Category: Adulthood

Introduction

Early adulthood is one of the age-related stages of life, considering people in the age of twenty to forty. The phase is characterized by the individuals transiting from late adolescence who are determined to have a well-defined identity and lead a responsible life. They engage in various developmental tasks, including establishing personality, achievement of autonomy, and becoming a part of a community. This essay describes the social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development of people in early adulthood, as well as the theories and personal experiences related to the stage.

Social and Emotional Development in Early Adulthood

The social and emotional changes in this phase of life involve intimacy and establishing ones identity. Men and women develop the thoughts and feelings of committing to an intimate partner. Their self-esteem becomes positive because of being loved and affectionate to others (Overstreet, 2019). They develop flexible and self-regulatory emotional coping strategies and skills to resolve conflicts. Peer influence and incidences of conflicts with parents decline significantly (Overstreet, 2019). Further, people commit to social groups and have positive feelings about their membership, and integrate spiritual or religious beliefs into their identity. Indeed, social and emotional changes in early adulthood facilitate the formation and maintenance of relationships.

Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

In early adulthood, physiological development is characterized by various aspects, such as enhanced motor performance, increased reproductive capacity, and better health and fitness. People at this stage have increased strength and the ability to act and move their body muscles. Additionally, their reproductive capacity peaks, with men and women becoming more sexually responsive, which leads to a healthy life minimizing their risks for illnesses (Overstreet, 2019). However, they have lower immune systems and engage in substance abuse behaviors, which may contribute to psychological problems and other health conditions. Cognitive development involves the way persons aged twenty to forty years think and make decisions. Thoughts become more practical, realistic, and individualistic, with the necessity or prior experience influencing the decision-making process. Thinking also becomes more flexible and balanced, allowing people to integrate salient aspects of opposing perspectives. Undeniably, the physical and cognitive changes in early adulthood enhance the way individuals at this state approach things.

Trends and Theories

Major trends in early adulthood are related to dating, marriage, and cohabiting. Courting has become more diversified and flexible, particularly because of social media. Most young adults live together and engage in a romantic relationship, even when they are not married, and delay assuming adult roles and responsibilities. The concepts which explain early adulthood include Eriksons theory, which compares intimacy and isolation, and Levinsons theory, dividing the stage into four phases (17-22, 22-28, 28-33, and 33-40 years) (Overstreet, 2019). The two theories help understand the changes which happen in early adulthood. Indeed, the treads and theories explain important factors which characterize early adulthood.

Personal Experience and the Benefits of Early Adulthoods Knowledge

My experience at this stage is positive because I have developed social skills, which facilitate effective forming and maintaining of relationships. Friends opinions have an insignificant influence on my decision-making process. Additionally, I have become more practical and developed a desire to commit to an intimate relationship and become a part of certain social groups. The acquired knowledge will help provide evidence-based services to the patients at this life-developmental stage. For instance, it will facilitate a better understanding of the causes of mental disorders, such as stress and depression, and provide appropriate interventions. Notably, the individuals at this phase of life are prone to psychological illnesses because of failed relationships, exams, or unsuccessful job-hunting.

Conclusion

To sum up, early adulthood is one of the developmental stages characterized by persons aged between twenty and forty years. Social and emotional changes in this phase allow people to form and sustain relationships. Physical and cognitive growth are at their peak at this stage. People have increased motor ability and reproductive capacity, and their thoughts become practical and realistic. The knowledge about early adulthood will facilitate the provision of evidence-based nursing services.

Reference

Overstreet, L. (2019). Human development life span. Western Washington University.

Aging is a part of human life and entails not only physiological but also psychological, emotional, and social changes. First of all, negative or positive perception of this process depends on social connections and support, as well as a persons attitude. Socioemotional development in late adulthood can vary depending on a persons qualities, lifestyle, and community. However, successful aging primarily depends on a variety of activities, a positive attitude towards past events, as well as the selection and compensation of opportunities.

At a more mature age, many people may become increasingly dependent on other people due to physiological changes. This factor can have an impact on their emotional and social well-being. Older people increasingly rely on the help of family members, relatives, and long-term care professionals. As a result, they may experience feelings of shame or guilt, as well as symptoms of depression, especially when caring for elders is considered a burden in society. When moving to a nursing home, they can also face isolation due to the need to leave their familiar community. Older adults, as their dependence increases, also run the risk of being abused by the caregiver. This circumstance can also have an impact on the emotional state of a person.

Social connections and support play a key role in positive aging. From this perspective, socioemotional selectivity theory implies that as a person gets older, the number of friends decreases, but they become emotionally closer. Often, older people feel lonely, as their relatives can lead their own independent lives, and their friends can die. The emerging state of isolation can have detrimental effects on well-being at an older age. However, many people cope with this circumstance by leading an active lifestyle and participating in community life, for example, in a nursing home. In this case, the theory of activity proposes that the more diverse a persons activity is, the more he or she is satisfied with his or her life. Moreover, if it is impossible to fulfill the roles habitual for middle-adulthood age, at a late-adulthood age, it is necessary to find a substitution for them. A more active and involved life is associated with increased satisfaction.

Many people, as they enter a more mature age, may experience a crisis between integrity and despair. Erickson suggested that in late adulthood, people tend to review all the events and achievements of their lives. Thus, depending on satisfaction with the result of his life, a person ends it either with a sense of integrity or despair. This process consists of identifying not only positive moments but also reflecting on failures and troubles. As a result, many people may experience regret, which causes feelings of despair and negatively affects their well-being. On the contrary, a positive outlook on past events leads to greater satisfaction with life in later adulthood.

Selective optimization with compensation theory can help older people cope with emotional, physiological, and social changes. According to it, people in late adulthood need to identify and optimize their strong sides and compensate for weak ones. For example, if one cannot drive a car anymore, one needs to find a new type of transport. This strategy will not only help focus on the positive aspects but find new ways of being active and involved, which is necessary according to the theory of activity.

Socioemotional development in late adulthood is based on social activity and a persons personal attitude towards aging. Older people may experience feelings of depression and isolation, as well as guilt and shame due to increasing dependency. They often have fewer social connections, but the quality also increases. The determining factors are social support and a positive attitude. Increased activity and involvement can increase satisfaction, while feelings of regret decrease it. Thus, socioemotional development in late adulthood implies psychological and social transformations.

