Category: Adulthood

Emerging adulthood: a universal experience? The essay should review and critique the impact of sociocultural factors on developmental trajectories and outcomes in early adulthood. Reviewing the available literature, consider the degree to which one’s cultural context and social supports impact the transition to adulthood.

The question focused on within this essay is whether the transition into adulthood is a universal experience with reference to one’s cultural context and social supports impact the transition. It appears that transitioning to adulthood is a result of both Western culture and our present (Arnett, 2000). Individuals in developed nations are living longer, enabling the opportunity to take an additional decade to begin a profession and family. Changes in the workforce additionally act as a factor. For instance, 50 years prior, a young adult with a secondary school certificate could quickly enter the workforce and climb the company’s pecking order. That is not true anymore. Bachelor’s and even graduate Degrees are required increasingly more regularly — even for entry-level employment (Arnett, 2000). Furthermore, numerous students are taking longer (five or six years) to finish a higher education because of working and going to class in the meantime. After graduation, numerous young adults come back to the family home since they experience issues getting a new line of work. Changing social desires might be the most vital explanation behind the postponement of entering grown-up jobs. Young people are investing more energy investigating their alternatives, so they are postponing marriage and work as they change majors and employments on numerous occasions, putting them on a lot later timetable than their parents and past generations (Arnett, 2000).

Research recommends that the progress to adulthood now ordinarily takes longer than in earlier decades. More noteworthy, access to post-secondary education and a more extensive scope of chances have significantly expanded an individual’s alternatives, and expectations about the steps an individual should take subsequent to completing secondary school or college are not as obvious. After secondary school, for instance, an individual may enter a specialized school or training school, a bachelor’s degree, or enter the workforce. An individual may get a four-year college education and after that choose to proceed in school to get a graduate degree or even a doctorate. Before, the way a young adult took after secondary school was regularly predetermined by family and gender expectations, just as one’s financial status, however, this is less frequently the case today.

Higher education can be seen as a pointer to the manners in which societal expectations for young adults have changed in recent history. Research demonstrates that in 1940, just about 14% of young adults went to school subsequent to finishing secondary school. By the mid-1990s, over 60% of young adults sought higher education after secondary school. Continuing further with education is accepted by numerous studies to have a hugely positive effect on a person’s development and future decisions. (2019;https://www.cso.ie/en/census/census2016reports/powscar/) In Ireland, significance is frequently put on one’s ability to acquire full-time employment, become financially responsible, maintain an independent household, and support a family. Societal expectations can abandon some young adults feeling forced to make lifelong choices before they are prepared. Thus, some young adults may confront nervousness and experience troublesome musings about their future. For instance, social standards may lead numerous young people to trust that their objective ought to be marriage and a family, yet some may discover, as they change from young adults to grown-ups, that they prefer to remain single, unmarried, or without kids.

When does a person become an adult? There are many ways to answer this question. In Ireland, you are legally considered an adult at 18 years old. But other definitions of adulthood vary widely; in sociology, for example, a person may be considered an adult when she becomes self-supporting, chooses a career, gets married, or starts a family. The ages at which we achieve these milestones vary from person to person as well as from culture to culture. For example, in the African country of Malawi, 15-year-old Njemile was married at 14 years old and had her first child at 15 years old. In her culture, she is considered an adult at the onset of menstruation. This signifies the beginning of adulthood in such cultures. Children in Malawi take on adult responsibilities such as marriage and work (e.g., carrying water, tending babies, and working fields) as early as 10 years old. In stark contrast, independence in Western cultures is taking longer and longer, effectively delaying the onset of adult life.

A longitudinal report by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that a young adult’s cerebrum isn’t completely developed until around 25 years old. It was found that most critical changes after adolescence happen in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum — the area engaged with emotional control and higher-order cognitive functioning. While the limbic system — frequently connected with emotions, motivation, and behavior — experiences significant changes amid pubescence, the prefrontal cortex continues developing for about an additional 10 years. This section of the brain influences how an individual controls motivations and grows long-haul procedures. Along these lines, it might be useful when an individual endeavor to address the inquiry, ‘What am I going to do with my life?’

As we age, our bodies change in physical ways. One can anticipate that an assortment of changes should occur through the early-and center grown-up years. Every individual encounter age-related changes dependent on numerous elements: natural factors, for example, molecular and cellular changes are called primary aging, while at the same time aging that happens because of controllable variables, for example, lack of physical exercise and an inadequate diet, is called secondary aging. When we achieve early adulthood, our physical development is finished, in spite of the fact that our height and weight may increase somewhat. In early adulthood, our physical capacities are at their prime, including muscle quality, response time, sensory capacities, and cardiovascular function. Most expert athletes are at the highest point of their abilities during this stage, and numerous women will have children in these early-adulthood years.

The aging procedure, in spite of the fact that not obvious, starts amid early adulthood. Around the age of 30, numerous progressions start to happen in various pieces of the body. For instance, the lens of the eye begins to solidify and thicken, bringing about changes in vision (normally influencing the capacity to concentrate on close articles). Sensitivity to sound declines; this happens twice as fast for men with respect to women. Hair can begin to thin and begin to grey around the age of 35, despite the fact that this may happen prior to certain people and later for other people. The skin ends up drier and wrinkles begin to show up before the end of early adulthood. The immune system turns out to be less effective at fending off illness, and reproductive capacity starts to decline.

Since we spend such a large number of years in adulthood (more than any other stage), psychological changes are various during this period. Truth be told, examine recommends that grown-up subjective improvement is a complex, regularly changing procedure that might be considerably more dynamic than psychological advancement in the earliest stages and early adolescence (Fischer, Yan, and Stewart, 2003).

In contrast to our physical capacities, which peak in our mid-20s and after that start a moderate decrease, our intellectual capacities remain generally enduring all through young and middle adulthood. Research has discovered that adults who take part in intellectually and physically invigorating exercises experience a less cognitive decrease in later adult years and have a diminished occurrence of gentle psychological weakness and dementia (Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, and Lindenberger, 2009; Larson et al., 2006; Podewils et al., 2005).

Amid early adulthood, cognition starts to balance out, reaching a plateau around the age of 35. Early adulthood is a period of relativistic reasoning, in which young adults start to end up mindful of more than oversimplified perspectives on right versus wrong. They start to look at thoughts and ideas from various points and comprehend that an inquiry can have more than one right (or wrong) answer. The requirement for specialization results in pragmatic-minded reasoning — utilizing rationale to take care of genuine issues while accepting contradiction, imperfection, and different issues. At long last, young adults build up a kind of ability in either education or career, which further upgrades critical thinking aptitudes and the limit with regards to creativity.

Recent studies from culturally diverse research have given occasion to feel qualms about the all-inclusiveness of fundamental psychological procedures. An assortment of studies has exhibited that how individuals see their social condition relies upon their social background (Chiu, Morris, Hong, and Menon, 2000), and the manners in which people assess and regulate themselves may mirror their history of cultural learning (Lee, Aaker, and Gardner, 2000). Such discoveries have significant implications for cognitive research to inquire about further. A few researchers have addressed whether evidently basic psychological principles that are very much shown in North America (Higgins and Kruglanski, 1996) could be summed up to different cultures (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, and Nisbett, 1998). Others have created pan-cultural conceptual tools, (such as individualism-collectivism, independence-interdependence, and analytic versus holistic thinking style) to represent cultural varieties in essential social psychological procedures (Peng and Nisbett, 1999).

Whether or not culture would impact cognitions in a particular social situation depends on whether the relevant shared assumptions are available, accessible, salient, and applicable in the situation. Thus, the influences of culture on cognition are dynamic and mediated by the basic principles of social cognition.

In addition to the dimensions of positive and negative emotion, some researchers have found the existence of a factor that they have interpreted as an interpersonal dimension (e.g., Kitayama, Markus, & Kurokawa, 2000). Emotions such as guilt, indebtedness to another, respect, and friendly feelings, form one end of the interpersonal dimension, whereas emotions such as pride and being on top of the world characterize the other end of the interpersonal dimension. Kuppens et al. (2006) also provided tentative support for an interpersonal component of emotions in a cross-national dataset of college students. This component consists of the negative emotions of guilt and shame. However, gratitude was also found to be associated (albeit weakly) with this dimension. The existence of additional factors such as the interpersonal one does not necessarily pose a problem for cross-cultural comparisons if researchers compare groups on emotions from factors that have been replicated across cultures such as positive-negative. The extent to which emotions are perceived and experienced as interpersonal events may vary according to cultural dimensions such as individualism-collectivism (Hofstede, 2001). Using a qualitative approach, Mesquita (2001) compared emotions among Dutch, Surinamese, and Turkish respondents. She found that emotions were more individual events for the Dutch respondents who were more individualistic. By contrast, emotions were more social events for the Surinamese and Turkish participants who were more collectivistic. In an approach that directly tested lay theories of emotion, Uchida, Townsend, Markus, and Bergsieker (2009) found that the Japanese respondent’s emotions often implicated others, whereas the American participant’s emotions primarily implicated only the self, consistent with Mesquita’s findings.

In a series of studies examining cultural perceptions of emotion, Masuda, Ellsworth, Mesquita, Leu, Tanida, & van de Veerdonk (2008) found that interpretations of another person’s emotional expression were dependent on the context of the situation for Japanese participants, whereas, for Americans, interpretations of a target’s emotions were based almost exclusively on the target’s face alone. More specifically, when Japanese participants evaluated a happy face in a crowd of happy faces, they interpreted it to be happier than if the happy face were in a crowd of neutral or sad faces. By contrast, Americans tend to interpret a happy face in the same way regardless of the surrounding faces. Similarly, when Indian and American participants were asked to identify which of three emotions (anger, happiness, and shame) was distinct from the other two (Rozin, 2003), Americans tended to select happiness because it was the only positive emotion. In contrast, Indians were more likely than Americans to select anger because it was less socially constructive than the other two. In short, emotions are more contextually and socially situated among Easterners than among Westerners

Cultural priorities appear to affect values with regard to specific emotions. For example, Asian values are often described as collectivistic, interdependent, or self-accommodating (Rothbaum, Pott, Azuma, Miyake, & Weisz, 2000); and place a high priority on relationship harmony and respect for authority-discourage anger expression and value shame (Kitayama & Markus, 1995).

