Category: Adoption

Why adopted children may be at an increased risk of being diagnosed with ADHD?

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the diagnostic label currently used to describe one of the most frequently diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorders in children. According to the American Association of Psychiatry (APA), the prevalence of this disorder reportedly affects around 5% of the population. (The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2013)

ADHD’s primary causes are still unclear. What is known is that it is a heterogeneous and complex neurobiological disorder. Complicating matters further is the fact that it cannot be explained by a single cause but rather must be understood as relating to a series of genetic conditions in combination with other environmental factors.

It seems that genetic contribution plays an important role in ADHD diagnoses. According to various studies in families, twins, and adopted children, genetics plays a very important role in the transmission of ADHD intergenerationally. It is estimated that 70% of these causes can be attributed to genetic factors (Faraone et al., 2005). Socioeconomic factors, coupled with disorganized family dynamics and the effects institutionalization has on family upbringings, all tend to increase the risk factors associated with this condition (Jacobs, Miller & Tirella., 2010).

The prevalence of ADHD in adopted children is higher than in non-adopted children. In 1990, Verhulst, Althaus & Versluis-Den Bieman concluded a higher incidence of ADHD in the adopted group. This data coincides with that of other documented studies. For instance, Fernández et al (2017) speak of a prevalence of ADHD 15 times higher among adopted children when compared to non-adopted children.

More recent studies have also concluded that this prevalence in the diagnosis of adopted children continues to persist when compared to the general population, finding a 25 to 50% increase in adopted children (Abrimes et al 2012)

The postnatal and prenatal environment of adopted children, which may be inadequate for promoting healthy psychological development, may present one of the keys to understanding the increased incidence of such disorders within these subgroups. Broken families with few economic resources and overcrowded institutions where children are poorly attended, both physically and emotionally, also tend to produce higher incidents of new diagnoses. This essay will attempt to explore the possible reasons why adopted children are more likely to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

What is ADHD and what are its risk factors?

According to the American Psychiatric Association, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is characterized by its neurobiological nature which typically originates in childhood and implies a pattern of attention deficit, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity. ADHD is often recognized in children when primary education begins, coinciding with difficulties in school performance and the appearance of certain social disorders.

In terms of prevalence, ADHD is one of the most frequently diagnosed psychiatric disorders in children; even higher than schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (Casas et al, 2009). It is estimated that the global prevalence of ADHD affects around 5.29% of school-age children.

Due to the complexity of ADHD, a single cause cannot be identified. It is a heterogeneous disorder with different subtypes, resulting from varied combinations of certain risk factors acting in unison with one another. However, it has been determined in numerous medical studies that these causes are mainly due to genetic and environmental factors (prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal) (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001).

This large genetic component being a determining factor in new diagnoses has been shown in several studies. According to Faraone and colleagues, the direct family members of people with ADHD are up to eight times more likely to be diagnosed than relatives of people not affected by this condition. What makes this point particularly clear are the numerous medical studies involving twins, all of which show higher rates of ADHD heredity, ranging from 71 to 90%.

On the other hand, there are also psychosocial factors that may promote the appearance of ADHD. Factors relating to pregnancy and childbirth most often associated with new diagnoses are evident in the numerous documented studies observing the effects smoking has on pregnancy with regard to low birth weight and maternal stress (Froehlich et al., 2009). Alcohol abuse could also cause dysfunction and altered mental functioning, including Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, which has been shown to display some of the main symptoms typically associated with ADHD (Froehlich et al., 2009).

Stress, anxiety, and prenatal maternal depression are also significant factors shown to increase the risk of adverse outcomes in childhood development. Emotional problems and deterioration in cognitive development all tend to lead to symptoms associated with hyperactivity and attention deficit disorder (ADHD). Although genetics and postnatal care clearly have an effect on early childhood development, studies show prenatal maternal depression and anxiety to be amongst some of the largest contributors to new diagnoses. It is estimated that between 10 to 15% of the burden is attributable to factors related to poor prognosis (Glover, 2015).

These numerous risk factors may be more problematic in adopted children since the vast majority are not aware of their biological parents’ background or medical history. Furthermore, vital experiences in the first years of life should always be considered as many come from difficult sociological environments.

Prevalence of ADHD in adopted child

Many authors have concluded that adopted children are more likely to have an increased frequency of ADHD-associated symptoms when compared to their non-adopted counterparts. In a study published in the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology testing a sample of 808 adopted children found that 21% of those examined had ADHD-associated symptoms. In addition to this, various other risk factors are directly correlated with this disorder, such as any abuse or neglect experienced prior to adoption. Furthermore, the age of adoption and the number of foster homes the child has been placed in since their adoption also play a factor. (Simmel, Brooks, Barth, & Hinshaw., 2001).

In another study, a sample of 200 children diagnosed with ADHD found that 17% of those diagnosed were adopted (Deutsch, CK, Swanson, JM, Bruell, JH, Cantwell, DP, Weinberg, F., & Baren, M. 1982). Following suit, another study including a sample of 37 children found ‘significant problem’ scores for hyperactivity and ADHD traits among 14% of those who had been adopted. Furthermore, other negative correlations were present in those who had been adopted later in life. (Jacobs et al., 2010).

This prevalence seems to be more characteristic in adopted children from Eastern Europe. A study by Gunnar & Van Dulmen in 2007 found more behavioral problems in adopted children from Russia when compared to adopted children from other parts of the world. In these cases, the possibility of prenatal exposure to alcohol, common in many of those countries, must be taken into consideration. However, a study by Jacobs et al, which included 37 adopted children from different parts of the world, did not find significant differences between the prevalence of ADHD symptoms in relation to the patient’s country of origin.

Prenatal alcohol exposure

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) constitute a group of conditions that may arise in a person whose mother drank alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These effects can include physical, behavioral, and learning problems. Commonly, people with FASD tend to suffer from a combination of these problems. FASD is associated with cognitive and behavioral alterations which, in part, are derived from the psychosocial environment where childhood development initially occurs (O’Connor & Paley., 2009).

It seems very plausible that this type of disorder correlates to increased incidents of ADHD. In a study by Fernandez et al., 2017, they found significant relationships between FASD and attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in any of its subtypes, with a 60% increase in diagnoses among adopted children. It is unknown why the gestation process of the biological mother plays a role in the frequency of diagnoses, although normally these subjects have been assessed as a risk group due to the various circumstances arising during pregnancy. One study found that alcoholism tended to occur more frequently among children whose parents had been incarcerated, especially in Eastern Europe (Johnson., 2002). These results differ according to the study. Possible prenatal exposure to alcohol may be one of the most plausible explanations for a higher incidence of ADHD in adopted children.

A study by Langred and colleagues in 2010 examined 71 adopted children from Eastern Europe to determine whether or not they suffered from Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). The results concluded that 52% of children studied had this disorder. Researchers also found that these Children presented different behavioral problems, with ADHD having one of the highest incidence rates, with 52% being from Western populations. The prevalence of FAS is 3 to 7 cases per 1000 children; however, higher rates have been recorded when less developed subpopulations like South Africa were investigated, finding a prevalence of 68 to 89 cases. (May et al., 2007).

