diltz et al., 2016), but N seems to successfully overcome it because of having clear goals for the future, balancing career and life, and contributing to the community as a professional. N knows how to handle stress and applies effective coping strategies. The problem of the empty nest is also not typical of the subject because he has no children. Instead, N has positive and loving relationships with his wife and close friends.
Unmet Developmental Tasks
Erikson focused on such psychosocial task related to middle adulthood as the achievement of generativity. It is possible to state that the subject has achieved this task through providing his knowledge to the future generations teaching his students. Referring to the aspect of guiding one’s children, this task is partially unmet, but N and his wife do not regard the absence of children as a problem.
In this context, all the challenges and tasks associated with the empty nest syndrome, dealing with boomerang children, and becoming grandparents are not typical of this case, and these tasks remain unmet (Dunkel & Harbke, 2017; Lally & Valentine-French, 2017). The tasks that require N’s attention include coping with stress caused by losing parents and caring for spouses.
Assistance in Achieving the Tasks
If N loses his job or becomes retired, there is a risk of developing a crisis associated with the impossibility to guide the next generation (students) anymore. Furthermore, there is also a risk of worsening coping capabilities of N when facing the necessity of caring for a spouse or parents. To assist the subject in coping with these situations, it is necessary to focus on developing his activities in the community and relationships with friends (Dunkel & Harbke, 2017; Lally & Valentine-French, 2017). It is important to ensure that N will play an important role in the community life as long as it is possible, receiving support of its members.
Conclusion
The analysis of the stage of middle adulthood in the development of the selected subject indicates that this person has successfully achieved the key milestones. The specifics of N’s physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development are in line with the norms and theories in the field. However, the absence of children in N’s family does not allow for concluding strictly regarding met and unmet tasks of the middle adulthood period.
References
Dunkel, C. S., & Harbke, C. (2017). A review of measures of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development: Evidence for a general factor. Journal of Adult Development, 24(1), 58-76.
Perera-Diltz, D. M., Intagliata, A. J., & Laux, J. M. (2016). Middle adulthood: Emotional and social development. In D. Capuzzi & M. D. Stauffer (Eds.), Human growth and development across the lifespan: Applications for counselors (p. 475–505). John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Parents can influence their children with the help of different specific practices, targeted at guiding, controlling, and socializing young generations. The parents’ attitudes to their kids create a specific emotional atmosphere, which is traditionally called a “parenting style”. It is generally thought that the way of treatment has a serious impact on the children’s future lives and development. The typology was first introduced by Diane Baumrind and identified four major types of parental behavior: authoritarian (or disciplinarian), authoritative, permissive (or indulgent), and uninvolved (or neglectful) (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). There are numerous debates between experts about the pros and cons of each method of raising a child and its possible effect on the individual’s adulthood.
Parenting Styles
The Features of Authoritarian Parenting
Parenting styles are typically characterized by two dimensions: demandingness and responsiveness. Demandingness refers to “the extend parents control their children’s behavior or demand their maturity” (“4 Types of parenting styles and their effects,” 2021, para. 11). Responsiveness signifies “the degree parents are accepting and sensitive to their children’s emotional and developmental needs” ((“4 Types of parenting styles and their effects,” 2021, para. 12). The authoritarian type is characterized by high demandingness and low responsiveness, meaning that parents have high expectations of their kids’ achievements, giving them little response and care. This style implies indisputable obedience, with mothers and fathers applying it to “try to shape, control, and evaluate their children’s behavior based on the absolute set of standards” (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018, p. 169). The followers of this way demand obedience and use only one-way communication, making strict discipline their priority and often using severe punishments. According to Baumrind, these parents “are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation” (as cited in Cherry, 2020, para. 8). Kids in such families tend to feel insecure and have low self-esteem, show poor performance at school, develop aggressive behavior, and even have increased risks to suffer from depression.