In the United States, greater emphasis is placed on the development of individuality, autonomy, and self-expression in children than in Asian societies and other Western societies (Harkness, Super, & van Tijen, 2000). American society tolerates anger in the interest of self-assertion and protection of individual rights and freedoms, provided it is expressed in socially acceptable ways (Stearns & Stearns, 1986). Shame, on the other hand, is often seen by Americans as harmful to children’s self-esteem (e.g., Ferguson, Stegge, Miller, & Olsen, 1999). Thus, because the developmental niches of Asian children include values and practices aimed at relationship harmony and respect for authority, it follows that Asian children should develop a culturally specific sense that one must not communicate anger or act angrily. On the other hand, U.S. children, who develop in a cultural setting that values self-expression, self-esteem, and self-assertion, should believe that shame is undesirable and that anger can be used to defend oneself.

There are numerous speculations about the social and emotional aspects of aging. A few parts of sound maturing incorporate exercises, social connectedness, and the job of an individual’s way of life. As per numerous researchers, including George Vaillant (2002), who contemplated and broke down more than 50 years of information, we need and keep on discovering importance for the duration of our lives. For those right in the center of adulthood, which means is frequently found through work (Sterns and Huyck, 2001) and family life (Markus, Ryff, Curan, and Palmersheim, 2004). These regions identify with the assignments that Erik Erikson alluded to intimacy vs. isolation. Along with that, positive associations with others in our adult years have been found to add to prosperity (Ryff and Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States recognize themselves through their associations with family — especially with life partners, kids, and parents (Markus et al., 2004). While bringing up children can be unpleasant, particularly when they are young, research recommends that parents receive the benefits in the future, as fully grown kids will in general positively affect parental well-being (Umberson, Pudrovska, and Reczek, 2010). Having stable personal connections has additionally been found to add to well-being all through adulthood (Vaillant & Mukamal, 2001).

As individuals transition to adulthood, romantic relationships become more common and important (Arnett 2015a). In other words, friends and/or intimate partner support begins to usurp the function of family support as individuals transition to adulthood (Tanner 2011). During young adulthood, social support from family members is less effective than support from friends at reducing psychosocial distress (Segrin 2003). Despite this evidence, research also has demonstrated that parental and family support remains critical in promoting young adults’ adjustment and well-being, including social or interpersonal relationships (Lee et al. 2015; Mounts et al. 2006). Although these findings may seem contradictory, this is not necessarily the case. Family support may retain value during young adulthood (Arnett 2015b), but when compared directly with the support from friends and romantic partners (with whom the youth are likely to spend the most time, and with whom youth may prefer to self-disclose and/or consult about life choices and decision) (Collins and van Dulmen 2006), its relative salience may not be as high during this time of relationship transition (De Goede et al. 2009; Tanner 2011).

Borrowing from the writings of Robert Hinde (e.g., 1976, 1979, 1987, 1995), these levels comprise within-individual, within-interaction, within-relationship, and within-group factors. According to Hinde, events and processes at each ‘level’ are constrained and influenced by circumstances and processes at other levels. Thus, individual children carry with them somewhat stable, biologically determined factors, such as temperaments that dispose them to be more or less aroused physiologically and emotionally to social stimuli or that facilitate or inhibit social approach orientations and emotional expression. Relationships are influenced by memories of previous interactions and by expectations of anticipated, future interactions. Indeed, these memories and expectations may serve to move either of the individuals to avoid (reject), neglect, or approach the other in positive, neutral, or hostile manners. Thus, relationships not only have a cognitive component but also are defined by the predominant emotions that participants typically experience within them (e.g., affection, love, attachment, and enmity). Once formed, relationships become part and parcel of a system of relationships that comprise the individual’s social circle. Thus, individual relationships are embedded within groups, or networks of relationships with more or less clearly defined boundaries (e.g., cliques, teams, or school classes). As the highest level of social complexity, groups are defined by their constituent relationships and, in this sense, by the types and diversity of interactions that are characteristic of the participants in those relationships. It is important to recognize, however, that each of these social levels falls under the all-reaching umbrella of the cultural microsystem (e.g., Bronfenbrenner & Crouter, 1983). Cultural beliefs and norms help interpret the acceptability of individual characteristics and the types and ranges of interactions and relationships that are likely or permissible.

As can be clearly seen from the evidence discussed, transitioning to adulthood is far from a universal experience across cultures and nations of a range of different philosophies. It is a complex and difficult situation, which we must all eventually go through. Along with this, one’s social supports seem to have a dramatic impact on the transition to adulthood and how this can either help or hinder one’s development throughout this stage of life, especially one’s acceptance within their social group. This phase is when the most rapid development in each aspect happens and as such, there is much diversity in how one evolves, and is a very personal process that is almost never the same as another person.

This study evaluates the impacts, factors, and physiological changes from Adolescence to Adulthood. Based on moral, emotional, and psychological theories in adolescence, this study emphasizes the behavioral mechanism of adolescents morally and Emotionally along with the advantages and disadvantages of theories. Using Erick’s theory, the stages of Adulthood that is mid-Adulthood, Young Adulthood, and old age, have been discussed along with the suggestion of Erick’s theory. Furthermore, the crucial role of relationships has been studied with the association of stages of Adulthood.

Adolescence to Adulthood

It is the duration of adolescence in which the transition occurs from childhood to adulthood occurs. Adolescents go through many transformations (physical, knowledge, personality, and social changes) (Donnellan et al., 2012). Teenage years begin with the onset of menarche, which occurs sooner than in the past. However, social and emotional variables might make the end of adolescence uncertain.

Structural changes of the brain during adolescence

Adolescence is a time when the adolescent brain undergoes tremendous growth and development. This procedure involves ‘pruning’ your child’s grey matter, which is where thinking and processing take place, to remove any nonessential connections. In addition, other relationships are reinforced (Donnellan, et.al., 2012). Use it or lose it! This is the brain’s technique of being more efficient based on the ‘use it or lose it’ principle. The rear of the brain is where this pruning begins. The prefrontal cortex, located in the front of the brain, undergoes the least amount of remodeling. Because of this, The Amygdala, corpus callosum, and prefrontal cortex have undergone the most significant alterations (Donnellan et al., 2012). During adolescence, the corpus callosum thickens, resulting in longer reaction times. Emotions and moods are regulated by the amygdala, which grows as well.

Adulthood sees an increase in prefrontal cortex myelination and synaptic pruning, which enhances information processing and strengthens connections to other brain regions. It will take time, and the growth will be erratic.

Structural changes in the brain affect the view of individuals

It has been observed that thought, perceptions, memory, and judgment reside in the brain’s frontal lobes. As far as body sensations and touch are concerned, the parietal lobe is the essential part of the brain. Hearing and language are the primary functions of the temporal lobe (Dishion et al., 2012). Vision is the primary function of the occipital lobe. The human brain has evolved to include more advanced capabilities such as improved memory, enhanced social connections, and the sense of feeling emotions. The cerebral cortex, shown in figure 01, which is a large and well-developed outer layer of the brain, gives humans an advantage over other animals.

Hence, the anatomy of the human brain evaluates that structural changes in the brain play a critical functional role in the physiological changes of adolescence or any other life stage (Dishion et al., 2012). Hence, the brain’s frontal lobe is central to developing personality traits, making decisions, and moving.

Brain Chemistry of Adolescence

The Neurotransmitters serotonin and Dopamine have been altered in adolescents, making them more prone to emotional responses to rewards and stress.

Reduction in baseline dopamine levels during adolescence

Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that makes you feel pleased. When our brains are overflowing with dopamine, we are more content. Unfortunately, dopamine receptors increase during adolescence, and adults don’t feel the same rush when they engage in the same activity (Sinclair et al., 2014). In addition, dopamine is linked to feelings of pleasure and the ability to adapt to the surroundings when deciding. Figure 2 shows the Expansion of dopamine throughout adolescence.

Dopamine levels may be lower during adolescence, but the discharge is more intense, which could lead to a desire for dopamine-inducing experiences like skateboarding behind one moving vehicle (Sinclair et al., 2014). Dopamine levels inside the limbic system rise during adolescence, as does dopamine input to the prefrontal cortex. Adolescent risk-taking and boredom may be affected by the increasing dopamine activity in adolescence. Conversely, according to data, prefrontal-guided behaviors may be significantly impacted by a reduced level of cortex dopamine in adolescents. A variety of factors can cause dopamine deficiency.

Psychological Theories of Adolescent

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

According to Kohlberg’s thesis, moral development can be divided into three stages, each with two stages. According to Kohlberg, people go through these stages sequentially, and moral cognition is associated with cognitive development. Preconventional, traditional, and most conventional are the three levels of moral thinking (Zhang and Zhao, 2017). Kohlberg found that the rationale behind a child’s decision was a better indicator of mortality than the actual answer to a set of moral dilemmas.

He utilized Piaget’s narrative method to convey moral dilemmas to his audience members. For example, he intended to make people think about the trade-offs between the rights of an authority figure and the demands of someone mistreated.

Advantages of Kohlberg’s Theory

• He argued that moral reasoning progresses in stages that can be classified as qualitative or quantitative. They must be completed in order, with no breaks or omissions.
• It’s an attractive description of how Kohlberg’s moral development theory explains how Piaget’s stage of thought processing or logical reasoning explains the advancement of higher levels of our moral reasoning (Zhang, and Zhao, 2017).
• A child’s unique personality and the influences of their surroundings, particularly the cultural and social context, interact to shape the development of a child’s moral reasoning.

Disadvantages of Kohlberg’s Theory

• In terms of the evolution of moral reasoning or moral development, Kohlberg’s theory is unable to provide an adequate explanation.
• At several stages of human development, Kohlberg examined the moral reasoning and mental processes of Westerners (Zhang and Zhao, 2017).
• The moral development of females is not adequate.
• Kohlberg`s theory would still fall short of explaining every moral difficulty.

Erik Erikson`s Stages of Social-Emotional Development

An examination of the emotional and social development of children and teenagers, which continues well into adulthood, is presented in this theoretical analysis. Erik Erikson, a psychiatrist, was the first to offer his Eight Steps of Development hypothesis, which was first proposed in 1956 (McAdams and Zapata-Gietl, 2015). As Erik describes it, ‘socialization’ is an educational endeavor in which the human organism is directed from its infant state of helplessness and extreme egocentricity to its ideal grown-up state of conscious compliance and independent creativity.

Advantages of Erik Erikson`s Theory

• Using this approach, researchers can examine the lifespan in a more comprehensive and integrated manner.
• Insight into the path to a healthy and good life span is provided by the theory.
• One way to think about individual variations is to look at the concept of psychological crises in their upsides and downsides (McAdams and Zapata-Gietl, 2015).
• Longitudinal studies back up the theory’s predictions about how development will proceed.