The issue of poverty is a major one that affects societies across all nations. The selected theory is functionalism, and it views the social unit as a well-organized system comprised of structural and functional elements (Zastrow et al., 2019). According to the given perspective, poverty is a dysfunctional aspect of interrelated components, which is the result of improper structuring. Poverty severely impacts an individuals experience in young and middle adulthood because these are the most resource intensive stages of ontogenesis. Both young and middle adulthood are associated with increased demand for resources, where one wishes to invest in his or her education, business, or other beginnings.

It is evident that poverty is mostly the result of individual characteristics because the problem is persistent among all cultures. Therefore, one cannot pinpoint directly towards the cultural elements. However, there are specific within-individual characteristics that determine whether or not a person will suffer from poverty during his or her young and middle adulthood. It is stated that youth delinquency is a strong predictor of an individual having a low degree of socioeconomic status (Rekker et al., 2015). In other words, improper behavior exhibited pre-young adulthood years was tightly correlated with poverty.

The most suitable aspect of the functionalist theory is the fact that it views an entire system as an interconnected functionally dynamic unit. The main reason is that such an approach understands that observing a single element outside its proper position will yield flawed results. The key problematic aspect of the theory is that it is highly conservative and ignorant of its inherent disadvantages. It begins by defining society as a well-organized system, which makes an unsupported assumption that it is already in preferred condition. Therefore, it is reluctant to changes, which might substantially improve the current state.

Genogram: Hernandez Family

The main genogram difference between Juan and Elena lies in their parental aspect. Juan possesses only one parent, where Elenas both parents are still alive (Hernandez, n.d.). In addition, there is another element of similarity of parenting style they received, where they might consider the provided parenting approach appropriate. According to Levinsons Theory of Parenthood, marital happiness declines if the division of labor within a marriage changes from egalitarian to traditional (Zastrow et al., 2019). In other words, a family structure, which is based on old and conventional views, is prone to fewer satisfaction levels compared to a more egalitarian and equality-based approach.

Studying the phenomenon of parenting, lets one consider the issue of its relationship with the family system. The generally accepted view of the family implies the presence of children in addition to the married couple. The family is a historically specific system of relationships between spouses, as well as parents and children. Given this point of view, parenting can be included as a subsystem in the family system, as a relatively independent education. Thus, parenting is understood as a socio-psychological phenomenon, which is an emotionally and evaluative colored aggregate of knowledge, as well as ideas and beliefs about oneself as a parent, which are realized in all manifestations of the behavioral component of parenting. It includes both spouses who decide to start a new life.

The genogram allows a person to visualize the relationships between members of the Hernandez family. It deliberately shows the general similarity between Juans and Elenas family and how the parenting they received is affecting the individuals in the second row. In addition, one can pinpoint the importance of eliminating these hereditary factors in the third row. It is stated that there both cultural and contextual variations in regards to parenting style in the modern era (Smetana, 2017). There is a form of conventional wisdom in society that it is imperative to be friends with a child. Thus, the concept of parental responsibility is often replaced by the ideas of kindness, care, and affection for the child. These are undoubtedly important components of parenting, but they are not sufficient.

First of all, a responsible parent is a mature person who is able to take responsibility for his or her actions and his or her life. After all, if this does not apply to oneself, it is impossible to talk about responsibility for a small child. Being a mature person, a person is able to provide himself with work, housing, and create favorable conditions for the development of the child. Thus, responsible parenting is, first of all, a balance of different aspects of upbringing, where the communicative side is regular communication with the child.

In a modern world full of dangers and temptations, Hernandez parents should always be aware of what is happening in the childs life. There should be a knowledge of his or her interests and preferences, if possible, to share them and have an influence on him. In the case of the emotional aspect, the parent should be willing to listen to the child and talk to him about important topics, trying to avoid judgmental and judgmental values. In addition, it is essential to act as a helper and advisor, evoke a response in the child, give him or her the opportunity to discuss problems, and share his or her experiences.

References

Hernandez. (n.d.). Web.

Rekker, R., Pardini, D., Keijsers, L., Branje, S., Loeber, R., & Meeus, W. (2015). Moving in and out of poverty: The within-individual association between socioeconomic status and juvenile delinquency. PLOS ONE, 10(11), 1-17. Web.

Smetana, J. G. (2017). Current research on parenting styles, dimensions, and beliefs. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 19-25. Web.

Zastrow, C. H., Kirst-Ashman, K. K., & Hessenauer, S. L. (2019). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (11^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

The Rites of Passage have long been a subject of discussion since, in many ways, they are not in line with the modern perception of adolescence as a continuous process that lasts well into a persons twenties. However, the Rights of Passage, established long before the modern system of education was formed, have a deeper meaning that makes them an essential part of every believers life. This paper hypothesizes that the Rites of Passage carried throughout the centuries teach a child essential elements of life such as assuming responsibility, self-confidence, and the readiness to embrace faith wholeheartedly as a guidance in all difficulties of life.

The Catholic teaching on the sacrament of confirmation singles out three key destinations of this rite that underlie its significance in Catholic tradition. First of all, confirmation serves to strengthen a believers connection with the Church through embracing responsibility for ones church life. Secondly, confirmation communicates a special gift, or special power of the Holy Spirit that is believed to boost a persons self-confidence. This power underpins a believers conviction that he or she is able to overcome whatever difficulties may come across his or her road. Finally, confirmation gives a believer the ability to spread and defend the faith as true witnesses of Jesus Christ.

In Jewish tradition, Bar Mitvah is closely associated with the coming age of awareness when a child begins to discern what is good and what is bad. If earlier it was parents responsibility to guide a childs actions, Bar Mitvah ritual serves to shift this responsibility from parents to the child himself. From that moment on, it is a child who independently distinguishes between bad and good and chooses his or her path. Thus, in both Catholic and Jewish traditions the Rites of Passage are seen as a stage of growing up when a child assumes full responsibility for his or her actions. The need of the Rights of Passage is brought about by the necessity of assuming responsibility for ones actions, since these rites are seen as a step toward adulthood.