References

1. Abrines, N., Barcons, N., Marre, D., Brun, C., Fornieles, A., & Fumadó, V. (2012). ADHD-like symptoms and attachment in internationally adopted children. Attachment & human development, 14(4), 405-423.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.
3. Bush, G., Spencer, T. J., Holmes, J., Shin, L. M., Valera, E. M., Seidman, L. J., … & Biederman, J. (2008). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of methylphenidate and placebo in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during the multi-source interference task. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(1), 102-114.
4. Deutsch, C. K., Swanson, J. M., Bruell, J. H., Cantwell, D. P., Weinberg, F., & Baren, M. (1982). Overrepresentation of adoptees in children with attention deficit disorder. Behavior Genetics, 12(2), 231-238.
5. Faraone, S. V., Perlis, R. H., Doyle, A. E., Smoller, J. W., Goralnick, J. J., Holmgren, M. A., & Sklar, P. (2005). Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological psychiatry, 57(11), 1313-1323.
6. Fernandez-Jaen, A., Lopez-Martin, S., Albert, J., Martin, D. F. M., Fernandez-Perrone, A. L., Calleja-Perez, B., & Lopez-Arribas, S. (2017). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: from a neurodevelopmental perspective. Revista de neurologia, 64(s01), S101-S104.
7. Froehlich, T. E., Lanphear, B. P., Auinger, P., Hornung, R., Epstein, J. N., Braun, J., & Kahn, R. S.(2009). Association of tobacco and lead exposures with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 124(6), e1054–e1063,
8. Glover, V. (2015). Prenatal stress and its effects on the fetus and the child: possible underlying biological mechanisms. In Perinatal programming of neurodevelopment (pp. 269-283). Springer, New York, NY.
9. Gunnar, M. R., & Van Dulmen, M. H. (2007). Behavior problems in postinstitutionalized internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology, 19(1), 129-148.
10. Jacobs, E., Miller, L. C., & Tirella, L. G. (2010). Developmental and behavioral performance of internationally adopted preschoolers: A pilot study. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 41(1), 15-29.
11. Johnson, D. E. (2002). Adoption and the effect on children’s development. Early human development, 68(1), 39-54.
12. Maclean, K. (2003). The impact of institutionalization on child development. Development and Psychopathology, 15(4), 853-884.
13. May, P. A., Gossage, J. P., Marais, A. S., Adnams, C. M., Hoyme, H. E., Jones, K. L., … & Hendricks, L. (2007). The epidemiology of fetal alcohol syndrome and partial FAS in a South African community. Drug and alcohol dependence, 88(2-3), 259-271.
14. O’Connor, M. J., & Paley, B. (2009). Psychiatric conditions associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. Developmental disabilities research reviews, 15(3), 225-234.
15. Rutter, M., Andersen-Wood, L., Beckett, C., Bredenkamp, D., Castle, J., Groothues, C., … & O’Connor, T. G. (1999). Quasi-autistic patterns following severe early global privation. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(4), 537-549.
16. Sprich, S., Biederman, J., Crawford, M. H., Mundy, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(11), 1432-1437.
17. Simmel, C., Brooks, D., Barth, R. P., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2001). Externalizing symptomatology among adoptive youth: Prevalence and preadoption risk factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(1), 57-69.
18. Verhulst, F. C., Althaus, M., & Versluis-Den Bieman, H. J. (1990). Problem behavior in international adoptees: I. An epidemiological study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(1), 94-103.

Introduction

The Cambridge Dictionary defines adoption as ‘the act of legally taking a child to be taken care of as your own.’ (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.). It is something that can give children a better life when their parents are not there or are not fit to take care of them. Even though certain guidelines say that every child has the right to grow up in a family environment, this is not always possible. Sometimes this can even mean that a child can be taken out of their country of origin to grow up in a stable and loving environment. This form of adoption is called intercountry adoption and has sparked controversy in recent years with even celebrities adopting children from other countries. This controversy is especially present around adoption from third-world countries. On the one hand, it is seen as a way to help a child grow up in a better environment but on the other hand, many feel that it is a form of exploitation and that when adoption becomes transracial children can lose their ethnic identity. Another issue surrounding intercountry adoption is whether the adoption system works in protecting children. When trying to figure out whether adoption is ethical there are three things to be looked at: The first is why people adopt, the next is what kind of effect intercountry adoption has on children, and last whether the adoption system can be fixed or altered to ensure the wellbeing of children.

Why do people adopt?

When looking at the question of whether adoption is fair, it is important to consider why people adopt children. There are different types of reasons why people choose to adopt. First are medical reasons. One of the most common reasons for adoption is infertility. Some couples cannot have a biological child even after months or even years of treatments and use adoption as a last resort to still have children or because they know for certain they will have a child at the end of the process, whereas this can be uncertain with infertility treatments. Then some women have medical issues that make it either impossible or very dangerous for them to be pregnant. For them, adoption is also an option to become a mother without risking their health. The last medical reason is that some couples are worried that they will pass down a genetic disease or disorder. If they are aware that there is a high risk of passing a disease down to a biological child, they could opt for adoption instead to ensure that they have a healthy child.

In some cases, it is impossible to have children the natural way. A single man or woman could realize that without a partner there is no way to have children the natural way and so adoption is one of the only other options to still become a parent. Same-sex couples could also decide to adopt if they do not want only one of the parents to have a genetic connection to the child through for example IVF.

Some couples choose to adopt because they want an older child. They might not be ready to raise a child from birth and adopt a teenager because they are more interested or prepared for that. Other couples decide that they want their child to be a certain gender and adopt so that this gender is guaranteed. The incorporation of different ethnicities into a family can be another incentive for couples to adopt. The issue with the reasoning of wanting a specific ethnicity is that many find it unnecessary and even exploitation of the child to adopt them just for the sole reason of wanting a different ethnicity within a family. This often results in intercountry or interracial adoption which could lead to a negative effect on the children or family when not thought through.

Another type of motive for adoption could be to help out family or friends. Some couples adopt the child of a friend or family member who is not capable of raising the child or because the mother is not ready to have a child and has other life plans. In other cases when a parent gets remarried the stepparent can adopt the stepchild to gain legal benefits and blend the family.

People also adopt because they want to help a child in need. They want to offer a child safety and stability that they wouldn’t have otherwise. This is often the case with intercountry adoption because people think they can give the child a better upbringing in a different country where there is more opportunity. When couples adopt for this reason it brings issues since some consider it as doing a good deed and can make a child feel like they should always be grateful which in turn can affect them negatively.

Religion can also influence couples to adopt. Some people feel like it is their calling due to their religion or ethical values. In this case, it is not just because they want a child but because adoption may have been something, they believed they had to do for years.

Adoption is also common for people who were adopted themselves. If it worked out well for them, they may want to give the same opportunity to someone else. Couples could also be inspired by people close to them who have adopted children and consider it to add to their family (American Adoptions, 2011).

What effect does intercountry adoption have on children?