Disadvantages of Erik Erikson`s Theory

• Additional details are required on the processes of resolution of conflicts and the steps involved in progressing through them.
• Whether there are a predetermined number of life stages and how they relate to a person’s unique genetic makeup is up for argument (McAdams and Zapata-Gietl, 2015).
• There has been a male-centric, Eurocentric perspective dominating the idea, which places far too much emphasis on individualism and not enough on connections and social relatedness.
• Cultural influences on child development aren’t fully explained here.

Stages of Adulthood

Early Adulthood (years 22-34), Early Midlife (ages 35-44), Middle To late Age (ages 45-64), and Late Adulthood are the four stages of adulthood considered (ages 65 and older).

Psychological crises associated with young adulthood, mid-adulthood, and old age

It is common to have ‘quarter-life crises’ and ‘mid-life crises’ in adolescence and middle age because of the unique problems they present. Between the ages of 18 and 25 and 30, many people experience a ‘quarter-life crisis.’ In many cases, it stems from a person’s inability to find a job after graduating from college or the birth of a child; it can also occur when a person is unable to land a job in their desired sector after graduating (Zhang and Zhao, 2017). Young individuals may be concerned about the future, ponder if they’ve made the right decisions, or speculate on what their future holds.

A person’s midlife crisis can be brought on by a variety of factors, including, but not limited to, difficulties at work, difficulties in a marriage, the maturation and eventual separation of one’s children, or the aging or death of one’s parents. In Erikson’s stage of emerging adulthood vs stagnation, people begin to think about how they can make a difference in this world. People who fail to find their life’s work and contribute to the growth of others through activities like volunteering, coaching, and raising children may have a sense of stagnation if they don’t learn how to do so.

Erikson asserted that the eight phases of psychological development, from birth to adulthood, follow a fixed sequence. At each stage, the person undergoes a psychosocial crisis that has a beneficial or bad impact on their personality development. Psychosocial crises, according to Erikson (1958), are those in which the individual’s psychological requirements clash with the demands of society. After each stage is completed, a healthy temperament and the attainment of fundamental virtues are said to be the end outcome. Characteristic strengths that the ego can draw on to deal with subsequent problems are what we mean by ‘basic virtues.’ Table 1 elaborates on the different stages of adulthood along with crisis by Erikson

Relationships in Middle Adulthood

More than 90% of persons in their mid-twenties had been married and divorced once. A ‘U-curve’ is a common way for married people to characterize their level of satisfaction in their relationship. When it comes to marriage, most people say it’s the first few years that are the happiest. After the financial situation has settled and parental duties have finished, marital contentment rises (McAdams and Zapata-Gietl, 2015). As long as they didn’t intend to wait until after the final child leaves home to divorce, couples that stay together until after the last child goes home are likely to be married for another 20 years at the least.

Relationships in Early Adulthood

Adult relationships and love are inseparable. According to psychologist Robert Sternberg, love is composed of three elements: desire, decision commitment, and closeness. Sensation and excitement (including sexual arousal) are two aspects of passion; decision commitment is the decision to love and sustain a relationship with one’s spouse or significant other (McAdams and Zapata-Gietl, 2015). In a romantic relationship, intimacy refers to the feelings of warmth and closeness shared by both partners, as well as the desire to help the other person, to reveal one’s own vulnerabilities, and to keep the other person in one’s life.

Relationships in older adulthood

Longevity is giving older folks the opportunity to form and keep relationships for longer than at any other point in time in history’s modern period. One in ten persons over 65 does have a child which is at least 65 years old, according to a recent survey. Fostering long-term familial ties may be rewarding and challenging at the same time (Rohde, et.al., 2013). It’s possible that sibling rivalry may fade and be replaced by harmonious relationships as time goes on, but it’s also possible that younger adults will be burdened with the responsibility of caring for their unwell or elderly parents, grandmother, and other family members. Despite this, the majority of young people say they have a positive relationship with their elderly relatives.

Impact of a relationship breakdown among adolescent

Over half of all 15-year-olds have dated at some point in their lives. Many young people seek counseling because of problems in their love relationships, yet the breakdown of a relationship appears to be closely linked to mental health problems and a higher risk of suicide.

Furthermore, adolescence is characterized by a wide range of behavioral and developmental difficulties, including the dispensation of intense emotions and ‘first loves.’ Many studies now show that adolescent romance is not only common, but also has behavioral, emotional, and psychological consequences (Zhang, and Zhao, 2017). Adolescent romance is now well established as a developmental marker for teenagers’ self-identity, functioning, and capacity for closeness.

Bereavement During Adolescence

Children’s grief is frequently found in studies of adults with various mental disorders including depression, suggesting that such loss may trigger or contribute to the development of a wide range of disorders and that this encounter may render an individual emotionally vulnerable for the rest of their lives. Children are particularly vulnerable because of their immaturity in development and their lack of ability to cope with stress.

‘Mourning,’ in the true psychodynamic sense of separating one’s memories and hopes from the deceased, requires that the kid understand death, be capable of creating a genuine attachment link, and have an image of the attachment figure in one’s head (Larsen, and Luna, 2018). However, there is a lot of debate over when children are ready for ‘mourning’ and how likely it is that they will have a healthy ending if they are bereaved before this point in their development. Before the age of three or four, most experts think that children are unable to really experience grief, but by the time they reach puberty, they are able to do so (in contrast to adults, who have to deal with any loss and changes).

Conclusion

As a result of this research and theoretical discoveries from a cognitive standpoint, many unanswered concerns about the transition from adolescence to adulthood have been raised. While still in the developmental stage, it is feasible to match an individual’s abilities and aptitudes with a specialized training program, and the findings of brain structure changes that affect teenage behavior are an important source of information.

Growth is an increase in the size of the body and changes in function and cell structure and development is changes in behavior, structure, and thoughts that result from maturation, learning, and different experiences. Growth and development don’t occur just however it takes many years and individual experiences. In order to be healthy people needs proper growth and development physically, spiritually, psychosocial, and mentally

The age group between the age of 28 days to 1 year is known as infant It is the earliest and new point of the human stage. In this stage, they learn many things and they need help to perform every task as they cannot eat, drink, or walk. In this stage, much physical growth and development occur such as internal organs growing in size, posterior fontanelle closing, and many reflexes such as sucking, Moro, and dancing refluxes are shown by infants. During this period their pupil starts to react to light and during 4 months their vision gets established and at 12 months can recognize their family member. Infant communicates through crying and by the month of 12, they started to say few words and understands many words spoken by others. They also start to change their position and crawl on their hands and knees. During the infant period, they start to move and stand and balance walking. Infants learn many things but require time to separate slowly from objects and show repetitive actions to imitate

Age groups between 2 to 4 years of age are meant to be toddlers. In this age group growth and development slows down and motor skills, speech, and cognitive speed rapidly. Toddlers gain 2 to 5 pounds of weight and their size will increase. In these year toddler start to walk, run and climb and many of them will be able to walk through stairs and start to draw a simple line. In this age group, children are likely to get injuries, they start to eat, and undress independently. From 12 to 24 months, children start to develop an attachment with their close ones and start developing friendships. Different abilities like social expertise incorporate how the child associates with family and peers.

Pre-school age is between the age somewhere in the range of 4 and 5. In this phase, they mostly learn and prepare for school and social companions. They walk properly with a good balance and steady gait, able to skip, jump forward and walk backward. They will in general learn and accomplish more order by rehearsing, they also will be able to distinguish right and wrong. This age begins with Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt in which they develop feelings of self-consciousness and a sense of self-control and independence. They try to concentrate on everything they do and start to understand the concept of time.

School age is the Age between 5 to 13 years. In this age group they have fine and strong motor skills This is the phase of advancement where the kid starts a lot of time receiving and building a lot of tendencies and capacities. There will be vast differences in height, weight, and build among children of these age groups. In this period they additionally set themselves up for taking scholarly duties and concentrating on objective setting and achievement. School-age children start to feel the need for real achievement and feelings of inferiority and if they cannot perform the task set by themselves then feelings of failure arise. In this age group, they learn to print letters and numbers and draw pictures clearly, they also can color properly. They can also get dressed by themselves and tie shoelaces.

Adolescence is the age group from 13 to 18 from this age group changes in puberty occurs, many changes occur in both boys and girls such as skin changes pimples, underarm hair, growth in facial hair, changes in voice, and in girls menstruation starts and breast enlargement occurs. Hormonal changes such as an increase in testosterone in boys and estrogen in girls occur and both the adrenal glands and sex glands get mature. changes in adolescence are more dramatic and greater than in other age groups, rapid increase in height and weight occurs and changes in the different systems also appear such as females’ bone becoming harder and more brittle and in males, muscles grow much faster than in females. In this stage, they want to do their things on their own and want freedom as well as force themselves away from the older folks. In this age group, people start to think more complexly and logically, they start to develop their own views and start making their own plans. During this stage adolescent starts learning by trial and error process., they also get influenced by their peer group and the community. According to Stanley Hall, a renowned American psychologist, individuals under the adolescent stage experience psychological and emotional turmoil, which he refers to as “storm and stress”. This is the stage in which most adolescents get involved in crimes and drugs.

Adulthood starts from the age of 18 years and early adulthood is from 18 to 39 years old and middle adulthood age is from 40 to 64 and late adulthood is after 64 years old. In this stage, fewer physical advancement achievements occur. During early adulthood, the rapid growth has been well and finished, in early adulthood people perform physical activities at their best. Adulthood is fundamentally the stage where individuals are completely considered genuinely, and straightly hold obligations, for example, unique social duties like driving, Voting, marriage, taking part in work, and other different social activities., etc. Early adulthood is also faced with career decisions. The young adult stage would be physically fit they have almost developed good strength and coordination skills as well as their hearing sense, sight, taste, smell, and touch senses will be at their best during young adulthood. In young adulthood women’s bodies become the best to conceive and carry a healthy baby to full term so, choose to give birth to a child and spent their parenthood.

Ageism is one the phase during late adulthood, the body’s system function slowly, and immunity power become low, so many people during this stage suffer from any disease. Many older people seem to be happy and engaged in different activities. Lots of physiological changes occur including atrophy of the brain as well as muscles becoming weak, and decreased sensory and motor function. During late adulthood, their memory power slows down and many of them suffer from dementia. Many of them also get retired and tend to be happy. They will also be the victim of chronic disease and die.