In terms of the use of rites, the confirmation in Catholicism and Bar Mitvah in Judaism take place at the age 12-14 years. It is considered that this is a conscious age for making a decision. Confirmation presupposes attending a certain number of services throughout the year and talking with the pastor before the ceremony is carried out (Hoering, 2022). Thus, a child prepares for adult life and has an opportunity to discuss the issues that trouble him or her before the confirmation. Bar Mitvah in Judaism is seen as the stage when parents report on the results of their work of upbringing to the community, which represents the whole nation during this rite. After the ceremony, the child becomes a full-fledged member of the community.

The Rites of Passage mitigate against the adolescence as it is understood in American Christian homes in the sense that these rituals serve to establish a childs responsibility at an early age. The fact runs counter to the perception of adolescence that stretches until the end of education where young people are not expected to take on obligations until they are financially independent from their parents. At the age of 13, I underwent confirmation which is my congregations usual practice. It is one of the most memorable moment of my life, as the ceremony was very beautiful, and, most importantly, after it my parents began to treat me differently, as an adult and not a child. I believe confirmation helped me to feel mature and endowed me with responsibility for my actions, at the same time giving me a sense of elation and freedom that goes with being responsible for ones life and actions.

Reference

Hoering, P. C. (2022). Confirmation and its PreparationExpectations and Effects. Journal of Youth and Theology, 1, 1-25.

Introduction

Mental disorders are health conditions that determine emotional and behavioral changes in an individual. Teens and adults experience episodes of disorders ranging from high to low depending on ones daily activities.

Discussion

Childhood and adolescent mental disorders are compared to adult mental disorders in various ways. These include; they suffer from recurrent behavior such as suicidal and self-threatening. Adults and teens find it intense and challenging to control their moods, such as anger, affecting their stability in daily activities. Teens and adults tend to suffer from self-damaging actions such as substance abuse and stealing (Fusar-Poli, 2019). However, a mental disorder in childhood and adolescence poses dissimilar patterns. Teens have high recovery chances compared to adults since they have time to adjust to environmental changes. More so, a child demonstrates clear behavior of mental disorder than adults since they depend on their parents.

The DSM-5 criteria are widely used in treatment, research, and providing educative concepts hence ease of attending to a patient. DSM-5 is effective since its trial results indicated good reliability in diagnoses (Fusar-Poli, 2019). The DSM criteria provide an ample environment whereby clinicians interact with the patient efficiently. DSM-5 has provided reliability levels that are adequate for clinical care and facilitate the advancement of research.

Conclusion

When educators, physicians, or parents exaggerate the severity of a childs symptoms and, at times, underestimate their ability to manage themselves can lead to overdiagnosis. Additionally, overdiagnosis can result when a parent, teacher, or clinician assumes a child has a disorder. Further, when a professional, teacher, or parent identifies a childs condition without pinpointing other reasons behind the symptom. Overdiagnosis can happen when professionals diagnose a child without observing their cultural and social background.

Reference

Fusar-Poli, P. (2019). Integrated mental health services for the developmental period (0 to 25 years): A critical review of the evidence. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 355. Web.

Introduction

With the aging process, various changes occur in the human body, which are not always positive. Hence, late adults have a greater predisposition to the occurrence of serious diseases. These can be diseases of organs and various systems, for example, cardiac or vascular.

In late adulthood, there is a decrease in the strength of the body, which also includes the muscular system. In addition, there is a decrease in mobility since physical exertion requires much energy from the body.

As for the external manifestations, gray hair may appear in late adulthood, depending on the individual characteristics of people. In addition, morphological changes include loss of elasticity and substances such as collagen on the face, which leads to wrinkles and sagging skin. In some cases, hair loss and vision impairment are possible.

In late adulthood, there is a transformation of the joint system, which eventually weakens and does not withstand the previous lifestyle. Thus, due to reduced mobility and disruption of the vestibular apparatus, a large number of older adults suffer from falls. However, it is worth noting that this most often refers to representatives of late adults closer to sixty years.

Due to changes in the work of the body and muscles of the elderly, there is a need to moderate physical activity. Among the possible ways to improve the functioning of the body are swimming and straightforward exercises aimed at a particular age group. Research states that the human brain shrinks with advancing age, but recent research suggests that it is also capable of remarkable plasticity, even in late life (Erickson et al., 2022, p. 99). This is influenced by physical activity at an older age, which determines its value.

In addition to the above, many late adults experience a gradual decrease in vision. This may be due either to a sharp deterioration due to an incorrect lifestyle or due to hereditary features of the patients vision.

Mental Development

At an older age, people retain semantic memory, that is, the ability to remember vocabulary. Over time, short-term memory deteriorates, and individuals rely on various strategies that help them remember specific events or things. Therefore, due to such a decrease in memory quality, older adults recall details less often and worse and rely more on a general description of what they remember.

Moreover, peoples working memory decreases significantly with age, which helps to retain information for a certain amount of time. Because of this, adults have difficulty concentrating and maintaining attention on one thing. One of the strategies for coping with this issue is the use of various strategies for memorization, one of which may be taking notes of events and things to remember.

Sources emphasize that the older generation of adults has a different way of focusing (Fung et al., 2019). Henceforth, due to the reduced ability to remember details, they rely on external cues. Such hints most often include familiar aspects and contexts that lead to this or that important information.

In addition, there are changes in the emotional side of the functioning of older adults. Integrity and despair play a role in this process, which affects how people relate to their age. Many are experiencing serious stress, which affects their health and well-being, while others are coming to accept their new position and the valuable experience they have gained.

Moral Development

Among the scientific literature, there is the Kohlberg theory, which determines the stages of moral development of individuals. Hence, this approach claims that late adulthood is at the final stage called post-conventional morality (Mathes, 2021). A distinctive feature of this stage is an orientation towards personal values and adherence to them.

Moreover, post-conventional morality is characterized by the fact that individuals impose their moral values relative to the situation in which they are needed. In other words, they deviate from the concepts that are accepted in their society and take into account the multiple contexts of what is happening and the people with whom they interact.

Regarding morality, adults at a given age gain more emphasis on the personal rights of other individuals. In other words, individual laws and rules play a rather significant role in decision-making. Therefore, later adults emphasize the consideration of these concepts and the importance of taking them into account from an early conscious age to improve relationships in society. For some, this may acquire extreme characteristics and be expressed in an excessive desire to see justice everywhere.