The positive effects of adoption are that a child gets to grow up with more opportunities than they would have had where they were from. They can be raised in a safe, loving environment that can offer them stability. That would be the argument that is used to defend intercountry adoption when looking at how it impacts the lives of the children. Despite this argument, many arguments against it claim a negative effect on children.

According to UNICEF, there have been more and more efforts to ensure that adoptions are transparent, non-exploitative, legal and work to benefit the children and families involved. The issue is that in some cases adoptions do not meet the requirements and the procedures in place are not effective in preventing unethical practices such as child trafficking, child abduction, coercion of birth parents, bribery, and forgery of documents (UNICEF, 2015).

Although it is argued that helping one child is better than helping none. Many critics argue that intercountry adoption only helps a comparatively small number of children and might obstruct countries from creating programs that would benefit most of the children who suffer due to poverty or political issues. Birth parents suffering poverty and hardship are often more vulnerable to coercion into giving up their child for financial gain and because of limited post-adoption contact opportunities these children often become completely disconnected from their heritage. The growth in intercountry adoption and the increase in the supply and demand of children have created market-related conditions for the legitimate trade of children. Under these circumstances, it becomes very hard to protect the rights of the child since the nature of adoptions becomes commercial. This also raises concerns that the adoption process’s legality could become less of a concern due to the wealth of the adopter or agency. Then there is also the concern that intercountry adoptions could be used for trafficking, which is often ignored. This also is a major risk for children who are already in a very vulnerable position (ZERO TO THREE Corner, 2010).

Intercountry adoption is often transracial, which can have serious effects on both the child and the family involved. Therefore, this is also a very controversial subject to most. The majority of social workers will accept that it is better to place a child with a loving family regardless of their ethnic background and that with sensitive parenting it is possible to keep a child close to their heritage despite a difference in race. Many adoption agencies say that it is better to place a child with a family of the same background since they can offer a child a role model and are more qualified to teach the child about his or her heritage and culture. which adoptive parents may not be fully aware of or prepared for at the time of adoption. Why this is important because studies show that international adoptees are often confused about their race, ethnicity, and cultural identity, along with this they also often experience discrimination and racism which some families may not be equipped to deal with if they have not had the same experiences. Culture usually has a positive meaning but for some adopted children it can be associated with loss, deprivation, or abuse. When there is no one in place to help a child deal with their feelings and connect to their culture positively it can cause behavioral or mental issues (Time, n.d.; NCBI, 2005).

What also tends to happen with intercountry adoption is that it is expected that adoptees are grateful for the new life they have been given. It is seen as ungrateful when these adoptees share feelings of pain, uncertainty, or homesickness because the adoptive parents see themselves as savior who should be thanked. When it is suggested that these adoptees need to quiet down about their feelings not only denies the child their rights but also puts them in a situation where they do not feel like part of the family but feel like charity instead (Time, n.d.).

Children who have been adopted internationally often come from completely different cultures and deprived settings, which means that when they arrive at their new home, they will have to make major adjustments very quickly. For many children, this goes well but for some, this transition can be difficult and cause certain behavioral, developmental, and mental health issues. Internationally adopted children also are at a greater risk of exposure to infectious diseases, malnutrition, or other illnesses. In certain cases, adoptive parents are not fully aware of or prepared for these risks which can affect the child negatively (ZERO TO THREE Corner, 2010; NCBI, 2005).

One of the worst problems in adoption is also referred to as child laundering which means that a child is illegally taken from its birthparents and then the official adoption process is used to bring this child into a different country as legally adopted. When this occurs, the parents are often coerced into giving up their child with the promise of financial gain or the child is abducted. Not only is this illegal, but it means that there was no reason for this child to be taken from their family and no reason to put them through a mentally straining process that completely alters their life. (Save the Children, 2012)

Can the international adoption system be fixed or altered to ensure the well-being of children?

The adoption system can be fixed but it will take a lot of change to do so, so the question is whether those changes will be made. The 1993 Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoptions was already a large step towards reforming the adoption system. It is currently approved by 95 countries and sets out obligations for the authorities in the countries that send and receive adoptees. The Convention is designed to ensure ethical and transparent processes consider the best interests of the children and deliver the basis for the application of the ethics concerning inter-country adoption that is part of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. These obligations are making sure that only competent authorities authorize adoptions, with informed permission from all parties included, that intercountry adoption has the same standards as national adoptions, and that intercountry adoption does not cause inappropriate financial gain (UNICEF, 2015).

Even though the 1993 Hague Convention was a major step in fixing the intercountry adoption system, a lot more will have to be done for it to work as intended. In a way the adoption system legitimizes allows and maybe even causes practices such as stealing, kidnapping, trafficking, and buying of children. this can happen because of certain faults in the laws and practices in the adoption system.

The reforms that should be put in place are that agencies should be required to reveal the fees of intercountry adoption to adoptive parents in a standard format that is detailed to ensure that all the money is used as intended. These fees should only go to a certain limit to combat the parties involved making more profit than is reasonable. Along with the reforms about fees, the agencies need to be able to be held accountable through liability insurance and should also be held accountable for their foreign partners. Lastly, the licensing and regulations for adoption agencies should be more strict

There are certain complications with implementing these reforms, one being that it is doubtful that they will be popular within the adoption agencies. Another is that families in developing countries are vulnerable and do not have a voice in most countries that bring in a lot of adopted children. Their kids usually do not even know about their origins and the fact that they were illegally taken and if they do, they usually will not come forward. In politics, it is probably also not a priority since the families in sending countries are not a part of the country they are sent to, and so they are invisible to the government of the receiving country and those governments are also dealing with more pressing matters. Even the authorities that are supposed to target child trafficking and children’s rights might disregard this issue if they are directed to focus on trafficking for sex or labor.

(Child laundering: how the intercountry adoption system legitimizes and incentivizes the practices of buying, trafficking, kidnapping, and stealing children, 2006)

Conclusion

The question of whether adoption from third-world countries is ethical is a difficult one and may to some always remain unanswerable. The answer to this question was found using three sub-questions:

• Why do people adopt?
• What effect does intercountry adoption have on children?
• Can the international adoption system be fixed or altered to ensure the well-being of children?

From the answer to the first sub-question, one can conclude that there are a lot of reasons why people choose to adopt and that there are certain reasons that have caused further scrutiny by critics because they could seem as if they are not in the best interest of the child. The next sub-question gives alternative outcomes to how a child is affected depending on how the process works but even in the best case could still have some sort of a negative effect, which would already give enough reason to say that intercountry adoption might not be the best option. The last sub-question complicates the final answer even more since the adoption system can be fixed but if nothing changes it could be better not to risk putting children in such a vulnerable position. All in all, the question of whether adoption from third world countries should be answered with yes or no.

Yes, it is ethical if the adoptive parents do it for the right reasons, are given the right resources to be able to give their child the guidance needed in that situation, and if the adoption process goes legally as it was intended to.

No, it is not ethical when adoptive parents do not choose adoption for the right reason, are not prepared to give the child the guidance needed, and when the system fails.