Every stage is part of the journey and is important for the growth and development of human beings. Every human being goes through those stages and ends up with death as it is the process of the world. Starting from infants to late adulthood physical growth, and cognitive, motor, and psychosocial occur in human beings.

The period of late adulthood is summarised to be from around 65 years old and lasts until death (John W. Santrock, 2013, p485). Reaching late adulthood is a stage in which individuals are either, anxious or confident to reach. Erik Erikson (1950) suggests that this mainly depends on whether, at this time, individuals are able to find meaning and satisfaction in life rather than becoming bitter and disillusioned. Additionally, with the concept of ‘late adulthood’ coming into consideration very recently, before the 20th century, people rarely lived to be 65 years of age. This creates a convincing argument that perhaps late adulthood is a period of decline because that is, mentally and physically, the age the human brain and body are expected to function until. However, according to (Santrock, 2013, p511) ‘since 1900, improvements in medicine, nutrition, exercise, and lifestyle have increased our life expectancy an average of 30 additional years’ allowing a larger population of people to live longer and avoid a cognitive decline in their late adulthood.

Although life expectancy had shown improvements of an additional 30 years, the average life expectancy showed no improvement in the UK, from 2015 to 2017, remaining at 79.4 years for males and 83.1 years for females. These gender differences are consistent with health attitudes, lifestyle, habits, occupation, and biological factors. For instance, biological factors such as females being more resistant to infections as ‘the additional X chromosome females have in comparison to men can be associated with more antibodies to fight off diseases’ (Van Jaarsveld et al. (2006). Additionally, there is greater cigarette smoking among men; worldwide, it is estimated that men smoke nearly five times as much as women. Also, men’s lack of care towards their health such as keeping on top of their appointments, regular check-ups, and exercise are reflected in these statistics, indicating that women live up to 3.7 years longer than men, simply because they are involved with their health.

Despite late adulthood being an under-represented area, one attempt at illustrating psychological development was provided by Erik Erikson’s (1968) theory of the human life span. Intimacy versus isolation is one of Erikson’s stages of development which plays part in early adulthood: the ability to care about others without the fear of losing your own identity. Generativity versus self-absorption, presented in middle adulthood: caring for others, and empathy and concern increases. Integrity versus despair is Erikson’s final stage of development which involves individuals reflecting on their past life and either seeing it as a meaningful moment or concluding that one’s life has not been well spent. This then either encourages integrity for those who have positive thoughts about the life they have lived or despair for those who think of their past life as being worthless to them.

One of the most common signs of aging lies within the change in eyesight, as our color vision and depth perception decline with age. For instance, the eyes take longer to adapt when moving from a well-lighted place to semi-darkness. Also, older adults may face difficulties in telling closely related colors apart or whether how far or close, high or low an object is. These are all factors that come with aging in which we may perhaps conclude that late adulthood does reach a period of decline as the human brain stops functioning as effectively as it does in earlier life. Similarly, our hearing, sense of smell, and taste typically decline too. The consequences of these are that one then begins to stop valuing their lives which will negatively impact their health and positivity to aging, resulting in reaching a decline quicker.

In addition, although individuals are able to outperform the average and prove that late adulthood is not necessarily a period of cognitive decline, there are specific conditions that come along with aging that is inescapable, such as Alzheimer’s disease: a progressive, irreversible brain disorder which is characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language and eventually, physical function. This is the most common form of dementia resulting in individuals losing the ability to care for themselves and can cause individuals to become unable to recognize familiar surroundings and people, including family members (McMillan, 2014; Teri, McKenzie, & Coulter, 2016). Additionally, it is estimated that 23 percent of women and 17 percent of men 85 years and older are at risk of developing dementia (Alzheimer’s Association, 2013). Another common condition is arthritis which is inflammation of the joints, causing pain and stiffness in body movement. Conditions like arthritis affect development in late adulthood as this condition can get in the way of individuals performing their daily routines which can then cause harm to one’s positivity in life as they may become more dependent on another individual. Also, another common condition in older adults is osteoporosis: an extensive loss of bone tissue which is more common in women than men. These conditions prove that the human mind and body are built to function adequately to a certain age hence why cognitive decline becomes unavoidable.

Another factor that draws toward late adulthood being a period of decline is the human memory as it changes with age. With the changes in memory comes four different parts: episodic memory, this being the remembrance of autobiographical events being when, where, places, context, and emotions. Semantic memory: general knowledge. Explicit memory is material that an individual can consciously state and implicit memory: is memory without conscious recollection and is automatically performed. Holland and Rabbitt (1991) asked two groups of people to generate as many memories as possible within 10 minutes from three stages of their lives: first, the second period of life, and the third. Group A, which shows the results of older people who live with the same intellectual ability but in their own community presented to remember a lot more in the third part of their life. On the other hand, Group B, which shows the results of older people living in residential homes at the time of taking part in the study, indicated a huge decline in the third part of their life. This suggests that late adulthood could be a period of change rather than decline and demonstrates the importance of the different situations that people are aging in. However, the disadvantage of this study is that it is problematic to use a small group of people to cover such a broad age range, in that, older adults should not be generalized with the same characteristics as one another as individuals have their differences in culture, experience, gender, and many more areas in life which then reflects on the results obtained.

Moreover, it is no surprise that the human mind and body start functioning differently and adapting to situations a lot slower as we age, however, with more individuals living up to an active old age, our image of age is now changing. For instance, although on average a 75-year-old’s joints should be stiffening, people can practice not being average and work towards this. For example, a 75-year-old man or woman might choose to run a marathon. A prime example that people can practice to change the stereotype that as you get into late adulthood, your life completely declines was presented by May Segal, who, ‘despite having retired at the age of 65 years and her heart complications, she began an exercise program that involved climbing the steps at Duke University’s football stadium in Durham, North Carolina’ (John W. Santrock 2016, p510). May turned 100 years of age in 2013 and has continued a regular exercise regimen for 35 years. Evidently, making the correct choices at the later stages of adulthood such as holding a healthy diet, regularly exercising, not smoking and alcohol use, getting enough sleep, and maintaining a healthy stress level showed to help decrease the chances of cognitive decline. Also, the significant impact of healthy relationships, emotional well-being, and having a purpose to live all determine how healthy an individual will live. ‘The whole idea is shifting from promoting gains to balancing losses’ (Freund, Alexander & Ebner, Natalie. (2005).

Cognitive decline in late adulthood can be avoided through positive aging. Individuals deal with aging in many different ways which is why the stereotype of living up to only the age of approximately 65 years and then reaching a decline in life is now showing a turn. An adult who has lived their life completing all, or most of the tasks that he/she desired to complete can go into the stage of late adulthood with positivity. Another factor that has an impact on successful aging is the sense of control people have over their own lives. (Judith Rodin & Ellen Langer 1977, p537) carried out a study in a residential home between two groups, expressing the importance of feeling in control and self-determination as we age. Group 1: addressed with speeches stressing the importance of individual responsibility for their own life and decision-making. Group 2: addressed by the same person, however, this time, the speeches emphasized the responsibility of staff. Eighteen months later, the results were analyzed to show that those who were given more control over their decisions were more alert and a lot happier than those who required a member of staff to satisfy their needs. These results demonstrate how much one’s attitude to take control over their own lives and be less dependent on another individual mentally prepares them to succeed in the challenges of life.

In conclusion, aging is stereotyped for us to believe that late adulthood is a period of cognitive decline in which we then start treating the elderly as inactive, dependent, and unable, and as a result, they begin to act this way. In addition, it is not actually late adulthood which is a stage of cognitive decline but it is in fact the stereotype and society that pressurizes people to believe that as they get older, it is normal for them to ‘hit rock bottom’ and give up on life, and because it is an under-represented are, people feel hopeless to follow this stereotype. Despite there being specific conditions that have a dramatic impact on how someone ages, there are many ways of successful aging which again, proves that late adulthood does not need to be a time of decline. One major impact of late adulthood is created by our social expectations and attitudes, for instance, if older adults are labeled to reach a decline, they are more likely to meet these expectations. (Beckett 2002, p202) once said ‘we should keep in mind that our attitudes to older people are really our attitudes to our future selves’ which proves that our social attitudes towards older people need to show change with the times.

References

1. Alzheimer’s Association (2010). Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer’s Disease & Dementia, 6, 158-194.
2. Carol Holland, Patrick Rabbitt. (1991). Aging memory: Use versus impairment. British Journal of Psychology.
3. Erikson, E.H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: W.W. Norton.
4. Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W.W. Norton.
5. Freund, Alexandra & Ebner, Natalie. (2005). The aging self: Shifting from promoting gains to balancing losses. The adaptive self: Personal continuity and intentional self-development. 185-202.
6. Gender Empowerment and Female-to-male Smoking Prevalence Ratios. Available: https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/89/3/10-079905/en/. Last accessed 20th March 2019.
7. Gerry Dukes (2002). Samuel Beckett. United States: Harry N Abrams. 202.
8. Jaarsveld, E. J., Swanepoel, W., & Wyk, A. E. (2006). Asphodelaceae. Bothalia, 36(1).
9. Santrock, J. W. (2013). Essentials of Life-span development (3rd ed.). International edition: McGraw-Hill. 485.
10. Santrock, J. W. (2016). Life-span development (16th ed.). International edition: McGraw-Hill. 510-511.
11. Judith Rodin & Ellen Langer (1977). Life-Span Development (16th ed.). International edition: McGraw-Hill. 537.
12. Life expectancy at birth in the UK from 2000 to 2017, by gender. Available: https://www.statista.com/statistics/281671/life-expectancy-united-kingdom-uk-by-gender/. Last accessed 19th March 2019.
13. McMillan, C.T., & others (2014). The power of neuroimaging biomarkers for screening frontotemporal dementia. Human Brain Mapping, 35, 4827-4840.

Physical changes

To start with, we should take a gander at the physical changes that happen during adulthood. In light of the emotional and physical improvements that occur prior, it might appear that less consideration is put on physical advancement in the grown-up years. Allow’s to find out if this supposition that is valid as we take a gander at three principal stages of physical advancement in adulthood: early adulthood, center adulthood, and late adulthood.

Early adulthood happens generally between the ages of 20 to 35. In early adulthood, an individual may keep on including a touch of stature and weight. Hormonal changes likewise keep on happening, however, the impacts are less articulated than they were during immaturity. Regarding physical improvement, this period is the least sensational.