In addition to compliance with individual laws and regulations, ethics also acquires exceptional value at the post-conventional morality stage. However, because it is a complex phenomenon, not every adult is characterized by taking into account this aspect. Like the last characteristic, the ethical principles of individuals at a given age are expressed by taking the perspective of all the individuals and situations involved. It is noted that this final stage is the highest stage of functioning people.

Social Development

With age, people are much less likely to experience changes that affect the social sphere of life. One of the main ones is the change of working status and retirement, which depends on the type of work. In some cases, closer to an older age, many may lose a spouse, which can seriously affect the psychological state of individuals.

It is worth noting that leaving the workplace is not always the case for all late adults. Sources note that at this stage, people adapt much better to social changes. This is especially evident in the example of those people who prefer to switch to a part-time schedule or participate in volunteer social activities. For those who prefer to leave the workplace, the social environment and the ways of leisure activities are changing significantly.

However, an active social life is not typical for all later adults. It is characterized by the disengagement theory outlines a process of disengagement from social life that people experience as they age and become elderly (Crossman, 2019, para. 1). According to this approach, people with age prefer to isolate themselves from society and feel more comfortable being alone than the younger generation. In addition, they are less concerned about how actively and vigorously they participate in social life.

Even though many adults have a lot of life experience in later years, there is an opinion that many adhere to the opinions that they formed at a young age. In addition, later adults often try to compensate at this stage for the opportunities that they might have missed earlier. Thus, individuals make decisions, form opinions and create relationships based on experience, but primarily based on opinions and views defined at an early age.

Social ties play a unique role at this stage of life. Thus, emotional support becomes an important component, especially during critical situations. Individuals often form a reasonably close and small circle of communication, which they retain until the end of their lives. Because the older a person becomes, the higher the likelihood of serious diseases. Thus, it causes the need for emotional support.

References

Crossman, A. (2019). Disengagement theory. ThoughtCo.

Erickson, K. I., Gildengers, A. G., & Butters, M. A. (2022). Physical activity and brain plasticity in late adulthood. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 99-108.

Fung, H. H., Lu, M., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2019). Aging and attention: Meaningfulness may be more important than valence. Psychology and Aging, 34(1), 85.

Mathes, E. W. (2021). An evolutionary perspective on Kohlbergs theory of moral development. Current Psychology, 40(8), 3908-3921.

Introduction

The human body changes naturally as a person grows old. People must understand the lifestyle choices that are related to the changes and the best preventive measures to overcome the natural changes. Middle adulthood is defined as being between the ages of forty to sixty-five, during which physical changes due to aging are evident (McCormick & Vasilaki, 2018). The most notable changes at this age are skin losing elasticity and the skeleton becoming more brittle. Understanding the changes and taking the necessary preventive measures may help middle adults lead a quality life despite the vulnerabilities at their disposal.

Skin Changes

As a person enters middle adulthood, the skin loses fat, becomes thin, and does not heal quickly whenever it is bruised. The skin encloses nerve receptors that enable a person to feel pain, touch, and pressure. The aging effect in middle adult age causes the sebaceous glands to stop the production of oil, which makes the skin dry. Further, the dermis produces less sweat, and in the end, the skin cannot cool, which facilitates the aging impact. Consequently, the skin becomes less sensitive to touch, pain, and feelings, exposing the person to more dangers as it cannot feel environmental changes (Shin et al., 2019). The skin of young people can heal itself after being bruised because the healing cells are produced less, and healing is reduced by four times. As people grow old, they are prone to other diseases such as diabetes, liver and kidney diseases, and obesity, all affecting their skin.

Skeleton Changes

The middle-adulthood stage is characterized by skeletal changes as the spine shorten. Consequently, the persons height reduces, and the joints break down since the fluid designated to maintain the joints is broken down. Further, the cartilage breakdown between the bones causes osteoarthritis, which is painful and leads to pain, inflammation, and loosening of the muscle tissues. The bones lose minerals and calcium. Bone wastage in middle adulthood is caused by less activity (McCormick & Vasilaki, 2018). The bones become too stiff and may break easily when one jumps from short distances. A person in middle adulthood cannot walk as quickly as their younger counterparts since the skeleton has weakened due to aging. In women, bone wastage and weakening are caused by the hormones at menopause, leading to the removal of bone tissues.

Age-Appropriate Preventive Measures

Although changes resulting from aging are requisite, preventive measures can be implemented to delay the changes and improve a persons quality of life. The skin can be prevented when a person avoids direct sunlight and ensure regular physical exercises. Since other cardiovascular conditions and obesity are other causes of skin aging, taking a balanced diet is also essential to maintain skin health. One must also moisturize regularly, quit smoking, and avoid skin irritants.

Continuous physical exercise and taking a balanced diet are vital to ensuring that bones remain strong and prevent the changes that occur with aging. The best preventive measure is to ensure that all the minerals and calcium that strengthen the bones are relinquished through dietary supplements. While men need to take food rich in calcium, women must take vitamin D to eradicate the changes caused by menopausal hormones (Hargrove, 2018). People must quit smoking and avoid alcohol consumption.

Conclusion

Aging is a definite stage that people phase through as they move from one stage of life to another. Numerous changes occur as a person approaches middle adulthood. Skin and bone changes are the most common and are caused by sebaceous glands and wasting. Preventive measures must be implemented to delay the changes and ensure a person lives a high quality of life. Education on preventive measures is critical to ensure that people live quality life.

References

Hargrove, T. W. (2018). BMI trajectories in adulthood: The intersection of skin color, gender, and age among African Americans. Journal of health and Social Behavior, 59(4). Web.

McCormick, R., & Vasilaki, A. (2018). Age-related changes in skeletal muscle: Changes to lifestyle as a therapy. Biogerontology, 19(6), Web.

Shin, J. W., Kwon, S. H., Choi, J. Y., Na, J. I., Huh, C. H., Choi, H. R., & Park, K. C. (2019). Molecular mechanisms of dermal aging and antiaging approaches. International journal of molecular sciences, 20(9), 2126. Web.

Contrary to popular belief, we do not inherit our personalities. Instead, we develop certain traits and personality characteristics as a result of the experiences we have in life. Incidents, particularly traumatic ones, which occur during childhood can absolutely influence the rest of our lives. That is not to say that one cannot overcome such obstacles, but they will always have a lasting effect. One might argue that your adulthood is just an extension of your childhood experiences.