Bibliography

1. ADOPTION | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2018, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/adoption
2. Intercountry adoption. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2018, from https://www.unicef.org/media/intercountry-adoption
3. Intercountry Adoption [PDF]. (2012, June).
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6. Smolin, D. M. (2006). CHILD LAUNDERING: HOW THE INTERCOUNTRY ADOPTION SYSTEM LEGITIMIZES AND INCENTIVIZES THE PRACTICES OF BUYING, TRAFFICKING, KIDNAPING, AND STEALING CHILDREN [PDF].
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8. Weitzman, C., & Albers, L. (2005, October). Long-term developmental, behavioral, and attachment outcomes after international adoption. Retrieved December 19, 2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16154469
9. ‘What does adoption mean to a child?’ (n.d.). Retrieved January 2, 2019, from https://www.americanadoptions.com/adopt/why-people-adopt

Children are being placed in foster care all over the world. The reasons can vary some kids are left to fend for themselves because their parents don’t want them or something tragic happens and there is no one left to care for the child or children. LGBT youth are extremely over-represented in the foster care world. The LGBT youth community comprises about 5 to 10 percent of the total foster youth population of approximately 408,425 in the United States. (Abbott, Shoe, Hiniker, Holger-Ambrose, Staudenmaie). When you look at those numbers you might think that this isn’t a lot but in reality, that’s just a rough estimate of the youth that have come out to their facilities or homes. There are factors for kids who identify as LGBT that can be the same as those who don’t identify; however, these kids can experience things in harsher ways than those who don’t identify as LGBT. They face additional challenges in learning to manage a stigmatized identity and to cope with social, educational, and community environments in which victimization and harassment are the norms according to Abbott, Shoe, Hiniker, Holger-Ambrose, and Staudenmaie. There are things we know about the LGBT community in foster care but more concrete research has to be done. Fields explains “We know, for example, that children who are LGBT are more likely to be placed in group settings and experience multiple placements. They are less likely to achieve permanence.” (Field, 2018) These kids need people to listen to them, help them and most of all accept them for who they are.

The people you think will be there to help are the same people that do the discriminate against LGBT kids. The discrimination these children face varies but it is seen mostly as being biased, judgmental, or unaccepting. Stigma and discrimination are the natural consequences of these people’s unaccepting attitudes and beliefs. (Salazar, McCowan, Cole, Skinner, Noell, Colito, Haggerty, & Barkan, 2018). The caregivers, foster families, jobs, social workers, and their own families can be the sources of unfair treatment. The same people that these kids depend on after they are taken out of their homes and placed into unknown territory. Some people can be considered Homophobic, which is defined as a fear or hatred of people who are attracted to, or intimate with, members of the same sex or there are often signs of Heterosexism at an institutional level; that is, in the form of laws or policies which provide rights or privileges to heterosexual, but not LGBT, individuals (Ross, Epstein, Goldfinger, Steele, Anderson, & Strike, 2008). The hardships that these kids endure are more than we know and then to come and be judged for the way you are adding on a whole new level of fear and pressure. When the child is in the care of the foster system it is the responsibility of the people around that person to support them, listen, and be understanding. Foster care is supposed to be a fresh start for these children with fair treatment, not exclusion because they are being themselves.

Despite the social changes towards the LGBT community, many legal challenges still arise for sexual- and gender-minority parents, regarding adoption or in this case the lack of adoptions. Just as these kids are being discriminated against so are the LGBT adults that are trying to adopt them. This discrimination reduces the number of people who are willing to take LGBT kids because of the treatment by the system. Some countries or states go as far as to restrict the adoption of children by openly lesbian, gay, or bisexual people. (Ross, Epstein, Goldfinger, Steele, Anderson, & Strike, 2008). However, adoption is one of the only ways that LGBT couples can have children so not only are these people keeping kids from getting families, they are restricting people from becoming parents. LGBT partners are discriminated against based on who they love and the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services has done are trying to restrict LGBT families by not allowing them to have a joint- adoption. (Family Equality Council, 2017). Thus restricting their options and dreams of having a family. In the United States, same-sex couples are more likely than heterosexual couples to have adopted children; however, this isn’t allowed to happen because these parents are being discriminated against. (Farr, & Goldberg, 2018). Everyone has a right to fair and equal treatment no matter what and these biases are creating an environment unwelcoming to the LGBT community. This has to change for the system to change.

One of the biggest problems regarding LGBT foster kids is the fact that they aren’t being treated fairly in protective services. These children are being discriminated against for their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. The objective of foster care is defined by the Human Rights Campaign as “24-hour substitute care for children placed away from their parents or guardians and for whom the [State] agency has placement and care responsibility.” This means that it is supposed to be a place for children to feel accepted, safe, and be treated fairly. Their caregivers are supposed to [make the effort to] learn more about the children and young people—including their intersecting racial and ethnic identities—which will help them to better meet their needs, address disproportionate entries, and improve what have often been dismal child outcomes according to the statement of Field. Workers should be able to give out cues as to their status on discussing issues of gender/sexual orientation; however, they can be seen looking for these cues in the child which can make for uncomfortable and tense situations. Every child is supposed to be given equal treatment but that just is not the case in this situation. The Human Rights Campaign (HRC) quotes a statement by Barack Obama that reflects the way that a foster home is supposed to be. He says “All young people, regardless of what they look like, which religion they follow, who they love, or the gender they identify with, deserve the chance to dream and grow in a loving, permanent home.” This is the dream for all children that are taken from their homes and placed into the system unfortunately, it is still a dream for most LGBT children.

For years the LGBT community and people who support the community have been fighting for equal treatment and representation. In the foster care system, people are trying to stop the discrimination happening towards LGBT children. In one specific case, we have Jennifer Redmond who runs a group home in Laveen that houses only LGBT foster teens. Her motto is “working on understanding definitions, understanding what LGBT means so that our staff understands pronouns, things that kids would like to be called,” said Redmond. She is one person trying to make things better for the whole group one step at a time. She is leading a wave of change that needs more awareness and exposure. People need to understand what these children experience. They are just kids trying to find their way in the world one step at a time. They need the same support and guidance as any other child would.

Introduction

The idea of adoption has usually been acquainted to us, however, have we ever puzzled about what precisely its method is and what its roots are? A thrilling truth indicates that the adoption of youngsters dates lower back to historical Rome. In this essay, I will be conscious of precisely the period of Adoption and its relation to regulation, in addition to the opinion of younger humans inside the Republic of Macedonia approximately it. Adoption troubles are at the upward thrust and are not unusual place trouble for younger mothers and fathers who are determined to take this step. I may also be talking approximately the records of adoption from historical Rome to the present day. At the cease of this essay I can supply the fast survey that changed into a request for younger humans in my municipality. This essay investigates the evolution of adoption through time and humans’s perceptions of adoption. Adoption in Macedonia is a nearly unknown period due to the fact for most younger couples it is a taboo subject matter and as a result, many youngsters who’ve misplaced their mother and father are doomed to be placed on a ready listing to be followed with the aid of using an own circle of relatives as I stated on this essay.