Center adulthood happens generally between the ages of 35 and 65. In center adulthood, we may begin to see increasingly perceptible changes once more. Since we begin to see and feel the physical changes in our bodies, we may start to consider our physical advancement again. One of the most recognizable changes is the loss of skin versatility. Have you seen what number of various enemies of maturing creams there are accessible? Scarcely discernible differences and wrinkles that start to create because of the loss of skin versatility have certainly gotten some consideration!

Have you known about any new eating regimen supplements that assist you with getting fitter? The weight gain related to getting more established has increased some consideration also. An individual will likewise begin to lose quality and adaptability. Diminishing of the hair can likewise happen, and the hair that hasn’t diminished may begin to turn dark. In center adulthood, ladies will likewise experience a procedure called menopause and lose the capacity to duplicate.

Sooner or later around the age of 65, we enter the universe generally adulthood. Indeed, we will access senior limits, however, the physical changes occurring in our bodies are a more negative outcome! Increasingly significant negative impacts of maturing will start to negatively affect our bodies. This is the last phase of physical change. Those wrinkles will turn out to be increasingly observable and you may begin to create darker age spots on your skin. Your response time starts to slow, and regardless of whether you have not required glasses previously, your falling apart vision will in all probability cause you to require them now.

There are two primary physical concerns related to grown-up physical advancement that may get apparent in late adulthood. First is the loss of bone mass and the second is the loss of subjective capacity. Other physical concerns may likewise happen, for example, joint inflammation, coronary illness, diabetes, and lack of healthy sustenance because of a failure to ingest nutrients and supplements. While age-related changes can’t totally be halted, the indications can frequently be dealt with appropriate eating routine, exercise, and clinical consideration.

Psychological changes

Psychosocial changes. Linked to the hormonal and neurodevelopmental changes that are happening are psychosocial and emotional changes and increasing cognitive and intellectual capacities. Over the course of the second decade, adolescents develop stronger reasoning skills, and logical and moral thinking, and become more capable of abstract thinking and making rational judgments. Also, they’re more ready to take other people’s perspectives into consideration and sometimes want to try to do something about the social issues that they encounter in their lives.

At the equivalent time, adolescents are developing and consolidating their sense of self. With this increasing self-identity, including their development of sexual identity, comes growing concern about other people’s opinions, particularly those of their peers.

Also, adolescents want greater independence and responsibility. They increasingly want to say more autonomy over their decisions, emotions, and actions and to disengage from parental control.26 27 Their social and cultural environment importantly affects how adolescents express this desire for autonomy.

Younger adolescents could also be particularly vulnerable when their capacities are still developing and at an equivalent time they start to maneuver outside the confines of their families and begin taking independent decisions—ranging from who they spend time with to what food they eat

Changes within the external environment. Changes happening within the adolescent’s environment both affect and are suffering from the interior changes of adolescence. These external influences, which differ among cultures and societies, include social values and norms and therefore the changing roles, responsibilities, relationships, and expectations of this era of life (see Section 5). These changes affect adolescents in their immediate environment of family, school, and community but reflect a variety of wider societal changes, including increasing urbanization, globalization, and access to digital media and social networks.

While adolescents experience similar biological, cognitive, and psychosocial developmental processes, the timing and influence of those processes depend upon both individual characteristics and therefore the environments during which they live, learn, play, and work.

From multiple points of view youthful advancement drives the adjustments in the sickness trouble between adolescence to adulthood—for instance, the expansion with age in sexual and regenerative medical issues, psychological maladjustment, and wounds.

Young people’s neurodevelopmental changes and advancing limits influence how they see hazards, how they follow up on correspondence about hazardous practices, how they consider the present and the future, and what impacts their thoughts and activities.

The progressions during pubescence influence the occurrence and clinical indications of various ailments. These incorporate polycystic ovarian disorder, dietary issues, sadness, epilepsy, type 1 diabetes, and other immune system illnesses. Simultaneously, while the progressions during pubescence may affect ceaseless diseases, constant conditions thusly impact juvenile development.30 Furthermore, the formative procedures occurring influence both the causes and the reactions to incapacity during the immature years.

Likewise, the social and enthusiastic changes during youth elevate dangers for conduct issues, for example, substance misuse, self-hurt, and socially problematic practices. For instance, the beginning stage of pubescence has been connected to consequent enthusiastic and social issues in pre-adult young ladies and young men

The presence of certain medical issues in youthfulness, including substance use issues, mental scatters, and wounds, likely reflect both the organic changes of pubescence and the social setting wherein youngsters are growing up. Different conditions, for example, the expanded rate of certain irresistible sicknesses, for instance, schistosomiasis, may basically result from the everyday exercises of teenagers during this time of their lives.

A large number of the well-being-related practices that emerge during pre-adulthood have suggestions for both present and future well-being and improvement. For instance, liquor use and weight in early youthfulness bargain juvenile improvement, however, they likewise foresee well-being trading off liquor use and corpulence in later existence with genuine ramifications for general wellbeing

It is maybe not astonishing that about 100% of the respondents to the WHO worldwide network counsel with teenagers felt that their well-being was a significant issue. Nonetheless, what is fascinating about the reactions is that more than one-quarter accentuated that their well-being currently was significant for their future capacity to build up their maximum capacity and in light of the fact that it has suggestions for their well-being in adulthood.

Emotional changes

Because of hormonal changes, adults have state of mind swings and much of the time change their personality. They will in general have more extreme and wide-extending feelings than youngsters or grown-ups, and they misrepresent their issues also. It’s entirely expected to see young people fluctuating between feeling like they’re large and in charge one minute and being discouraged the following. These enthusiastic changes influence their school execution, appearance, selection of companions, and their capacity to settle on suitable life decisions.

Youthfulness is a period of passionate worry in the house as young people become progressively free and their wants frequently conflict with their folks’ solicitations. Youths are slanted to face challenges, while their folks are keen on their well-being. They will in general act indiscreetly, without considering the outcomes, and they settle on choices dependent on what feels great right now. In any event, when guardians attempt to clarify their own choices dependent on their background and information, teenagers frequently respond genuinely without tuning in to the reasons. In this manner, conduct issues and disobedience is normal. Nonetheless, despite the fact that it’s unwelcome, their insubordination is important together for the immature’s one-of-a-kind character to develop.

Teenagers lean toward making personal connections with companions while removing themselves from their families. Moreover, their impression of themselves is attached to how others see them. Young people may think they are continually being watched and assessed, making them excessively worried about their appearance. In spite of the fact that young people hunger for autonomy from their families, their weakness and social weight cause them to endeavor to fit in with the group so as to be acknowledged.

Alongside freedom and developing personality, puberty is set apart by the start of sentimental interests. Nonetheless, sexual feelings actuate uneasiness and these basic feelings frequently divert youths from their everyday exercises, for example, school and sports. Young people who have extremely passionate issues, for example, unreasonable emotional episodes or delayed wretchedness, need to get proficient assistance at the earliest opportunity.

Introduction to Adulthood and Its Traditional Markers

Traditionally adulthood is associated with biological markers such as when intellectual and physical maturity has been met, as well as attaining key milestones such as finishing education, having a family, and stable employment. However today, these markers are arguably not as important, this essay will evaluate and discuss whether individualistic markers of adulthood may be more relevant for contemporary youth rather than traditional ones.

The Shift in Educational and Economic Milestones

Traditionally it is perceived that certain social markers of adulthood had to be attained by a certain time age in a person’s life. For example, the model of the ‘big five’ demonstrates the “traditional social markers of adulthood: (i) finishing school, which once meant high school but now generally means higher education; (ii) finding a job, (iii) leaving home, (iv) getting married, and (v) having children.” (Settersten et al., 2015, p.3). In the past this was generally a smooth transition to adulthood, however today there is a significant difference in these trends with people reaching and completing these stages in their life later and later. For instance, the average age of marriage has considerably increased, likewise, the age people decide to begin to have children and start and finish their education has all increased. All of these things can be seen to have an impact on individuals’ transition to adulthood and when an individual is viewed and considered an adult.

While it is evident that there have been these key changes, it is essential to look at what contributes to this. Firstly, education arguably plays a major role when looking at the differences in trends. For example, in the 1970s there were 621,000 students in higher education, compared to in 201819 there were 2.4 million students (Bolton, 2021). As a result, many people are in education for longer than in the past and may rely on their families more throughout their time in education which can therefore be seen as hindering the transition to adulthood. Furthermore, there is an increase in educational opportunities with more women in education today, this, therefore, leads them to have better career prospects than in the past. Due to this, women are now more economically independent and therefore do not need to get married for economic support and dependence. Because of this women may be purposely delaying marriage and having children to give them time to establish themselves in their careers, this could also be said to be true for other young people who want to have a secure and stable career before thinking and deciding to have children and get married.

Changing Trends in Marriage and Family Formation

Additionally, not only has there been a significant rise in cohabitation compared to the past there has also been an increase in the length of time that couples cohabit for. This shows how many people are postponing or choosing not to get married at all. Several reasons could be examined here to explain why. Firstly, society and the family are becoming more diverse with there being many different family structures and personal relationships, as a result, marriage does not fit or suit all these relationships or family structures. As well as this, secularisation can arguably play a role in why couples may choose to cohabit rather than get married with the declining stigma around couples who choose to live together but not legally marry. According to the Office for National Statistics (2018), ‘The number of cohabiting couple families continues to grow faster than married couples and lone-parent families, with an increase of 25.8% over the decade 2008 to 2018.’ A rise in divorce could also contribute to this as people may no longer view marriage as desirable. These factors could account for why marriage and children are no longer a key aspect of an individual’s life and something that isn’t on their agenda, as a result for many young people this could mean that it is no longer considered a marker of adulthood.

Furthermore, the traditional markers of adulthood may not be as achievable for contemporary youth, and why individualistic markers may be more useful and relevant. For example, the significant rise in house prices makes it harder for young people to get on the property ladder. According to the Office for Official statistics (2020) in January 2020, the average price of a house in England was £247,000 compared to the 1960s when the average house price was £2,530 (gov.UK, 2012). As well as this rise in zero-hour, temporary and part-time contracts means that individuals are no longer in stable and secure full-time employment. Instead, individuals may go in and out of different types of work and education, with the rise in the service sector and the decline of the manufacturing sectors could be said to be a reason for this. As a result, this could mean that individuals may have to postpone having children and marriage as they are not yet financially stable enough and therefore can mean that individuals are not able to reach these traditional markers because of this.