As neuroscience minors, we learn time and time again that a person will try to fulfill his childhood desires when he becomes an adult in a way that is acceptable to society and his/her culture. In addition, we learn that what we experience as a child, affects our quirks and personality as an adult. For example, a child raised by overprotective parents develops fears and insecurities because the child has been taught to perceive the world as an unsafe place. As an adult, they will continue to have the same fears and insecurities but might display them in a different way. This adult might now have social anxiety or have a hard time trusting co-workers, and it stems from their childhood insecurity of not trusting the world around them. One might not realize that a certain personality trait is just childhood insecurity being displayed in a different manner. Another example could be a child that is neglected or bullied. They develop extreme self-esteem issues throughout their life unless help or self-reflection is acquired.

As a teacher, we learn during training that the type of emotional support that a child receives during the first five years of their lives has a tremendous effect on the child’s education and social life for the rest of their lives. In the classrooms, by age six you can begin to see the personalities of the children taking shape and can quickly point out which students have a more stable household. It is reflected in their demeanor, temperament, and school work. Again, this is not to say that the child cannot recover from it as an adult, but it certainly makes it very difficult to if that is the environment you experienced every day as a child. These are just small basic examples of how one’s childhood might affect adulthood. The cases can get even worse with more traumatic childhood events.

There was a study done by the CDC (Center for Disease Control) called the ACE (Adverse Childhood Experience) study. More than 17,000 adults participated in the study and it was one of the first and largest research studies done to examine the impact of childhood trauma on health decades. Participants answered questions about their adverse childhood experiences including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, neglect, domestic violence, substance abuse, and incarcerated household members. Their health and behaviors were also recorded.

One of the main takeaways was childhood trauma is very common, even among white, highly educated adults with health care. The study found that one in six men and one in four women reported childhood sexual abuse. These events were rarely reported as having been single events.

Both groups experienced similar risks for health outcomes like alcohol abuse and depression. The research showed that childhood trauma increased the risk of alcohol use by age fourteen and illicit drug use by age fifteen. Childhood trauma also contributed to the likelihood of adolescent pregnancies and adolescent suicide attempts. The study also found childhood incidences to be associated with multiple adverse outcomes in adulthood, such as cardiovascular disease, liver disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, suicide attempts, alcohol dependence, marital problems, intravenous drug use, and many more.

We live our childhoods and think that they don’t affect us as adults because oftentimes those traumas are displaced and appear in other ways. It invades and impedes multiple areas. It affects those around us such as our spouses and children. Not only do childhood incidents affect our personalities as adults, but they also affect our health and mental state.

When we arrive at early adulthood, our physical development is finished, in spite of the fact that our stature and weight may increment marginally. In early adulthood, our physical capacities are at their pinnacle, including muscle quality, response time, tangible capacities, and heart working. Most expert competitors are at the highest point of their game during this stage, and numerous ladies have youngsters in the early-adulthood years.

The maturing procedure, although not unmistakable, starts during early adulthood. Around the age of 30, numerous progressions start to happen in various pieces of the body. For instance, the focal point of the eye begins to solidify and thicken, bringing about changes in vision (typically influencing the capacity to concentrate on close items). Affectability to sound declines; this happens twice as fast for men concerning ladies. Hair can begin to thin and get dark around the age of 35, although this may happen prior for certain people and later for other people. The skin gets drier and wrinkles begin to show up before the finish of early adulthood. The insusceptible framework turns out to be less capable at warding off sickness, and conceptive limit begins to decay.

Early to middle adulthood covers an enormous people. These people are from eighteen years getting on to sixty-five and additional. There are several changes that a personal can expertise whereas at the start of this age teams and transcending through until the top. the foremost obvious of those changes are often recognized by look, being the action. However, there are way more changes that happen, from a psychological feature thought method amendment to a self-internalized realization of perspective roles that a personal chooses to require on for themselves. These changes have terribly distinct characteristics that outline every part of life.

Early adults or rising adults are typically classified as adults from the people of eighteen-twenty-five (Berger, 2010). This is often the time wherever adults are well into their stages of time of life and growth and that they are at the peak of their physical potential. Males tend to own additional muscle as compared to fat content, their health is in prime form, and their ability to conduct physical activity is at its peak. In women, they’re additionally in their body’s physical prime, they gain majority of their breast tissue, their hips unfold, and their bodies are in prime form for kid bearing. except for each the male and female’s best body compositions, their bodies are immune to illness and ailments (Berger, 2010). Most of those physical attributes are true as a result of at this people and people physical activity is at its highest. Being extremely active can contribute to the good condition of the people that partake in it on a standard basis.

Emerging adults are terribly active and forward with their practices. From sexual habits to extracurricular activities, their life decisions are having each immediate and future consequences. This people of rising adults has created it a standard apply to have interaction in semi to extraordinarily dangerous behavior, additionally referred to as edgework. Edgework is delineated as “occupations, recreational activities, or different ventures that involve living on the sting, managing stress and fear” (Lyng, 2005, p.387). Despite obvious consequence of injury or death, these rising adults are persistent to find new ways that to challenge barriers and limits.

As so much as sexual sex, this people of rising adults has been delineated as serial monogamists – “most have one steady partner, then another, then another” (Berger, 2010, p. 415). Because of this increase in multiple partners, there has been a rise within the unfold of STD’s, contrary to the come by birth rate in recent times part because of contraceptive use. Decades past there was an ethical code that females ought to stay virgins till wedding, which it had been ok for young men to feed their sexual urges with any girl that was willing. In recent times it’s become the norm for young adult females to own even as several sexual partners as their male counterparts. If this customary continues because it has, “HIV and different STI (sexually transmitted infections) will unfold simply and quickly anyplace within the world” (Berger, 2010, p.416). “Within 2-4 weeks once HIV infection, many, however not all, folk’s expertise flu-like symptoms, typically delineated because the “worst respiratory illness ever”. Many folks United Nations agency are infected with HIV don’t have any symptoms the least bit for ten years or additional (HIV/AIDS, 2013).

This may in the future result in a deathly microorganism natural event considering the common range of sexual partners that each man and girl at intervals the first adult people are having. Although there are a mass quantity of young adults out there moving from sexual partner to sexual partner, these young adults are eventually Janus-faced with a choice to calm down. Berger (2010) describes the create by mental act ideal variety of relationships that were sought-after by young adults: Traditionally, young men and girls most popular friends of their own sex and engaged in sex-specific activities with them. Male friendships focused on shared activities like sports, cars, and contests (sometimes fighting with words, not weapons).