History of adoption: Ancient Rome till the 1600s

The period of Adoption dates lower back to historical Rome. Back in the sixth century in Roman regulation, Codex Justinianus treated this difficulty so that households with few male heirs ought to undertake every other son that allows you to lightly distribute the wealth inside the own circle of relatives. Adoption persevered on this route throughout the Byzantine Empire, however with the arrival of the Middle Ages slowly certainly the policies of adoption changed. This is wherein the opinion of nations like France, Italy, and England that ban Adoption comes into play. The motive for that is due to the fact they believed that the entirety that changed into materially acquired, ought to stay a few of the royal blood. At the same time, the exercise of leaving youngsters in a monastery with the aid of bad households who had been not able to take care of them started, so that later the youngsters may be looked after with the aid of using a noble circle of relatives or the monastery itself. The monastery typically took care of those youngsters as much as a certain age so as for those youngsters to later grow to be clergymen and serve the Church. But with the upward thrust of such instances, the primary troubles concerning the adoption of the monasteries arose and the church determined that the following step could be to open the primary orphanages in Europe. The inflow of deserted youngsters will fill the orphanages and it’ll visit the volume that every one monasteries, orphanages in addition to non-public and public homes can be overcrowded without the opportunity of assisting those orphans. These households will cope with the youngsters and the youngsters may have the possibility to analyze a change with which they may be sufficiently educated for the relaxation in their lives. Interestingly, I got here through a few very essential statistics The world’s first followed infant changed into 7-year-antique Benjamin Ethanon, who lived and labored inside the Jamestown colony in 1636.

History of Adoption: nineteenth to twentieth century

As time went on with the aid of using, the shape of adoption advanced increasingly more. It changed into not visible simplest as being concerned for a kid as much as the age of 18 or simply because of the belief that the kid could be a likely inheritor to the own circle of relatives however adoption changed into being used to sell the high-quality hobby withinside the infant withinside the depend of circumstances. In 1851, the Massachusetts Child Adoption Act became the primary adoption regulation to shield kid’s rights. The courtroom docket may have the assignment of figuring out whether or not the adoptive mother and father had the consent of the organic mother and father of the kid to be his or her guardians. Furthermore, the primary assignment of the adoptive mother and father changed into offering a cushy existence for the kid and offering them the appropriate training. Unfortunately, with the evolution of cutting-edge guns and the arrival of the First World War, the variety of orphans will grow and the orphanages can be overcrowded. In 1954, Charles Loring Brans, director of the Society for the Care of Neglected Children, came up with the concept of transporting those youngsters from city regions along with New York to rural regions inside the Midwest. Some reviews around 120,000 youngsters have now no longer been cared for with the aid of households inside the Middle East and plenty have died in unlucky circumstances. Yet even though Orphan Trains had been under doubtful circumstances, this increased the concept of cutting-edge orphanages In 1891, Michigan became the primary nation to invite judges to approve the Moral Character of Potential Adopters to assist and teach orphans. After this, many states started to skip legal guidelines permitting the adoption of orphans, after which in 1909, at the White House, President Theodore Roosevelt proposed that the concept changed into to be rejected at a convention for carefree youngsters. This could bring about many states starting to enact adoption legal guidelines, mainly due to the advent of the primary American adoption corporations in 1910. Adoption changed into in large part regulation in 1917. Agencies took care of pre- and post-placement adoptions. Adoption data had been additionally marked as transferable and as such had been to be had simplest to the adoptive own circle of relatives in addition to the organic mother and father.

History of adoption: World War I till the mid-1900s

The aftermath of the First World War delivered huge numbers of orphans in addition to the 1918 flu epidemic. Adoptions persevered to upward thrust and in 1935 the Social Security Act caused improved foster care inside the United States. Before the early 1900s, most youngsters had been preschoolers, however, after the cease of the Second World War, increasingly more adoptive mothers and fathers were determined to undertake infants. Interestingly, most corporations implemented „racial matching’ wherein the enterprise will reunite households with youngsters of their very own race. As time went on, the call for toddler adoption improved, prompting corporations to take steps to develop their horizons, and this caused the primary interracial adoption, i.e. an African-American infant being given to a white mother and father. Shortly after the outbreak of World War II, worldwide adoption started, with orphans from Germany being despatched to households in Greece, Japan, or even the United States. whole the adoption of the kid inside the us wherein it changed into despatched. This procedure persevered, and throughout the Fifties, the outbreak of the Vietnam and Korean Wars brought about a fair extra variety of orphans. Harry and Bertha Holt’s selection changed into to foyer for the Congress to undertake those ready youngsters. This additionally led the circle of relatives to set up the primary worldwide adoption enterprise, Holt International Children’s Services, which nonetheless exists today. A wide variety of home adoptions within the United States changed in 1970, while the discern approached 175,000 instances in keeping with the year. Approximately eighty percent of them had been shriveled with the aid of corporations. In 1975, Delaware became the primary nation to prohibit enterprise-facilitated adoptions and plenty of states observed suit. In the years that observed, the adoption fee declined because of the provision of contraceptives. This led destiny potential adopters to recollect extra interracial and transnational adoptions as a manner of constructing their households at the same time the growing adoption of youngsters with disabilities started.

History of Adoption: Nineteen Sixties to Today

During the Nineteen Sixties, corporations started to perceive youngsters who had been inside the procedure of being followed. These youngsters had been categorized as youngsters with unique desires due to their identified disability, their age, their appointment as a part of a sibling organization, or even their race. Increased efforts to keep training for those youngsters have brought about the adoption of unique desires adoption turning into extra broadly accepted. This approach is usually a quicker manner to adopt with the aid of using ready households. The Hague Convention on the Protection of Children entered into pressure in 1993. This conference laid down the policies and guidelines referring to the implementation of the adoption of those instances and, of specific importance, ensured that each adoption change into achieved within the maximum criminal and ethnically viable manner. This changed into specifically essential as rumors surfaced of essential corrupt adoption regulations around the arena. It additionally had a terrible impact as many nations rushed to shut their doorways to worldwide adoption (Guatemala in 2008).

Survey results

In the following component, I will speak the information received from the studies I performed in the territory of the metropolis of Skopje, extra in particular within the municipality of Gjorce Petrov. Based on the amassed information, I acquired statistics that 70% of the respondents are girls, and at the same time as the last 30% are male.

These statistics suggest that girls are freer to present their opinion on this subject matter at the same time as men nonetheless desire to preserve their opinion to themselves. When asked if they stated the period of Adoption, 97% of respondents stated they were acquainted with the period, and at the same time the opposite 2% stated they had been unexpected with the period.

On the query of what adoption is, those are a number of the critiques I acquired:

If the solution to the preceding query changed into sure ought to you in brief explain what adoption is?