Housing and Employment Challenges for Contemporary Youth

When looking at the transition to adulthood Arnett’s concept of ‘emerging adulthood, is important to look at. He refers to emerging adulthood as being the period between adolescence and adulthood. He notes that we don’t have to look too far back in history to see the shift from individuals reaching certain markers that may equate to becoming an adult. For example, in 1960 it was typical for a 21-year-old to be married and have children, and be in full-time employment however today individuals of the same age are still in education, perhaps in and out of different jobs, with the idea of marriage and parenthood for many being in the distant future. (Arnett, 2014, p.1). Arnett coined the term emerging adulthood, as he argues there is a distinct difference between this stage and adolescence and adulthood:

‘This period is not simply an “extended adolescence” because it is very different from adolescence- much freer from parental control, much more a period of independent exploration. Nor is it really “young adulthood”, since this term implies that an early stage of adulthood has been reached, whereas most young people in their twenties have not made the transitions historically associated with adult status.’ (Arnett, 2014, p.2)

Emerging Adulthood: A New Phase of Life

For Arnett, there are five main features of emerging adulthood: the age of identity explorations, the age of instability, self-focus, feeling in-between where individuals are stuck between being an adolescent or an adult and where they fit in, and finally the age of possibilities. He argues that emerging adulthood is an important feature as it allows young people to try different opportunities in their life, particularly in terms of work and love, with no constraints and the freedom to do this. (Arnett, 2014, p.8)

However, Arnett’s idea of emerging adulthood hasn’t been able to withstand critique from others. For example, Côté (2014, p.3) notes that a ‘concern is that his formulation is seriously skewed by assumptions that do a disservice to many of the young people currently facing serious social structural obstacles and poor economic opportunities during this prolonged transition to adulthood. Therefore, Arnett’s strong emphasis on white middle-class individuals and generalizing all young people’s experiences as being the same has been put into question. For example, the idea that emerging adulthood is a time when young people can explore any avenue, they want is restricted to those who can actually afford to do it, many don’t have the privilege of doing this. As a result, it is important to take into account that individuals’ experiences of the transition into adulthood may be different based on their social, cultural, and economic backgrounds.

This is supported by Carr et al (2011) who from their interviews of people in their 20s and 30s, found that individuals experience a different pathway to adulthood. One participant, Tom, decided to take a traditional route, he got married at 23, marrying his girlfriend from high school. For Tom, this was the normal and logical next step after finishing education and getting a job, ‘getting married is a part of a schedule of goals that are supposed to follow’ (Carr and Kefalas, 2011, p.52). However, taking this traditional route may be due to living expenses being lower where he was from, allowing them to be financially independent, meaning that the progression to adulthood in a traditional sense is more achievable. Furthermore, in the rural Midwest where he was from it was common to follow these traditional markers to adulthood, therefore social factors may also play a key role in the pathway to adulthood.

On the other hand, Jake, from Minnesota, had financial support from his family which helped him through a prestigious law school, allowing him to focus on his career before eventually thinking about marriage. Compared to Tom he did not start to think about the next step in his life like marriage until he was 30, he said this was because he was “in no rush to get married to the wrong person.” (Swartz, Hartmann and Mortimer, 2011, p.88) However, participants who lacked financial support or lived-in expensive cities, without economic means found the transition to adulthood harder. However, participants who lived in urban areas found the pathway to adulthood less predictable. Holdway (2011, p.110-111) noted that ‘Others did not get to college until their late 20 and early 30s, after working or raising children. Many continued to live at home until well into their 20s, and some stayed even after having their own children.’

What does adulthood mean today? While I have discussed what the traditional markers of adulthood are, it is important to show how that fits today. To do this, it is essential to find out what adulthood means to the ones currently on the path to becoming an adult. This is a question asked in Pitti’s study of what adulthood meant to young people, their response to what they considered an adult was someone who has responsibility and the recognition of being able to deal with duties by their peers. As well as this, independence is where individuals have the autonomy to decide what they want for themselves without input from others such as parents. For them, this is what distinguishes individuals from adolescence where they didn’t yet have this freedom from parents and their control to adulthood. (Pitti, 2017, p.7-8)

Similarly, in Arnett’s 1994 study of college-aged students, he found a similar response. Traditional markers of adulthood such as marriage, completing education, and having children were no longer considered important in whether an individual was seen to be an adult. Instead, qualities such as being independent and having the freedom to make their own choices, having a relationship with parents where they are seen and considered as an equal, and individuals accepting responsibility for their own actions and consequences were what they associated with being an adult.

Consequently, it can be argued traditional markers of the transition to adulthood may no longer be significant to contemporary youth as each person’s experiences and the factors that may affect the path to adulthood are different. Society is different today than it was in the past when these traditional markers were more relevant. However, despite traditional markers no longer being as significant, this doesn’t mean they do not play any role at all. Some people may combine traditional markers with more individualistic ones, for example, they may still see getting married and having children as signifying being an adult but combined with other markers that Arnett discusses from his research such as having the freedom to make decisions that suit them and their life without involvement from parents.

Personal and Societal Perspectives on Adulthood

In conclusion, it is evident that factors that contemporary youth face today are different from the past, therefore, meaning their transition to adulthood and when they meet specific life stages are not the same with traditional markers being perceived as not as desirable or achievable. Likewise, the transition to adulthood is not the same for everyone, therefore individualistic markers, or perhaps a hybrid of the two may be more relevant for contemporary youth.

Adolescence is a powerfully advancing hypothetical build educated through physiologic, psychosocial, worldly, and social focal points. This basic formative period is expectedly comprehended as the years between the beginning of pubescence and the foundation of social freedom (Steinberg, 2014). The most generally utilized chronologic meaning of youthfulness incorporates the ages of 10-18, yet may consolidate a range of 9 to 26 years depending on the source (APA, 2002).

The period of human development in which full physical growth and maturity have been achieved and certain biological, cognitive, social, personality, and other changes associated with the aging process occur. Beginning after adolescence, adulthood is sometimes divided into young adulthood (roughly 20 to 35 years of age); middle adulthood (about 36 to 64 years); and later adulthood (age 65 and beyond). The last is sometimes subdivided into young-old (65 to 74), old-old (75 to 84), and oldest-old (85 and beyond). The oldest old group is the fastest-growing segment of the population in many developed countries. [ APA dictionary of psychology]

In adolescence, physical changes are significant and can be traced easily. Adolescence is the transition state in which the child is being transformed into an adult. We know that the transition has always been painful because in the transition phase many things we have to lose; the identity is being formed on the basis of experiences that are faced. in adolescence, there are physical changes as well as hormonal changes and in this stage, there is a stage known as ‘puberty’. The puberty stage has different thresholds regarding gender differences. Puberty in girls starts at 9 years and for boys, it starts at 11 years. Whereas in early adulthood there is detectable slowness in physical performance. Early adulthood starts from age 20, here the transition slows down and the fully developed person now starts growing physically, psychologically, and socially. Here in this stage, the newly growing adult seeks for potential life partner as per biological need. There are some problems related to this early stage like obesity when there is an unhealthy attitude towards diet and food. The expanding predominance of obesity and its related issues is a forthcoming test, getting more predominant in both created and agricultural nations worldwide and especially influencing the young adult age group. Around 10% of the young between the ages 5-17 a long time were accounted for to be overweight worldwide by the Global Obesity Task Force in the year 2000.5,6 It is expected that the extent of stoutness in young youngsters will practically twofold by 2010.

On the other hand, in later adulthood, the skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows down, muscle strength and mobility deteriorate, hearing and vision decline and the immune system weakens.

In adolescence there occurs a stage when the child grows psychologically and socially and wants to have hisher own identity. The instinct that is found naturally in all human beings is to be known, to be respected, and to be obeyed. This instinct blasts out in adolescence because of transition, the child is developing a higher personality on the basis of knowledge that is gathered from experiences and reading, and discussion. If the boy-girl remains confused in this stage that what heshe is or what heshe should be then starts isolation. Because they don`t fit in the environment in which they live so they isolate themselves and avoid public meetings. For example, one of my class fellows doesn`t go to his home as he says he cannot fit in the environment of his home as well as in university. So he remains isolated. There can also be stated that when a person develops a personality, he knows himself very well. He knows what he is, but the personality that he has developed does not suit his environment. For example, in the very conservative environment of Baluchistan, if a person develops into an agnostic atheist or liberal nihilist, he will assume he is different from his environment. This indifference will lead him to isolate himself. Whereas in early adulthood occupational adjustments are a priority. In this stage carrier selection is the priority because the next whole life depends on this choice. The job nature decides what the personality and identity of the person would be as most of the time is spent in the job environment. The job also decides what health will be of that person, who will be friends and most importantly what will be the financial standing of the person. In Erik Erikson`s theory Ego integrity vs. Despair is the final stage of life. This involves coming to terms with one`s life. If there is a sense of integrity, people feel whole, complete, and satisfied with their life choices and achievements. Despair on the other hand occurs when seniors feel they have made wrong decisions but life is too short to remedy any life direction. They display bitterness, defeat, and anxiety about death, hopelessness. Their contempt for themselves is displayed as anger toward others. This further alienates them from the very relationships they need to put right in order to find peace.

In adolescence there occurs cognitive development and these cognitive developments are significant. Adolescents develop hypotheses and have the cognitive capability of solving problems in unexpected ways. Adolescents develop hypothetical deductive reasoning and try to implicate those hypothetical results. The formal operational considering trademark youth empowers adolescents to consider thinking or meta-cognition. This trademark permits youth to foster the ability to consider what they are feeling and how others see them. This perspective, joined with fast enthusiastic, and actual changes during adolescence, makes most youths feel that everybody is thinking about their thought process as well as about the actual young (imaginary audience).

While in early adulthood familial adjustments are being considered. In this stage, the adults are attracted to the opposite gender who are similar to them. At this stage, the adults work on matching hypotheses. This hypothesis states that adults prefer more attractive people in the abstract and end up choosing a partner equal to their level. They may fall in love, the love could be one of the three i.e. a) Romantic love, b) Affectionate love, c) Consummate love. During early adulthood, insight starts to settle, arriving at the top around the age of 35. Early adulthood is a period of relativistic deduction, wherein youngsters start to get mindful of more than shortsighted perspectives on right versus wrong. They start to take a gander at thoughts and ideas from numerous points and comprehend that an inquiry can have more than one right (or wrong) answer. The requirement for specialization brings about the commonsense reasoning-utilizing rationale to tackle certifiable issues while tolerating logical inconsistency, flaws, and different issues. At long last, youthful grown-ups foster a kind of aptitude in one or the other schooling or profession, which further upgrades critical thinking abilities and the limit with respect to innovativeness. In late adulthood, there are drastic physical as well as cognitive changes that are problematic. The respiratory and circulatory systems are less efficient, and changes in the gastrointestinal tract may lead to increased constipation. Bone mass diminishes, especially among women, leading to bone density disorders such as osteoporosis. In this late adulthood, their cognitive problems arise drastically. intellectual changes in late adulthood don’t generally bring about a decrease in capacity. While fluid intelligence (the capacity to see and utilize examples and connections to tackle issues) decreases in later years, solidified insight (the capacity to utilize gathered data to take care of issues and decide) has appeared to rise marginally over the whole life expectancy. K. Warner Schaie and Sherry Willis detailed that a decrease in psychological execution could be turned around in 40% to 60% of older individuals who were given medicinal preparation.