Women’s friendships were additional intimate and emotional, involving self-disclosing cite health, romances, and relatives (p.437). These rising adults, before they hit the age of eighteen, they were attempting to interrupt far from their folks and also the rules enforced over them as adolescents. currently that they’re adults and have finally broken away and gained their independence, they subconsciously have an urge to attach with others each intimately and socially. Young adults are mistreatment things like Facebook, twitter, and different networking sites to make a deeper social relationship with their friends. but intimately, they’re finding relationships that are focused on passion.

“Passion looks to be sparked by unusualness, uncertainty, and risk, all of that are diminished by the growing familiarity and security that contribute to intimacy additionally as by the time required to demonstrate commitment” (Berger, 2010, p.413). There are several instances wherever relationships have didn’t progress past the fervor into commitment and intimacy. Young adults usually realize their self-made relationships once their early adulthood once the reach middle adulthood.

Middle adulthood is characterized because the people simply before your 30’s till age sixty-five. Around age thirty, adults can begin to expertise a loss of physical property in their skin and a tiny low decline in their hearing. several of those characteristics loses wont decline enough to note till AN adult reaches a way later age. several of those completely different areas of loss can decline at a slower rate because of healthy habits and consistent activity taken place throughout their younger adulthood. Eyesight additionally contains a tendency to slowly decline additionally as strength and height in males and skin physical property showing wrinkles and fertility in females. once age thirty, rate while not complication is incredibly little.

A woman’s body does not have the power to compensate and reclaim once maternity. She is additionally additional vulnerable to high pressure, physiological condition polygenic disorder, and different birth complications. to not say that a self-made birth is not possible, the possibilities of complication are usually a lot of more than possibilities of conception in their 20’s. Consecutive milestone that middle adult female’s expertise is biological time, that is often seen around age fifty. biological time is once “ovulation and discharge stop as a result of a marked come by production of many hormones” (Berger, 2010, p.449).

Males at intervals this people additionally expertise some variety of loss in their fruitful suggests that. They expertise one thing terribly like biological time in ladies. Their loss is often coined by the term andropause. “Andropause ought to be wont to signify the lower androgenic hormone levels of older men, that scale back concupiscence, erections, and muscle mass” (Berger, 2010, p.450). In contrast to ladies, men don’t utterly lose their ability to provide androgenic hormone or cum. However, the number of androgenic hormone and viable cum will decrease with age.

Middle adulthood is additionally characterized by one in all Erikson’s Eight stages of life, generativity vs stagnation. Berger defines generativity as, “when adults look for to be productive during a caring way” (Berger, 2010, p.498). Berger additionally goes any in explaining the requirement for adults to worry or offer care by quoting a neighborhood of Erikson’s book: “The time and energy needed to supply emotional support to others should be reconceptualized as a crucial facet of the work that takes place in families. …Caregiving, in no matter kind, doesn’t simply emanate from at intervals, however should be managed, focused, and directed thus on have the meant result on the care recipient” (p.498).

Most times at intervals this people, this want is consummated by older middle adults taking care of their youngsters or grand-children. They realize purpose by fulfilling the needs and desires of a younger generation. this is often slightly completely different than the people they were in before wherever they still found pleasure in relationships, however it had been self-fulfilling in nature or had a sexual previse undertone. At this stage, adults have centered their energy in what they’ll do or offer to some other person. Early to middle adulthood may be a terribly advanced people that experiences many changes at intervals that point. Whether or not those changes be physical in nature, intellectual, or psychological feature, all of them have distinct characteristics that outline every part. These phases are usually de-escalated by age; however, actuality breakdown depends on the individual and once they meet the necessities of that part. solely then do they reach consecutive innovate life.

By inspecting the film, ‘The Breakfast Club’, and applying mental terms to each character, you can portray them between nature or sustain. In the film, five arbitrary secondary school understudies are compelled to spend their Saturday in detainment together. Every teenager has an alternate motivation to be in detainment. Andrew (the muscle head,) Claire (the princess), Brian (the cerebrum), Bender (the lawbreaker), and Allison (the crazy person) set aside their disparities to endure eight hours in confinement with their maniacal head, Mr. Vernon. While they invest energy in confinement, Mr. Vernon anticipates that them should compose a one-thousand-word paper on who they truly are. For the duration of the day, their activities put in context their battles with their coteries and home lives. While the film advances, the group of spectators realizes why every high schooler is in detainment, which inevitably prompts an exceptionally warmed discourse about who they truly are, which unexpectedly responds to the inquiry they are intended to expound on. At last, Brian is controlled into composing the paper for each of them five, in which he gives them every one-off a characterized moniker. They are all in various coteries and together they make ‘The Breakfast Club’.

By applying the standards of nature versus sustain and figuring out which one greatly affected every person. In the film, Claire was the princess. She spoke to the famous children in school and did all that she could to stay aware of this picture. She was impacted by the earth which she connected herself with. She gets things done to satisfy others as opposed to satisfying herself. This caused her to accept that was socially right. Brian was the cerebrum of the gathering. He was pleased with his extraordinary evaluations yet was under a great deal of strain to keep them up by his folks. Mind admitted that his folks would be extremely vexed if he had lower than an of a class, particularly his father. So, when he discovered he had a C in one of his classes, he chose to attempt to end it all, so he didn’t need to manage his family. He was impacted by his condition, by his dad causing him to accept that he had fizzled on the off chance that he got lower than an out of a class. This demonstrates he is affected by his tendency. Bender was viewed as the criminal of the gathering. He was consistently the one to begin inconvenience. At home it was an alternate story. He was brought up in a careless and harsh condition. The moves he makes on in the film mirror this mindset. For instance, each time he ridicules Claire’s weaknesses, it’s his father’s character that has come off on Bender. Of course, he is affected by his harsh nature.