1. Adoption is when companions determine to legally gain an infant that has no mother and father and lives in foster care that has been assigned with the aid of the government. The mother and father take the kid as their very own (the kid gets their surname, lives with them … essentially will become their criminal infant even though they’re now no longer the kid’s organic mother and father.)
2. Taking care, loving, and developing a domestic for youngsters that don’t have it or get hold of it.
3. Adoption is a procedure wherein you may undertake an infant so you can boost it as your very own.
4. An adoption is the procedure through which a character can follow to harbor an infant to attend to him and offer fundamental methods like food, refuge, and well-being.
5. Adoption is a procedure while and character can get criminal guardianship over a child who’s in a specialized organization for deserted youngsters.
6. Adoption is when a person who isn’t an organic discern to at least one infant decides to attend to it and grow to be its discern or a criminal parent.
7. Taking care of an infant that biologically isn’t yours, but legally is.

In the following example, I have observed that the share of mother and father who determine in this step is extraordinarily high. 84% stated that they understand the motives why such a lot of younger mothers and fathers determine in this step and at the same time the last 15% no longer supply their answer.

These are a number of the subsequent critiques:

1. Because they can’t have youngsters on their very own.
2. Fertility troubles on each or simply one side, identical intercourse couples, now no longer looking a being pregnant but looking a their circle of relatives.
3. Most of the time it’s far because mother and father can’t have an infant for a few motives.
4. They can’t have youngsters because of scientific motives, they’re in a gay marriage and can’t conceive an infant, they need to feature a brand new man or woman to their circle of relatives however do now no longer need to head through the start procedure. .. and plenty of extra motives.
5. If one younger couple looks like they are able to make a store domestic for a person, or perhaps if they need their circle of relatives but can’t have youngsters due to scientific motives, they’re adopting.
6. Maybe the couple can’t have organic youngsters, perhaps they need to assist the youngsters who are orphaned perhaps they’re a gay couple … and plenty of extra motives
7. They need extra youngsters, they’re now no longer capable of conceiving on their very own …
8. Infertility, not able to duplicate thru anatomy, assist
9. Not being capable of producing their very own infant or in reality looking after the existence of an infant without an organic mother and father.
10. A couple can determine to undertake an infant if one of the associates is infertile, or in standard a pair ought to determine to undertake an infant even though they have an infant it’s far a query of empathy.
11. Adoption is a while companion determined to legally gain an infant that has no mother and father and lives in foster care that has been assigned with the aid of the government. The mother and father take the kid as their very own ( the kid receives their surname, lives with them… essentially will become their criminal infant even though they’re now no longer the kid’s organic mother and father.
12. Adoption is a procedure while and character can get criminal guardianship over a child who’s in a specialized enterprise for deserted youngsters
13. selection to take an infant, to undertake, while u could have your very own
14. Stepping right into a discern or parent position to someone who doesn’t have one
15. Adoption is a procedure wherein u can undertake an infant so u can boost it as your very own.
16. Giving a loving domestic to an infant that has misplaced his discern
17. The procedure of legally taking every other’s infant and bringing it up as one’s very own.
18. Someone above the age of 18 looking after an infant
19. Taking every other’s infant to be legally yours.
20. Adoption is the act of taking something on as your very own.
21. Adoption is when a person who isn’t an organic discern to at least one infant decides to attend to it and grow to be it discern.
22. Taking care, loving, and developing a domestic for youngsters that do not have it or get hold of it.
23. Taking care of an infant that biologically isn’t yours, but legally is short – orphan-deserted infant receives new own circle of relatives
24. Adoption is whilst you undertake an infant
25. An adoption is the procedure through which a character can follow to harbor an infant to attend to him and offer fundamental methods like food, refuge, and precise well-being.
26. Adoption is when someone legally is looking after every other infant and bringing it up as one’s very own.
27. Process wherein someone is parenting every other typically an infant from that people organic mother and father.
28. People who need to assist and offer domestic undertake youngsters without a mother and father.

In the following query requested by the respondents, 55% stated that they understand a person from a near own circle of relatives or an acknowledged man or woman who determined in this step.

The subsequent query changed into associated with how widely known the information may be approximately an adoptive discern.

36% of the solutions are girls and at the same time the last 63% are male, right here we can see that the male populace is extra knowledgeable approximately this difficulty.

This query refers back to the criminal documentation that desires to be used inside the procedure of adoption of an infant and this devastating truth indicates to us the actual photograph of the adoption procedure inside the Republic of Macedonia.

In the following query, we can see a number of the motives that could deter respondents from adopting an infant.

In the Republic of Macedonia, of course, some folks aren’t healthy of adopting youngsters. In this difficulty, the respondents needed to give an explanation for which organization of humans isn’t appropriate for adopting an infant.

Finally, the respondents needed to supply a very last grade for this survey

Conclusion

Throughout the records, we can see that adoption is a period that has been acknowledged in the arena when you consider that historical Rome. Adoption is an exhausting procedure that many younger couples face. As I stated, that is an herbal procedure and ought to now no longer be understood with a terrible impact. My opinion is that with the aid of using commencing extra houses for orphans, we can be capable of supplying a healthy domestic and a loving existence to many youngsters.

The truth that the orphanages in Macedonia are already complete and there are fewer and fewer confirms the statistics that youngsters without mother and father and domestic will discover their lifestyles on the streets and consequently supplement the already darkish photograph of the state of affairs in Macedonia.

References

1. https: adoption.or what-is-the-records-of-adoption
2. https: adoption network.com records-of-adoption
3. https:www.adoptionchoices.orgrecords-of-adoption-and-statistics
4. https: docs. google.comformsd1fmdzt_pJsfs_EFQBYosoX348Ker-peRECOQs6ApcqJcedit

 

Since forever, ‘nature vs. nurture’ has been a battle between whether the environment of an individual or their genetic makeup shapes their personality and social development more. While nature refers to genetics and biology, nurture refers to external factors that influence a person’s behavior after pregnancy, such as life experiences and parental influences. Psychological researchers are exploring the various ways in which nature influences and nurtures (S. McLeod, 2018). Most people agree that nature and nurture both are important and that without either one a person could not develop to her fullest potential. Yet, most of these studies affirm that genes are of greater influence when it comes to comparing adopted versus biological children. This allows one to think about the possibility of genes contributing more to adopted children’s behavioral and adjustment problems as compared to the environment being more influential. The genetics and environment of adopted children increase the chances of behavioral problems, although genes and the environment play a role, genes are more dominant.

Adoption is the permanent legal transfer of all parental rights from one person or couple to another person or couple. Adoptive parents have the same rights and responsibilities as biological parents and adopted children have all of the emotional, social, legal, and kinship benefits of biological children. Since ancient times, people have adopted children. Adoptees’ numbers were last collected in 1992 by The Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute. Around 127,000 adoptions took place in the U.S. in 1992. According to statistics from 2008, there are 1.5 million adopted children in the U.S. Adoption makes up 2 percent of all U.S. children (Donaldson, 2008). Children who have been adopted or born naturally are not genetically related, so any resemblance resulting from the environment between the siblings would be unavoidable. Also, genetic risk can be measured using data about biological parents.

