Category: Administration

The development of administration theories has been influenced by periodical developments in the discipline. The search is therefore a continuous one that has moved from the classical, to the neo-classical and onto the contemporary era.

The term “administration” relates to the group of people who are in charge and are tasked with the creation and enforcement of rules and regulations. The president of South Africa, Cyril Ramaphosa and the individuals he has appointed to support him, his cabinet, are an example of administration. Below, we will discuss the ways in which the theories we today know and understand as administration, came about.

The Classical Theory of Management

The word “classical” refers to something that has been traditionally accepted or has been established for a long time. This does not, however mean that classical view are static and time bound.

The classical theory of administration was developed during the second half of the 19th Century. It reached its highest point in 1937 when the ‘Papers on the Science of Administration’ by Gulick and Urwick was published. This book is the most persuasive exposition of the classical approach. The classical theory focuses on the organisation as a whole with its characteristic features being division of work, hierarchy, impersonality, order and structure etc. However, ‘division of work’ is the central tenet of the classical theory. It also strongly advocates for the concept of the “Economic Man”. “Economic Man” simply means that man as a human-being is only motivated by monetary factors and not by social, psychological or any other factors.

The classical thinkers firmly believed that the efficiency and economy of the organisation can be maximized when it is established in accordance with certain ‘fundamental principles’. The formulation of certain principles of organisation became their most important concern. They also believed that administration is the same everywhere – administration is administration irrespective of the nature, type or content of work. Hence they concluded that the principles of organisation have universal validity.

This then brings us to our first question. What are the three types of theories in the classical approach? The classical theory developed in three streams:

• Bureaucracy
• Scientific Management and
• The Administrative theory.

1. Bureaucracy

This theory came about as a result of the Industrial Revolution (late 1700’s to late 1800’s). Three main questions arose after people started flocking to factories from farms and leaving small shops to join large companies. These questions were:

Max Weber (1864 – 1920) made many contributions to the area of organisational studies, management and organisational communication, with the main contribution being around the theory of bureaucracy. The term bureaucracy implies and organization which is characterized by rues, procedures, impersonal relations and fairly rigid hierarchy of authority-responsibility relationships. The elements of bureaucracy are a very important part of modern business, governmental and other complex organisations. The bureaucratic structure is explained below:

• Fixed division of labour among participants – division of work based on competence. A maximum possible division of labour makes it possible and easier to use all links of the organisation experts who are fully responsible for the effective fulfilment of their duties.
• Hierarchy of offices – each lower official is under the control and supervision of a higher one with each sub-ordinate being accountable to his superior for his own decisions and actions and the decisions and actions of his sub-ordinates in turn.
• Set of general rules that govern performance – a system of procedures dealing with work situations should be put in place. The procedures must be time-tested and must apply equally under the same or similar work situations.
• Rigid separation of personal life from work life –
• Selection of personnel on the basis of technical qualifications and equal treatment of all employees
• Participants view employment as a career; tenure protects against unfair arbitrary dismissal.

The advantages of bureaucracy are as follows:

• It results in consistent employee behaviour due to the fact that the rules and policies that are put in place apply to all the employees equally. Due to the predictability of the behaviour, management processes are implemented more easily.
• It does away with conflicting job duties, in that the duties and responsibilities of employees are very clearly defined.
• The organisation is able to utilize human resources to the best of their ability. For example, promotions are based on merit. As a result, the right workers are matched with the correct job which makes the use of human resource more favourable. Also, as employees gain expertise and experience, they are able to move up the hierarchy.
• The workers become specialists in their field due to the division of labour, ensuring their skills are further polished and resulting in them performing effectively.
• There is a continuance of the organisation even if certain individuals leave their position as the position is emphasised, rather than the person.

The disadvantages of bureaucracy:

• There is too much paperwork and red-tape.
• Because of the impersonal nature of the work, the employees do not really care about the organisation because there is no sense of belonging and devotion.
• Due to the overemphasis on structure, rules and regulations, the employees are unable to take initiative and grow. This also slows down or in some cases prevents needed action.
• Workers become so accustomed to routine that they resist the introduction of new operation techniques and change. “Iron Cage” where people were trapped in calculated systems that pursue efficiency and control that threatened individual freedom.