Dementias are typically liable for psychological deformities seen in more seasoned individuals. These problems, in any case, happen just in about 15% of individuals more than 65. The main source of dementia in the United States is Alzheimer’s illness, a reformist, in the long run, deadly sickness that starts with disarray and memory passes and finishes with the deficiency of capacity to really focus on oneself.

When there is parent-adolescent conflict there are negative changes that affect the adolescents badly. The adolescents develop juvenile delinquency as a result of this conflict. There are other factors i.e. peer groups and friends that force these vulnerable adolescents toward illegal conduct. Water pipe smoking, commonly known as ‘Shisha’, (pipe smoking) is another emerging problem for adolescents. Consumption of cigarette smoking, alcohol, and drug abuse is also increasing among young boys and girls throughout the world. It is perceived as a status symbol and considered fashionable by the school and college students. Initially, youngsters indulge in these activities to achieve excitement and ecstasy. The youth of today is far more exposed and vulnerable to health-related problems with far-reaching adverse consequences for present as well as their future life.

In late adulthood, the lethal process starts that cannot be stopped and that is ‘aging’. This process deteriorates memory and other brain functions. The maturing cycle(aging) by and large outcomes in changes and lower working in the mind, prompting issues like cognitive decline and diminished scholarly capacity. Age is a significant danger factor for most normal neurodegenerative sicknesses, including gentle intellectual impedance, Alzheimer’s infection, cerebrovascular illness, Parkinson’s illness, and Lou Gehrig’s illness.

References

1. Renata Arrington Sanders Adolescent Psychosocial, Social, and Cognitive Development Pediatrics in Review August 2013, 34 (8) 354-359; DOI: https:doi.org10.1542pir.34-8-354
2. Qidwai, W., Ashfaq, T. (2010). Emerging issues in adolescent healthcare: an urgent call for action. Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan, 20(3), 143-145. Available at: http: commons. aku.edupakistan_fhs_mc_fam_med58 [1]

To allow teenagers to try adulthood, as suggested by Leon Botstein in his option piece that was published in the New York Times, would change how the world functions. As suggested by Botstein the current school system does not allow teenagers to learn about what adulthood, but instead teenagers how to playschool. They learn lessons like how to keep their thoughts to themselves, and never speak out. There is more of a need to use schools to teach adult life to them, along with skills every adult should know. Botstein states, “The national outpour after Littleton shootings had forced us to confront something we have suspected for a long time: the American high school should be abolished”. In Botstein option there are more of a focus on sports and extracurriculars then academics and life skills. The purpose of writing this editorial was to show what schools are like now, and why they should be changed, to New York Times readers. These changes he suggests are able to affect his audience, by using rhetorical devices such as personification and tone.

Botstein made the tone of this piece to be paid attention to very and he was likewise very non-self-reproachful. The tone is not kidding may attract the crowd more and give them how significant the issue is and how there is an impact on everyone versus just on youngsters. To the extent, Botstein putting on a show of being non-conciliatory on the subject shows that he is not kidding about the theme and he needs to roll out an improvement to the present educational system and have it concentrated on cutting edge abilities and apparatuses. This additionally causes it so the crowd can relate more to the point being talked about right now. Botstein additionally utilizes words, for example, ‘inner circles’ and ‘fake power’ to communicate how debasing secondary school can be to certain understudies. Botstein additionally utilizes models and realities in the article to communicate or demonstrate his focuses. For instance, Botstein states that “young people mature substantially earlier in the late 20th century than they did when high school was invented”. Due to Botstein utilizing realities and models, it makes his piece is progressively solid and comprehension for the crowd. The use of personification in the piece allows Botstein to express how puberty can affect the school system and change social health: “When puberty meets education and learning in modern America, the victory of puberty masquerading as popular culture and the tyranny of peer groups based on ludicrous values meet little resistance”. Personification allows the reader to see what puberty is like, even though they have may have gone through it themselves, it has been a few years as the average reader is around 30 years old.

In actuality, any author will bolster his or her to contention to the statements that Botstein had made with utilizing ethos, logos, pathos. Then again, Botstein utilizes circumstances and logical results contention utilizing, ethos, logos, and sentiment. This allows him to persuade his audience to see the points and fully understand where he is coming from and why he believes what he does. The ethos that Botstein has is that he is a creator, college teacher, and president of Bard College. He utilizes logos when he incorporates insights into the lower age of the principal monthly cycle, makes reference to the lower beginning of the sexual activity and brings down period of development; this interests the credibility of college teachers. He likewise utilizes a lot of tenderness he clarifies the shades of malice of inner circles of secondary school; he discusses the understudies as ‘insiders’ and ‘untouchables’; he requests to the ongoing Columbine shooting and the shooters’ mental evil presences as he appealing to pathos.

Botstein also uses metaphor as a way of comparing teenagers to gangs, and a way of comparing them to the spectrum of masculinity and femininity: “He definitions of masculinity and femininity go through sufficient transformation to make the game of popularity in high school an embarrassment. No other group of adults young or old is confined to an age-segregated environment, much like a gang in which individuals of the same age group define each other’s world”. This comparison shows what the stress is upon the youths of today, and what it is like in age separated group or ‘gang’. The plates that high schools go through on a daily basis, can have them question where they lie on the gender spectrum.

All in all, ‘Let Teenagers Try Adulthood’ truly is logically successful on the grounds that he’s tenable to expound on the subject, he addresses his crowds legitimately, and he is attempting to address the issue of the current state of lack of change to focus on modern-day skills and tools a person needs to enter the workforce in school and why the instruction framework must change. Likewise, to get a crowd to have any kind of effect and leads them to be prepared this present reality. I concur with the creator contention and I believe that what he says ought to occur. With the change that he suggests throughout his editorial, he sees a way for students to gain the skills necessary to be who want they need to be in the workforce.

My essay aims to analyze in detail the perspective of childhood trauma transposed into adolescence and adulthood from the perspective of delinquent behavior, the role of the concept of power and how influences this field, rehabilitation, and a close analysis of internal and external factors influencing life course of the group I want to have my attention on. We will also talk about how the concept of power influences the course of our lives, we will analyze how biopsychosocial factors are integrated into our way of understanding health, disease, and well-being throughout life. I will also mention the history of the rate of juvenile delinquency and I will also discuss Children’s Acts and their importance.

The life cycle perspective is also known as life course theory and is an important instrument in analyzing and understanding the relationship between time and human behavior. It also tracks the chronological age of the individual, his relationships, life transitions, factors of different natures (sociological, psychological, biocultural, sociohistorical, biological, environmental), as well as social life, which shapes people throughout their lives. Lifespan Development research how we change and grow from the moment we conceive until we die. According to Erikson (1963), trust underlies our development in infancy (birth to 12 months), and he also proposed the idea that personality development takes place all through the lifespan (Erickson,1963). A life course approach emphasizes the health and well-being of the individual and argues that a good functional ability throughout life can be achieved through effective environmental support.

The experiences we have early in our lives and particularly in our early childhoods have a huge impact on how we grow and develop, our physical and mental health, and our thoughts, feelings, and behavior. There are two important factors to consider when talking about our well-being and these are the quality of attachment in relationships and our experience of ACEs (Adverse Childhood Experiences).

Attachment is the model of relationship we develop with parents or caregivers in the early years, this being a key moment in what we are going to become from a behavioral and mental point of view. The emotional relationship that the child creates with the parent from birth, the way the parent or caregiver responds to the child, all these factors have a definite impact on the child’s development, and the way he will express his feelings, needs, and desires. The first emotional connections that children make, serve as a template, which later, children will reproduce. If the people who care for us instill in us positive behavior and positive feelings, we will develop a positive pattern in other relationships as well, positive feelings about ourselves and others. But it can happen that the people involved in raising a child, inspire negative behavior, and negative feelings, which will automatically offer difficulties in the child’s development, in creating and maintaining positive relationships and expressing positive behavior and feelings towards themselves or those around them.

Adverse Childhood Experiences are ‘highly stressful, and potentially traumatic, events or situations that occur during childhood and adolescence. They can be a single event, or prolonged threats to, and breaches of, the young person’s safety, security, trust, or bodily integrity.’ (Young Minds, 2018).

Studies show that a high percentage of children who experience trauma since childhood, become vulnerable and are more likely to face addictions such as alcohol, drugs, and gambling; there are also high chances for the future adult to express acts of violence in society, to experience more frequent states of anxiety and depression, low self-esteem, to behave inappropriately or even dangerously in society, potentially being a danger to themselves. and for those around them (Ainsworth, M. D. S.,1989).

The ACE’s experiences are:

• Child physical abuse
• Child sexual abuse
• Child emotional abuse
• Physical neglect
• Emotional neglect
• Mentally ill, depressed, or suicidal person in the home
• The drug-addicted or alcoholic family member
• Witnessing domestic violence against the mother
• Loss of a parent to death or abandonment, including abandonment by divorce
• Incarceration of any family member

Human development is complex. Every child comes into the world with their own biological package, and unique at the same time. Its characteristics are very much influenced by the sum of the good bad experiences, positive and negative, that the child accumulates. On the one hand, there are love and limits close to age, and on the other hand, on the negative one, there is an invisible element called trauma. Trauma is not always intentional, for example, the loss of a parent is something that cannot be controlled or changed in any way. When the trauma is intentional, the consequences are even more severe.

I would like to analyze a little the word ‘trauma’. Trauma is a medical term and represents a serious injury to the body, but trauma can also be psychological. What is psychological trauma and how much it can affect us during our lifespan? Emotional trauma is the result of a single experience of suffering or the result of an accumulation of overwhelming recurring events over weeks, years, or even decades, in which the person struggles to cope with immediate circumstances, leading to ultimately to serious, long-term negative consequences. It also destroys the feeling of security, leading to helplessness and the idea that we live in a very dangerous world. Although the causes and symptoms of trauma are varied, there are several basic signs that may suggest that this is the disorder you are experiencing. People who have been through traumatic events often seem agitated and disoriented or absent from the conversation. Another sign of trauma is anxiety.