The Features of Authoritative Parenting
The authoritative parenting type is characterized by high levels of demandingness and responsiveness, meaning that parents expect good achievements from their kids, showing warmth and care at the same time. This style is “warmer and more autonomy granting than controlling” (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018, p. 169). It is aimed at encouraging children to be responsible, understand the reasons for rules, and make their own decisions. The followers of this way always give explanations and reasons for their actions and decisions, teaching the young generation about values and morals. The disciplinary methods in use are negotiable and aimed at the result, establishing the purpose of regulating the behavior. Authoritative parents are always supportive and encourage the independence of their children, always promoting communication and negotiating all the problems. This style is also called democratic due to its basic features. According to Baumrind, these parents “monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct…They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative” (Cherry, 2020, para. 11). In such families, children are usually happy, more independent, successful, and have good self-esteem, communication skills, and better mental health.
The Features of Permissive Parenting
Permissive parenting is characterized by low demandingness and high responsiveness, meaning that parents are always nurturing and warm, and reluctant to establish rules. In such families, children are not used to hearing the denial of their requests as their parents are afraid to hurt them. Baumrind says that the followers of this style “are more responsive than they are demanding. They are non-traditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation” (as cited in Cherry, 2020, para. 14). Typically, these parents become friends with their children, forgetting that their basic duty is to teach the young generation the principal rules of life. The kids in such families tend to have behavior and emotional problems and show worse performance in studying as they cannot follow rules, have little self-control, and have poor social skills.
The Features of Uninvolved Parenting
Uninvolved parenting is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness, meaning that children have little emotional support and no rules. Such parents are neglectful of their children’s needs and desires. This situation can occur in families with parents having alcohol or drug abuse, or those who have been neglected in their childhood. Kids in such households are usually more impulsive, have low self-esteem and poor communication skills, and tend to have serious mental or behavioral problems in their future life, including criminal issues. The uninvolved or neglectful parenting style is considered to be the worst as it can lead to serious problems in adulthood.
The Parenting Styles’ Influence on Individual’s Future Life
The Reasons Parenting Styles Influence
There have been numerous debates and research about the influence of each parental style on the future life of the person. The family context is regarded as essential because it helps to establish the link between childhood and the relationships of a person with their parents with future behavior and performance. For example, the research, held in 2019 in Spain and Portugal, has shown that this context “continues to play a fundamental role in young peoples’ development, even during the third decade of their lives” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 35). A study has shown that the most widespread parenting style is authoritarian, “being twice as common as the authoritative one” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 37). The family context remains meaningful during the whole life of the person as it is the background serving as a basis for all the future intentions. The atmosphere, in which an individual is being raised, has an impact on their future behavior, attitudes, academic and career achievements, and even health and mental problems.
The Impact on Behavior
Numerous studies showed the correlation of parenting styles with future behavior. According to the research held in 2018, “children of authoritarian parents demonstrated more negative (i.e., hyperactivity, conduct problems, emotional symptoms) and less positive (i.e., prosocial behavior) child outcomes compared to children whose parents belonged to another parenting style” (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018, p. 175). The study has demonstrated that the authoritarian ways of parenting lead to the poorest future behavior. The findings of the research have also proved that even children with neglectful parents had fewer problems than those from authoritarian families. Meanwhile, those with authoritative mothers and fathers showed the lowest levels of conduct problems. These results prove that there is a strong connection between the way of upbringing and future behavior patterns.
Parenting style has also been found influential for a future level of the individual’s independence. For example, one research has demonstrated that children in authoritative families “reported the lowest expectation for behavioral autonomy” (Bi et al., 2018, p. 10). This result may be explained by the fact they have already achieved a good level of independence due to their positive relations with their parents, who set a goal of socialization by respecting their children’s needs. In contrast to this style, adolescents from families with an authoritarian way of upbringing tend to seek more autonomy because it is not available to them due to strict control over their lives. Permissive and neglectful parents do not set rules, and children in these families tend to “experience high levels of independence before they can manage it themselves” (Bi et al., 2018, p. 10). This study proved that the behavior and, in particular, the level of independence directly depends on the parenting style, and the authoritative style showed the best results.