Andrew was known as the muscle head in the film. Although he appeared to be content with his life, life at home was not as incredible. His dad consistently had impact in the choices he needed to make. Andrew joined the wrestling crew to satisfy his dad. So, when he played a trick on a kindred schoolmate, he felt regretful on the grounds that he just did it to satisfy his dad. Last by not least, there is Allison, the crazy person. Allison is a timid individual. Everybody sees her as a strange and she truly doesn’t fit in with other individuals. Her impact to act along these lines is from her inclination. At home, Allison is disregarded and not thought about by her folks.

Although everybody in the film was raised in an unexpected way, they all are affected naturally and support growing up.

Individuals who have a disability find it more difficult to transition into adulthood and to function independently, which is why it is important to find factors that can help ease this shift (Arnett, 2007; Galambos, Magill-Evans & Darrah, 2008). A study conducted by Rehm, Fuentes-Afflick, Fisher, and Chesla (2012) found that 29% of teenagers who had a physical disability, that impacted development, required external assistance when trying to transition into adulthood. Along with physical disabilities, psychiatric disabilities are a primary form of disability faced by individuals. Physical disability refers to any motor-related debility faced by a person that impairs functioning during a typical daily routine (Maalouf, Hatoum, Atwi & Boustany, 2016), whereas psychiatric disability refers to any mental disability that impairs functioning during daily life (Widmer, Kempf-Constantin & Carminati, 2010). The impact of disability on an individual’s ability to successfully complete various aspects of adulthood, such as gaining independence, has been researched previously.

Previous Literature

Studies by Henninger and Taylor (2014) and Conger and Little (2010) found that young adults considered independence from their parents, both in terms of their responsibility for themselves and financially, as the most integral factor to signify having entered adulthood. This was supported by Carr, et al. (2014) and Guess, Benson, Siegel-Causey, and Agran (2008), who found that very few individuals living with a psychiatric disability have the skills to live independently, with financial and personal autonomy, when they reach emerging adulthood. Having a disability causes dependence on other people to be able to engage in basic daily activities, thus limiting the amount of independence that is attainable during adult life (Guess et al., 2008).

Some studies also invested the effects of having siblings on people with a disability, such as the research conducted by Canary (2008) and Strohm (2008), which found having a younger sibling increased responsibility in disabled individuals due to the added demand placed on them to take care of their sibling. This links to Moyson and Roeyers’s (2012) research, which found that a sense of adjustment is always present in the relationship between physically disabled, and able-bodied, siblings. This adjustment increases the opportunity for both parties to grow up faster than their peers and aids in the ability of disabled individuals, who do find it harder to transition into adulthood, to reach integral milestones, such as living independently, in emerging adulthood (Moyson & Roeyers, 2012). Similarly, having siblings forces disabled individuals to not be entirely reliant on caregivers as attention in the family is being divided across multiple children (Orsmond, Kuo & Seltzer, 2009). Orsmond, Kuo, and Seltzer (2009, p. 9) also found that the more siblings a person with a psychiatric disability identity has, the more opportunities there are to “share the caregiver role”. This provides more support and growth potential for disabled individuals.

In contrast, research has found that there is a negative impact on the development and maturation of non-disabled younger siblings when they are continually exposed to an older sibling that has a communication developmental disability (Burke, 2010; Canary, 2008; McHale, Updegraff & Whiteman, 2012).

Current Study

The current research does not focus on ways disabled individuals can improve their level of independence, from teenagers to emerging adults (Rehm, Fuentes-Afflick, Fisher, & Chesla, 2012). Whilst there is some research dedicated to exploring the impact disability and independence can have on families (Henninger and Taylor, 2014), there are no explicit studies that explore the influence, certain family groups, in particular siblings, have during this transitional time. Also, no studies compare physically disabled individuals with psychiatrically disabled individuals, in regards to the differences faced with gaining independence during emerging adulthood. Instead, there is a focus on the issues associated with having a disability identity and having independence simultaneously, during and beyond emerging adulthood (Carr et al., 2014). Areas such as becoming financially independent and living independently are key factors that separate the emerging adult developmental stage from the adolescent stage (Arnett, 2000). Finding ways of supporting disabled individuals, to better aid their transition into having higher independence levels in emerging adulthood is important and necessary to research due to the extra boundaries, created by their disability, that are already delaying their shift into emerging adulthood (Janus, 2009).

The aim of this experiment was to see whether there was a difference between individuals with a physical disability, and those with a psychiatric disability, in terms of their ability to successfully become independent in adulthood. This study aimed to find out whether having siblings increased the likelihood of shifting and functioning independently in adulthood successfully. Individuals, aged 18 to 29 years, with a physical disability identity would have higher levels of independence achievement, during the emerging adulthood stage, if they have at least one biological sibling compared to having non-biological siblings, as opposed to those who identify with a psychiatric disability.

Methods

Participants

Two thousand and ninety-seven (Male = 526, Female = 1541, Other = 30) university students (Mean = 21.10 years, SD = 4.81 years) were voluntarily sampled.

The original sample included 3200 participants, aged 18 to 25, and spanned all ethnic groups, who were sampled across 32 academic establishments in the United States. Participants were initially excluded from the data set if they did not respond to the questions about disability identity or siblings, with further data revisions limiting the inclusion criteria to identify with a physical or psychiatric disability identity and an acknowledgment of, siblings. Ethics approval was gained prior to this study being conducted and permission was provided to use the data for this research.

Measures

The markers of the emerging adulthood questionnaire (MOA) were used to measure the participant’s level of independence during emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2001; Fosse, Grahe & Reifman, 2016). Block 1 of the questionnaire contained 20 questions, which focused on the signposts of independence, such as “making independent decisions”. There were two subcategories: importance, which was rated on a four-point scale ranging from not to very, and achievement, which was rated on a three-point scale ranging from no to yes. For the importance subcategory, a not indicated that independence was not considered an essential marker for entering emerging adulthood whilst a very deemed independence as essential for determining whether you have entered emerging adulthood; the scoring of the answers rose in 1-point intervals, with a not being scored 0 points and a very being scored 4 points. For the achievement subcategory, a no indicated that independence had not been achieved by the participant and a yes indicated that it had been achieved; also scoring of the answers rose in 1-point intervals, with a not being awarded 0 points and a yes being awarded 2 points. For both subsections, the higher the final score, the higher the agreement with the question. The MOA questionnaire had good internal reliability (Arnett, 2001). Cronbach’s alpha for the importance of independence = .65 and for the achievement of independence = .70 (Fosse, Grahe & Reifman, 2016).