Chronic psychological or emotional trauma – through repeated and prolonged exposure to traumatic events where we can mention child abuse, aggression, and domestic violence.

Complex psychological or emotional trauma – through multiple exposures to stressful events. Secondary psychological or emotional trauma – is developed by people in contact with those who have experienced a traumatic event (Bremner, D.,2005, Kirouac, S.,2009)

Neuropsychological studies show that children who have experienced or witnessed violence, trauma, abuse, or neglect, later experience cognitive difficulties in one or more areas (McLaughlin et al., 2014).

Analyzing from a behavioral perspective, reinforcement history and faculty learning may account for differences between secure and insecure attachment. Lack of attachment behavior, trust behavior, and moral behavior can be explained by principles of reinforcement and punishment, rather than some vague, underlying, unobservable concepts called ‘attachment’, ‘trust’, or ‘morality’ that merely describe behavior. What appears to be a lack of emotional development may instead be the failure to experience close emotional behavior and the principles of reinforcement and punishment (Merrell, K. W.,2003, Ainsworth, M. D. S. 1989).

The feeling of security is our primary social need. The physiological changes we experience throughout life create a kind of predisposition in people to learn certain types of behavior. In the first five years, children are physically dependent on the adult who cares for them, who offers them caresses, and love, and fulfills all their needs, thus creating a feeling of trust. When children are not adequately cared for in their early years of vulnerability and dependency, then all their needs are compromised, launching in the future potential slips, failures, difficulties in integrating naturally into society, and traumas (Ainsworth, M. D. S. 1989).

Influence is a very important aspect of life in the organization and without it, no organization could function. Almost all members of organizations are based on influence and in any organization, they are subjects of influence. In organizations, influence is tested when legitimate authority or power intervenes. The term power refers to the ability of the individual to influence a person’s behavior so that the result is effective to his desire. It underlies the whole spectrum of means for influencing the behavior of emulation, suggestion, persuasion, and coercion. This means that the more power a person has, the greater their chances of being effective in influencing a person or system.

The state offers a perfect focus and attention on children so: ‘Looked after children deserve the best experiences in life, from excellent parenting which promotes good health and educational attainment, to a wide range of opportunities to develop their talents and skills in order to have an enjoyable childhood and successful adult life. Stable investments, good health, and support during the transition are all essential elements, but children will only achieve their potential through the ambition and high expectations of all those involved in their lives. ‘ (The Children Act,1989). This means that local authorities and at the same time collaborating agencies are seriously involved, with the aim of fulfilling the responsibilities that lead to an adequate care plan, placements, and case reviews for looking after children and offering safeguarding and promoting welfare (The Children Act, 1989). ‘The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is an international human rights treaty to which is a signatory, which grants all children and young people aged 17 and under a comprehensive set of rights. These include the right to special protection measures and assistance; access to services such as education and health care; developing their personality, abilities, and talents to the fullest potential; growing up in an environment of happiness, love, and understanding; and being informed about and participate in achieving their rights in an accessible and active manner’ (Children act,1989).

This shows the influence of the concept of power in this field, which has a real and relevant importance in the growth and development of a child who lives in his own family or is in the care of someone (caregiver, placement, adopted).

I believe that these agencies, which are directly involved in the lives of young people and disadvantaged families, those with various family disabilities, or simply going through difficult times, offer the opportunity to correct, contribute to a deviation from a potential path of depravity, modifies and positively influences the life course of a child or adolescent. Of course, this aspect is the part in which the agencies involved and the local authorities have successfully fulfilled their responsibility, resulting in the rehabilitation of a child adolescent family, but as we well know, there are exceptional situations in which all their efforts are a failure, and the reasons for failure can also vary, from the lack of communication of the agencies involved, the superficial treatment of the case by the people involved to the categorical refusal of the child adolescent to cooperate with the authorities involved and its continuation on the road to depravity.

Looking back, history shows that the rate of juvenile delinquency rose considerably after 1847 and that there were several reasons such as group influence, disorganized families, race, low self-esteem, environment, and family trauma caused by family, caregivers, or other external factors or individuals. At the beginning of the 21st century, there is talk of zero tolerance for crime and antisocial behavior. But in the meantime, criminologists have attacked this ‘punitive’ method in exchange for forming a system that will try to solve social problems, directing the young class to work and distracting them from deviating from criminal ways, and playing a constructive role in society. The legal system introduced reform and industrial schools for the first time in 1850 and elementary education was introduced in 1970. In 1889 the ‘Children’s Charter’ was introduced to protect children from cruelty and allowed the state to intervene in life. by family. Between 1890 and 1900, greater pressure was placed on more effective protection of young people and children. All these changes have automatically led to new ways of treating young offenders and a special court has been called upon to deal with cases involving children and young people. Their efforts proved successful, and the Children Act of 1908, which included school meals, orphanage pensions, and school medical inspections, improved the Children Act by introducing new laws such as the protection of the child’s life; cruelty prevention; smoking bans on minors; improving the roles of industrial and reforming schools; creation of juvenile courts; and a ‘miscellaneous’ division that included provisions such as banning people under the age of fourteen from public houses. In 1948, a law was passed to rehabilitate and recover children and young people who violated the law, maintaining the 1933 law, considering the views of social workers in the slums of cities at the time (The Children Act, Justice Policy Institute, 2017).

Research has been carried out on the link between childhood trauma reflected in adolescence, in serious forms such as murder, sexual abuse, and very high levels of post-traumatic stress have been found among young people in custody, found guilty of these facts related above (Bailey, 1996; Bailey, Smith,

People go through many phases throughout their lives, the three main phases are childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (Kuther, 2019, p. 4). In each phase the individual experiences physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development (Kuther, 2019, p. 5). The development throughout life can be described by these five principles; multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, influenced by multiple contexts, and multidisciplinary (Kuther, 2019, p. 5). These principles help us understand the complexity of development. Many people believe that once you become an adult you stop developing, but this is not true. Development continues from infancy to death (Kuther, 2019, p. 5). How you develop throughout the childhood and adolescent phases will influence you in adulthood. Once you reach adulthood you are fully developed and can experience declines in physical abilities. Specifically, in middle adulthood, you can perform lots of tasks, but you may not be able to do everything you could as a child or adolescent. For example, you may not be able to play football anymore because of the strength and coordination needed for the sport. In middle adulthood, individuals can do lots of physical activities, just not as intense as in earlier phases.

Middle-aged adults enjoy activities such as working out, swimming, yoga, hiking, or practicing Tai Chi. Exercise can provide many positive benefits throughout all life phases. Exercise can help reduce the risk of illnesses that are common in the middle adulthood phase (Kuther, 2019, p. 121). Grace is a 45-year-old woman who is enjoying life in the middle adulthood phase. She is married and has two kids, ages 15 and 11. She is peaking in her career as an accountant and has just received a promotion. Due to Grace’s busy schedule, she has neglected to eat healthy and exercise regularly. Grace was recently diagnosed with diabetes, specifically, type 2 diabetes. Diabetes can be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors (Kuther, 2019, p. 182). Normally when blood sugar enters the body, the pancreas will produce insulin which allows glucose to enter cells (Insulin Resistance and Diabetes, 2019).

This will be used as energy, the remaining glucose will be stored in the liver for later use (Insulin Resistance and Diabetes, 2019). Once the glucose is stored the blood sugar levels decrease and so do insulin levels (Insulin Resistance and Diabetes, 2019). In type 2 diabetes the cells no longer respond to insulin (insulin resistance), the pancreas is overworking to produce insulin but eventually, it wears out (Insulin Resistance and Diabetes, 2019). Since the cells aren’t responding, the individual’s blood sugar level continues to rise (Insulin Resistance and Diabetes, 2019). Grace’s story is common among people diagnosed with diabetes. With the development of fast-food restaurants and busy work or home life, diabetes is a very prevalent diagnosis in middle-aged adults in the United States. The table below, provided by the CDC, shows the number (in thousands) of people in different age groups estimated to be diagnosed with diabetes in the U.S. from 2017 to 2018. If we look at the incidence estimate of people diagnosed for each age group, we see that middle-aged adults (45 to 64) are diagnosed at a higher rate. The incidence estimate for people ages 18 to 44 was 4.3 thousand, for ages 45 to 64 the incidence estimate was 9.9 thousand and for people ages 65 and older the incidence estimate was 8.8 thousand. Based on the data, diabetes is a more prevalent diagnosis for people during middle adulthood, but it continues to influence adults later on in life. Not only does diabetes affect different age groups but it can also influence men and women differently.

Women tend to be diagnosed at the same rate as men (Kuther, 2019, p. 182). If we look at the table, we see that there is only a 0.7 thousand (700) difference in the incidence estimate of men and women. Although, women with diabetes tend to experience a greater risk of heart attack or stroke than men (Kuther, 2019, p. 182). Diabetes can be prevented by exercising regularly, maintaining a healthy weight, and having a healthy diet (Kuther, 2019, p. 182). Managing diabetes is influenced greatly by having a low-sugar diet and monitoring glucose levels (Kuther, 2019, p. 182). Managing diabetes is not easy for everyone and will require a lot of life changes. Bronfenbrenner’s biological systems theory contains multiple systems that contribute to an individual’s development (Kuther, 2019, p. 21). Microsystems is a part of this theory and it can help people with diabetes develop a new healthy way of life. Microsystems are a person’s direct physical and social environment (family, colleagues, church) (Kuther, 2019, pp. 21-22). The family of the individual with diabetes can help support them to eat healthily. They can avoid buying or tempting the individual with unhealthy foods and encourage them to exercise regularly. Both family and colleagues can be aware of low or high blood sugar level symptoms and remind the individual to check their glucose level throughout the day. If an individual is religious, they can seek support and help from their church.

Diabetes is a very common disease in the United States. Understanding diabetes and knowing its symptoms will help me in my future career as a nurse. This knowledge will also help me educate my family on the importance of healthy eating and regular exercise. Many people just like Grace, get too busy in life and neglect to take care of their bodies. Diabetes occurs more often in middle-aged adults and has lasting effects throughout life. It is important to develop healthy habits to prevent the development of this disease. It is never too late to start!