The Impact on Academic Achievements and Career
There are numerous types of research, proving that parenting styles influence the future academic achievements and career of the individual. For example, one of the studies examined 310 students and found “a positive and significant relationship between the firm and reassuring parenting style”, while the authoritarian way proved “a negative relationship with educational success and career path” (Zahedani, 2016, p. 132). The research has shown that parental involvement and support are key components for better achievements. It has also been found that successful students had parents with firm styles and those with authoritative methods of upbringing “had the least scores” (Zahedani, 2016, p. 133). Another study has found that parental involvement is also a critical factor influencing self-efficacy and self-discipline in the process of learning among adolescents (Theresya et al., 2018). According to this research, the permissive parenting style “has a significant negative effect on academic achievement”, while the authoritative one proved to have a positive impact on the children’s success (Theresya et al., 2018, p. 36). All of these studies demonstrate that the way of upbringing has a serious impact on the academic achievements and future success of grown-up children.
Moreover, the results of numerous types of research have shown that there is a strong correlation between the way of upbringing and future career achievements. For example, one of the studies has found that a firm parenting style leads to positive career development (Zahedani, 2016). The study proves the right interaction can be beneficial for the future career of an individual. According to another research, the authoritarian parenting style is also found to be the most useful due to the high level of parental control, encouraging children to be resilient and prepared for life challenges (Preston & Salim, 2019). Another research, held in 2018, highlighted that the achievements of grown-up children depend on the activities, which their parents chose for them (Viola & Daniel, 2018). According to this criterion, authoritative mothers and fathers have a positive influence on their children’s career development as they allow them to participate in numerous activities, motivating them to become more explorative and self-reliant. All of these studies prove that there is a strong impact of parenting styles on the future career achievements of children.
The Impact on the Psychological State
Numerous studies, held in different European countries, established finding the link between parenting styles and the mental state of grown-up children as their priority. For example, the research, conducted in Spain and Portugal, proved that there is a strong connection between these two notions. According to the results of their study, “the authoritative and permissive styles are those most closely associated with high levels of wellbeing, while children who perceive their parents as neglectful and authoritarian scored lowest in this variable” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 39). Another research has found that “there is a significant relationship between the dimensions (indifference abuse and over-controlling) of parenting style of mother and the dimensions (stress, anxiety, and depression) of mental health” (Jahan & Suri, 2016, p. 3). These outcomes highlight that warm relationships between parents and their children lead to a more stable psychological state in the future, decreasing the chances of such serious mental conditions as depression and anxiety.
However, other studies provide information that parenting styles are not the only key reason for the appearance of mental health problems in adulthood. According to one of the studies, such factors as poverty level and bullying have a more serious contribution to the problem (Rezvan & D’Souza, 2017). The research proves that there is a correlation between parenting styles and the risks of future mental issues; however, there are other reasons which may appear to be more relevant from this perspective.
The Role of Gender
There have been numerous debates and studies, concerning the influence of parenting styles on children of different genders, trying to understand who is more susceptible to this impact, boys or girls. According to the research held in Spain and Portugal, there are many similarities in the level of distress among males and females. The authoritarian type was found to be the most damaging to both genders, while “the permissive and authoritative styles were most closely related to wellbeing” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 44). On the contrary, the research held in China showed that “the relationships between parenting styles and cohesion were stronger for girls” (Bi et al., 2018, p. 11). According to the results of the study, it is connected with the fact that females are usually more sensitive and emotional. However, it also highlighted numerous similarities between the reactions of boys and girls, making the conclusion that parenting styles influence both genders.