The Personal opinions questionnaires subscale four: disability oriented, contained 11 items, which participants responded to with either true or false with true being scored as 1 point and a false being scored as 0 points; higher amounts of points equates to a greater level of independence. (Bolton & Brookings, 1998). The subscale had high reliability and the questionnaire as a whole had good valid and consistent reliability (Bolton & Brookings, 1998). Cronbach’s alpha = .62 (Fosse, Grahe & Reifman, 2016).

The number of siblings was self-reported by participants.

Design

The independent variables are the type of disability, physical or psychiatric, and whether the participant has at least 1 biological sibling. The dependent variable is achieved independence during emerging adulthood. This is an experimental research design and will include controlling and manipulating the type of disability (psychical or psychiatric) simultaneously with the number and type of siblings (none, at least 1 biological, at least 1 adopted, or step).

Results

SPSS version 25 was used to analyze the data. The p-value threshold used to determine a statistically significant finding was α = .05. Levene’s Test proved that the data was not homogenous with p = .01. See appendix 1 for full output. Examining the z-scores checked for outliers, and any outliers were removed from the data set. The data was cleaned to only include physical and psychiatric abilities, achieved independence, and siblings, as the other aspects of the data were not necessary for the study.

Descriptive statistics

The average age of all the participants was 21 years and there were 2012 total participants (Males = 526, Females = 1541, Others = 30) that identified with having, or not having, a disability identity. There were 42 participants that identified with having a physical disability only wit (Mean = 1.96, SD = .444) whilst 223 participants identified with having a psychiatric disability only (Mean = 1.84, SD = .423). Participants with a physical disability and siblings (Mean = 1.99, SD = .492), and participants with a psychiatric disability and siblings (Mean = 1.84, SD = .440) have similar average scores. See appendix 2 for full disability descriptive statistics.

Primary Analysis

The primary analysis indicated that there was not a statistically significant relationship between having siblings, a physical disability, and achieved independence (p= .237). Similarly, having siblings, having a psychiatric disability, and achieving independence did not have a statistically significant relationship (p= .371). The partial eta-squared for the relationship between having siblings and a physical disability was .013, which is a small effect size. The partial eta-squared for the relationship between having siblings and a psychiatric disability was .016, which is a small effect size.

A two-way analysis of variance was conducted on the influence of two independent variables (type of disability and siblings) on achieved independence during emerging adulthood. The type of disability included two groups (physical and psychiatric) and siblings included two levels (at least one biological sibling and no siblings). All effects were statistically significant at the .05 significance level. The main effect for physical disability had an F ratio of F(1, 1880) = 6.5, p =.011, and the main effect for psychiatric disability had an F ratio of F(1, 1880) = .324, p < .001. The interaction effect between physical disability and siblings was F(21, 1880) = 1.20, p = .237. The interaction effect between psychiatric disability and siblings was F(29, 1880) = 1.07, p = .371. See appendix 3 for full ANOVA output.

Discussion

This study hypothesized that individuals with a physical disability identity would have higher levels of independence achievement, during the emerging adulthood stage, if they have at least one biological sibling compared to having at least one non-biological sibling, as opposed to those who identify with a psychiatric disability. This was not supported by the findings as there was a non-significant relationship between the effects of having a physical disability and siblings on achieved independence. The relationship between psychiatric disability and siblings on achieved independence was also not significant.

This is similar to research conducted by (Henninger & Taylor, 2014) that focused on the role of the family in aiding the transition into adulthood in disabled individuals. Henninger & Taylor’s (2014) research concluded that having an agreement between the goals of the disabled individual and the goals of their family could improve transitional success.

Another study that focused on the role of the family was Rehm, Fuentes-Afflick, Fisher, and Chesla (2012) that found the role of the family was not as influential as external programs during the transitional period for disabled individuals. This was similar to this study as the lack of impact of familial relationships on achieving markers of adulthood, such as achieving independence, was highlighted.

On the other hand, this research contradicts the findings by Canary (2008) and Strohm (2008), which found an increased sense of independence in disabled people with younger siblings. This could be due to the lack of separation between younger and older siblings in this study, something that was evident in both Canary’s (2008) and Strohm’s (2008) studies.

Strengths and Limitations

A strength of the study was that sibling groups were separated by frequency and relationship, such as 2-3 biological siblings, only 1 step-sibling, etc. This allowed for a clear understanding of how certain types of siblings impacted independence. However, a limitation of the study was that the sibling’s groups often intersected, such as having the group for at least 1 older sibling encompassing all biological, step, and adopted siblings, which does not allow for a specific correlation to be made. Further research should specifically focus on the influence of one type of sibling group, either biological, step or adopted, to be able to compare isolated findings with the findings of this research. This would help fill out any missing information in regards to sibling impact on disabled individuals’ ability to achieve independence.

The disability categories were also a limitation of the study as they were very broad, which narrowed the amount of explicit information that could be learned. Whilst this research did find a non-significant relationship between siblings, psychiatric disabilities, and achieved independence, the specific types of psychiatric disabilities, such as whether they are primarily personality based or if they impact intelligence, are not known. Whilst having a clear distinction between groups was a strength, as it removed any possibility of overlap between people who identify with a physical and a psychiatric disability, more research will need to be conducted with more niche samples. For instance, comparing achieved independence during adulthood in individuals who were born with a physical disability from the waist down compared to those who acquired it later in life. Having a greater understanding of how certain disability types affect the ability to have independence in adulthood could assist in finding ways to assist individuals during the transition period.

Conclusion

This study found that there was no significant relationship between physical disability and achieving independence in emerging adulthood, when they have at least one biological sibling, compared to those with a psychiatric disability identity. Also, there was not a large discrepancy between the two groups as a small effect size was observed on the impact of having siblings and a physical or psychiatric disability on achieved independence, which indicates similarities between the two disability groups and achieving independence. This addressed the aim of the research, which was to investigate whether the type of disability a person and the type of siblings a person has, impacts the ability to be independent in adulthood, as well as whether having siblings impacts the ability to achieve independence.

The findings of this study consider the impact of having a familial unit on transitioning into adulthood for individuals with a disability and open the door to further investigate the influence different types of relationships can have on disabled individuals. This can lead to family-based interventions being created that can provide close proximity transitional support for disabled people.