• Different adoption methods are available under the law because different families have different needs, there are several types of adoption:
• Interracial Adoption:( transracial adoption) means placing a child from one race or ethnicity with adoptive parents from a different race or ethnicity.
• International Adoption: The process of recognizing someone as the legal and permanent parent (s) of a child born abroad conforms to the laws of the country where the parent and the child reside.
• Relative Adoption: it occurs when a biological relative legally adopts a child.
• Stepchild Adoption: it occurs when a spouse of a child’s parent legally adopts the child.
• Adopting Adults: an individual who is of legal age and who voluntarily consents to adoption can be adopted.
• Homosexual Adoption: refers to the adoption of children by lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgenders (LGBT).
• Open Adoption: during and after the adoption process, birth families and adoptive families share identifying information. This form is the worst because reduced ability to assimilate the child into a family.

In conclusion, adopting a child can happen at any time, so keeping them in institutions for a long time is unfair. In addition, when couples cannot have children, adoption allows them to create a family then providing children with opportunities makes them feel safer and more protected at home and that is a simple right of their rights. Finally, adoption is one of the most beneficial contributions a person could make to society because you are giving a child a home instead of forcing them to live in an institution for the rest of their lives.

References

1. McLeod, S. (n.d.). Nature vs. nurture in psychology. Retrieved April 06, 2021.
2. Donaldson Adoption Institute. NCAP. (n.d.). https:www.nationalcenteronadoptionandpermanency.netai-research.
3. Immigration, R. and C. C. (2021, July 12). Government of Canada. International adoption – Canada.ca.
4. https:www.canada.caenimmigration-refugees-citizenshipservicescanadiansadopt-child-abroadprocesses.html.
5. What Is Adoption? | Adoption Council of Ontario. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from https:www.adoption.on.cawhat-is-adoption.
6. Learn about the different types of adoption – Steps to Justice. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from https:stepstojustice.castepsfamily-law1-learn-about-different-types-adoption.

Imagine a picturesque American couple who just arrived home from their trip across the world. Unlike their departure from their home a month earlier, they are carrying a baby, and they both have smiles stretched across their faces. They just adopted a child from a poverty and crime-riddled country. Little did they know across the world there is a similar couple who mourns the loss of the child they just gained. A couple who would have loved and raised this child to become a happy adult. For years more developed countries (MDCs) and less developed countries (LDCs) have had a toxic relationship; MDCs, namely the US, have a consistently growing demand for needy and internationally adopted children, which the LDCs supply them with by whatever means necessary. With high demand comes a high price, which the corrupted adoption agencies soak up. There is very little regulation on adoptions which allows criminals to take advantage of residents of LDCs. The government should create new policies regarding international adoption because currently the system is riddled with kidnapping, fraud, and corruption.

Kidnapping infants to put up for adoption has become a popular crime within less developed countries. This crime was found to be committed several times around the globe for the purpose of international adoption. Defense for Children International (DCI) conducted a study in Pichincha (Italy) when the number of children adopted drastically increased. They discovered that kidnapping fueled the high adoption rate, and the popular location for this crime was at busy marketplaces since “the vast majority [of salespersons] take their children to work with them because other child care options are not available, individuals… would take advantage of busy moments to spirit away the vendor’s infant or toddler when the vendor was involved in making a sale” (Fiewager, 2). Parents’ unfortunate financial situations force them into a position vulnerable to criminals who rip their children away from them. Such a tragic crime should not become a trend, and parents should not be punished for their lack of funds for daycare. Pichincha was not the only location where a similar appalling crime was committed; child abduction was also a frequent crime in Guatemala. One tragic example of this was one of Raquel Par. In 2006, Raquel Par, a Guatemalan woman, reported being drugged on a bus, waking up to find her year-old baby missing; in 2007, Par learned that her daughter had been adopted by an American couple. This tore Raquel apart: no parent should have to suffer such a tragedy. As horrific as these crimes are they are still present in the world and affect many.

Adoption agencies also often use parents’ lack of education in LDCs as prey for loving parents. Education is greatly lacking in LDCs, so many lower-income parents never learn to read or write. One of these parents was Abbo, a Ugandan woman whose husband left her and only wanted the best for her child. When Abbo heard an American couple was willing to sponsor her child’s education, she quickly agreed to send her child to boarding school with the occasional visit. Unfortunately, this dream opportunity did not turn out as Abbo had wished; she had agreed to give up her parental rights (Cavell, 4). The adoption agency used Abbo’s illiteracy and longing for a bright future for her son to get her to give up her child unknowingly. This appalling crime was particularly recurring in Brazil. Similar to Abbo, many parents were taken advantage of for their illiteracy, but they also used their lack of knowledge of legal terminology to deceive the parents (Cardarello, 3). These fraudulent adoptions take advantage of the parents who only wish the best for their children.

The demand for adoptive children allows adoption agencies to upcharge parents in more developed countries and then misuse the profit for their own benefit. Families in MDCs are eager to pay outrageous prices for adopted children: “Prospective adoptive parents in the United States will pay adoption agencies between $15,000 and $35,000 for the chance to bring home a little one” (Herrman, IV). The high demand for children attracts corruption within the system. In Cambodia, this issue became very apparent when ICE agents investigated several suspicious orphanages. They discovered that these so-called orphanages were dumps smelling of feces full of rusty cribs covered in excrement. In some places, the babies were naked and filthy and kept in ‘stash houses’. These conditions were particularly outrageous because “Each time an adoption took place, $3,500 was given to this criminal enterprise by the adoptive parents for the betterment of the orphans left behind in Cambodia. The [adoption agencies], however, used the donated orphan funds to buy beachfront real estate in Hawaii and other luxury items” (Herman, 5). Adoption agencies are commonly operating with their own interest in mind, leaving the children to suffer horrific circumstances.

In addition to the problems within LDCs, issues are also present within the legislation regarding international adoption. There is an extreme lack of regulation of intercountry adoptions and there are no requirements for countries to follow. Multiple acts encourage reform, but few countries actually implement them. There are optional conventions that are more restrictive than countries can apply, but if countries choose not to do so, the only regulations are that of the optimistic but unsuccessful act (Herrman, part C). In addition to this lack of legislation, the system of reporting unethical adoptions is also extremely dysfunctional. The Consular Section of the US Embassy has the power to approve or disapprove adoptions, but then this evaluation is sent to Homeland Security where nearly none of the adoptions are stopped (Cavell, 3). Similar to the authenticity of individual adoptions, the authenticity of adoption agencies also lacks regulation. The Council of Accreditation is meant to analyze the ethics of adoption agencies but fails to discredit all of the agencies that run through crime. Out of the 2,200 organizations “In 12 years of regulating international adoptions, the COA has canceled the accreditation of only 11 agencies and suspended 17” (Cavell, 3). The adoption system is very poorly regulated and requires much stronger action in order to conduct a system free of the horrendous crimes that strip children from their parents.