Conclusion
Parenting style is an important concept, referring to the way parents treat their children. There are four major types: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful. There have been many types of research aimed at proving the influence of the atmosphere at home on various aspects of the future development of the child. Most of the studies have shown that the authoritative way of raising the young generation is the most beneficial. Kids in such families tend to have higher levels of self-esteem and independence, show better academic performance, demonstrate better social skills and good behavior, and have fewer chances to acquire such serious health conditions as depression and anxiety. On the contrary, multiple studies prove that the authoritarian style has more disadvantages as it makes children dependent on their parents due to a lower level of autonomy, and leads to behavior and mental problems in adulthood. In many aspects, this style is considered to be even worse than the neglectful type, which implies that parents do not take care of their children.
The studies have shown that each of the existing parenting styles, even the neglectful one, which is regarded to be the worst type due to the total ignorance of children’s needs, has its advantages and negative consequences. All of the studied works prove that the approach to parenting has a huge impact on the future life of children, including their behavior, relations with other people, achievements, and physical and mental health. A good parent needs to be considerate about their decisions when raising children and understand that all their actions influence their kids, determining their success and failures in adulthood.
Preston, M., & Salim, R.M.A. (2019). Parenting style, proactive personality, and career decision self-efficacy among senior high school students. Humanitas Indonesian Psychological Journal, 16(2), 116-128.
Rezvan, A., & D’Souza, L. (2017). Influence of parenting styles on the mental health of adolescents. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 6(4), 667-673.
Viola, M., & Daniel, N. (2018). Influence of parenting styles on career development of youths with intellectual disabilities in selected skills training institutions in Zambia. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 5(12), 69-77.
Zahedani, Z.Z., Rezaee, R., Yazdani, Z., Bagheri, S., & Nabeiei, P. (2016). The influence of parenting style on academic achievement and career path. Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism, 4(3), 130-134.
In traditional eastern cultures, adulthood is more clear and prestigious than in the US. The present paper aims at comparing how the principles of emerging adulthood are applied to the traditional culture of India and the modern US culture. India is the second-most populous country in the world, with a population of over 1.3 billion people (Satpathy, 2015). It is home to one of the world’s oldest religions that are based on the Sanskrit scripts (Satpathy, 2015).
India still has the caste system, which is one of the world’s oldest social stratifications, and family is of extreme importance to society (Satpathy, 2015). India is situated in Asia near China, Thailand, and Pakistan. The country is formally a democracy; however, the folk and tribal traditions have remained consistently vibrant (Satpathy, 2015). The US culture does not have such a long history; therefore, the influence of traditional customs is weak (Mitra & Arnett, 2019). The culture supports democracy, and the dominating religion is Christianity. There are significant differences between the two cultures and their understanding of adulthood.
These differences come from various career and educational opportunities and core values of the two cultures. For instance, the majority of jobs in India are low-skilled and low-payed, while in the US, most of the jobs require education after high school (Satpathy, 2015). At the same time, the problem of gender inequality is central in India, while the women’s movement in the US has provided better education and career opportunities for females (Arnett & Jensen, 2019). Moreover, the US culture values individualism, and family is of decreased importance, while the traditional Indian culture is more collectivistic, and family plays a central part in people’s lives (Mitra & Arnett, 2019). The differences described above influence the period of emerging adulthood in these two cultures.
The theory of emerging adulthood states that there is a new life stage between adolescence and adulthood. This stage appeared due to four changes, including the economic revolution, the sexual revolution, the women’s movement, and the youth’s movement (Arnett & Jensen, 2019). However, these changes did not have full force in traditional Indian culture. Women in India are still deprived of career and education opportunities, and their priority is to find a good husband.
The sexual revolution is not as open as in the US, and adulthood is still a privileged class, unlike in the US. Finally, the economy has not moved to the knowledge economy, and people do not have to receive education to earn their living. Therefore, the principles of emerging adulthood cannot be applied in full force, as they can be used to describe the transition to adulthood in the mainstream US culture.
References
Arnett, J. J., & Jensen, L. A. (2019). Human development: A cultural approach (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Mitra, D., & Arnett, J. (2019). Life choices of emerging adults in India. Emerging Adulthood, 216769681985189. Web.
Satpathy, B. (2015). Indian culture and heritage. Web.