Because of the lack of legislation regarding adoptions, many adoption agencies can get away with fraudulent adoptions by using unethical lawyers and cops. Often fraudulent adoptions will be handled by few lawyers that know of the means the adoption agency used to acquire the child, and they often get a portion of their profits. It is uncommon for only a few lawyers to handle so many cases, so when this occurs, it raises suspicion. DCI found that in Pichincha Italy “one lawyer handled 33 adoptions, and another, 16. Eleven other lawyers handled five or more” (Fiewager, 2). The investigation led them to a string of fraudulent adoptions. A similar case was found in Brazil, but much more dramatic. In Itaguaí, Brazil, 480 children were adopted, 200 of whom were international adoptions. Only one lawyer and one judge handled all of these cases which raised suspicion, but “the Human Rights Commission of the Legislative Assembly of Saõ Paulo and a commission of parliamentary inquiry of the Federal 226 A. Cardarello Senate produced two reports denouncing irregularities in the adoption procedures of the children of the families concerned. According to these reports, in more than one case, allegations of child abuse and abandonment have never been proven” (Cardarello, 2). The rare times that people are held responsible for the crimes committed in the adoption system lawyers are found guilty. In Parana, Brazil, “police arrested six people for child-trafficking. Of the six, three were lawyers, and one was a Civil Police Force support agent. They had been involved in the sale of children to couples all over Brazil” (Cardarello, 13). Corruption has leaked into the authority figures that are supposed to prevent crime, which makes these cruel crimes that much harder to stop.

Some involved with adoption agencies argue that there is not enough evidence of the crimes surrounding adoption, but this claim is purely a result of ignorance and their own financial gain. The presence of these crimes is not only defended by the evidence above, they also have been documented in various LDCs all over the world: “Numerous instances of corruption have been documented in Latin America, Romania, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Guatemala, as well as recent studies by the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly demonstrate the prevalence of child trafficking crimes in European countries” (Hermann, part V). Along with the sufficient amount of evidence against this claim, a judge and a lawyer, who claimed they have full confidence in the adoption system, were found to have received suspicious payments from an adoption agency. Even after these payments were discovered “the judge responsible was acquitted of all accusations of irregularities by the Court of Justice of Sa˜o Paulo” (Cardarello, 4). The people who stunt the reform of the adoption system are merely ignoring the tragic crimes and keeping corruption trapped in the system.

Opponents of the reform of the international adoption system claim that children are being oppressed by the lack of adoption to foreign countries during reform, but, in reality, children are being hurt further in the adoption process. Adversaries believe the children should be brought out of their country of origin as efficiently as possible, but “Tailoring the international adoption process to maximize the amount of children adopted fails to consider the possibility that some of those children were not, in fact, ‘orphans’ in need of adoption, but rather they were wrongly taken from their homes through kidnapping, deceit or coercion” (Hermann, part V). Katherine Herrmann, an adoption lawyer in Arlington Virginia, believes: “Without protection, an orphaned child may actually suffer less than a child that is abused by the adoption process” (Herrmann, V). In addition to criminal activity surrounding the current system, this system also cannot regulate adoptions properly: “Illegal international adoptions are, by definition, beyond the reach of the law of either the sending or receiving country. Therefore, these adoptions are beyond the reach of agencies and institutions responsible for assuring the fitness of the adoptive parents and the well-being of the adopted children” (Fieweger, 3). Because of this, reform of the system is necessary for a functional and safe international adoption system.

To maintain an ethical intercountry adoption system, less developed countries need to create a stronger police presence to stop these crimes from being committed. Less developed countries lack the essential police presence to regulate just the crime within the country, let alone the crime outside of it. One woman in Uganda explained her experience just attempting to contact the police: “It takes an entire day, and costs a small fortune for Florence Babirye to get from her home in the Ugandan village of Kasolwe to Kayunga Police Station. First, there’s a motorbike taxi from the village to the nearest bus stop, then a bus to Kamuli town, a Nile crossing by ferry, and a long walk” (Cavell, 2). Police are currently inaccessible to the public in LDCs and are detached from the crime occurring around them, which allows people to commit crimes without consequences. The Development Policy Review of 2016 reported on a study that focused on twenty-seven different developing countries and concluded that “increasing police presence forces criminals to change from serious crimes to undertaking less serious crimes” (Islam, 2). Greater police presence would deter criminals from committing larger crimes such as kidnapping and fraud, and reduce their crimes to petty theft. If adoption agencies can no longer use unethical means to acquire children, then this corruption will no longer be able to leak to the higher-ups involved with international adoptions.

A moral international adoption system also requires better legislation, not tainted by corruption. Currently, the US protects people from severe forms of trafficking through the Trafficking Victims Protection Act, but international adoption crimes are not included in this; “This inclusion could serve as the foundation for further legislation, offering protection from exploitation to an even greater number of children” (Hermann, part B). In addition to a policy change within the US government, policies for adoption agencies should also be altered. Adoption agencies should be required to do more thorough documentation of each adoption, as it “would assist the Department of Homeland Security with initiating more effective investigations of potentially corrupt activity” (Herrman, part B). In addition to these policies, the Hague Adoption Convention should be enforced in all countries. The convention covers all steps of the adoption process: “It seeks to prevent child selling and ensure that parents have made their decisions freely and without undue pressure, and it requires the receiving state to vet any potential adoptive parents to ensure that they are eligible and suitable to adopt a child” (Youde, 14). Taking all three of these actions creates an airtight system that will have zero tolerance for corruption.

The current state of the international adoption system is unacceptable and is greatly in need of reform. Adoption agencies are exploiting the demand for adopted children in more developed countries by taking children by unethical means from their homes in developing countries and using the profits for their own financial gain rather than the well-being of the orphans. There is not enough regulation of the adoption system, which allows for appalling crimes like kidnapping and fraud to take place. To solve these issues, there has to be an effort internationally to create new legislation for all parties involved, as well as a stronger police presence to prevent crimes from being committed in less developed countries and allow for a strong, safe, and moral international adoption system. In conclusion, that picturesque American couple is not necessarily saving a child from a life of deprivation but rather fueling the crime and corruption within the current immoral system.

Works Cited

1. Cavell, Anna. “Those Kids Are No Longer Yours”. Nation, vol. 307, no. 11, Nov. 2018, pp. 12–17.
2. Cardarello, Andrea. “The Right to Have a Family: ‘Legal Trafficking of Children’, Adoption and Birth Control in Brazil”. Anthropology & Medicine, vol. 19, no. 2, Aug. 2012, pp. 225–240.
3. Fieweger, Mary Ellen. “Stolen Children and International Adoptions”. Child Welfare, vol. 70, no. 2, Mar. 2008, pp. 285–291.
4. Guatemala| Adoption| Gender & Justice Project| Schuster Institute| Brandeis University.” Brandeis.Edu, 2009.
5. Herrmann, Katherine. “Reestablishing the Humanitarian Approach to Adoption: The Legal and Social Change Necessary to End the Commodification of Children”. Family Law Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 3, Fall 2010, pp. 409–428.
6. Islam, Asif. “An Exploration of the Relationship Between Police Presence, Crime and Firms in Developing Countries”. Development Policy Review, vol. 34, no. 5, Sept. 2016, pp. 691–719.
7. Youde, Jeremy. “Shame, Ontological Insecurity and Intercountry Adoption”. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, vol. 27, no. 3, Sept. 2014, pp. 424–441.