2. The Scientific Management Theory

Scientific management was vigorously supported by F. W. Taylor (1856 – 1951) who eventually became acclaimed as “the Father of Scientific Management.” He focused on analysing jobs and redesigning them so that they could be accomplished more efficiently. During the search for the best possible way to maximize performance, he developed the following scientific management principles:

• Each task must be designed in such a way so that it can replace the old, rule-of-thumb methods.
• In order for workers to be more productive in their jobs, they must be scientifically selected and trained.
• Scientifically designed jobs and workers should be brought together in order for there to be a match between them.
• There ought to be separation of duties and collaboration between the managers and workers.

Taylor emphasised the importance of employee well-fare as well as production efficiency. Wage incentives based on performance were introduced as a way to boost up productivity. The emphasis was put on maximum output with minimum effort through the elimination of waste and inefficiency at the shop floor level.

Techniques of scientific management

• Scientific Task Planning – this is the amount of work that an average worker can perform during a day under normal working conditions. Management should decide in advance as to what work is to be done, how, when, where and by who. The main objective is to ensure that the work is completed in a logical sequence which promotes maximum efficiency.
• Time and Motion Studies – the time study indicates the minimum time required by an employee to complete a certain job or task. The time taken is recorded and this information is then used to develop a time standard.
• Motion study is undertaken to find out the best arrangement of motions to do a job. As a result, the managers are then given the task of planning the work through the results of the above studies and workers are expected to do the same.
• Standards should be set in advance for the task, materials, work methods, quality, time and cost, working conditions, etc. This helps in making the process of production simpler, reducing wasteful use of resources, improving quality of work etc.
• Taylor advocated for the differential piece rate system which was based on the actual performance of the worker. Here, a worker who completes the normal work gets wages at higher rate per piece than a worker who fails to complete the same within the time limit set by management.

3. The Administration Theory.

Fayol’s 14 principles of management:

• Division of work
• Authority and responsibility
• Discipline
• Unity of command
• Subordination of individual interest to the common good
• Remuneration of personnel
• Order
• Centralization
• Scalar chain
• Equity
• Stability of tenure
• Initiative
• Esprit de corps

He also divided the totality of industrial undertaking activities into six groups:

• Technical activities
• Commercial activities
• Financial activities
• Security activities
• Accounting activities
• Administrative/Managerial activities

Fayol also emphasises the fact that these steps are always present, irrespective of the nature of the organisation.

The five main elements of administration, according to Fayol are:

• Planning
• Organising
• Command
• Coordination
• Control

The attributes of a manager or administrator are as follows:

• Physical and mental health
• Morality
• He must be generally acquainted with matters that do not exclusively belong to the function in which he is performing
• Special knowledge of the function in which he is performing, whether it is technical, commercial or financial etc.
• He must be experienced in his field of work.

The Neo-classical Theory of Management

This is the extended version of the classical theory where behavioural sciences are added to administration/management. In this theory, the social system and it’s performance is affected by human action.

The behavioural science approach emerged since the classical approach did not adequately achieve production efficiency and harmony in the workplace. As a result, there was more interest in helping the managers effectively deal with the people side of their organisations. This theory emphasised the understanding of human behaviour, needs and attitudes in the work environment.

The Human Relations Movement

This was an effort to make managers more sensitive to the needs of their employees. It arose out of the threat of unionization, Hawthorne studies and the influences of the philosophy of industrial humanism. It emphasised the satisfaction of the basic needs of the employees as the key to increased worker productivity. This particular theory also suggests that jobs should be designed to meet higher-level needs by allowing the workers to use their full potential.

Elton Mayo believed that not only the operations, machinery and finances affected the overall performance of the organisation, but also the feelings of these employees, the associations of these employees and also the relationship between managers and employees, brought about lots of changes in performance and productivity.

The Hawthorne studies were carried out in the 1920’s with the main research focus being on the relation of quality and quantity of illumination to efficiency in industry. Four important studies were undertaken:

• Illumination study – this was the practice of observing people’s behaviour to see if it in any way altered their behaviour. This was called the Hawthorne effect and indicated that productivity did, indeed, increase when studies were on and took a slump when the study was over.
• Relay assembly test room study – this was the assembly of telephone relays (35 parts – 4 machine screws). Here, researchers spent five years measuring how different variables had an impact on the productivity of groups as well as individuals. Some of the variables were the provision of food during breaks, shortening the days by 30 minutes or more and by returning to the first condition (where the output actually peaked). Overall production was found to have increased due to favourable working conditions.
• Interviewing Program – here, management basically started communicating with employees. It was not an interview, as such, but employees were asked to give suggestions during decision-making processes. The results proved that upward communication actually created a positive attitude in the work environment.
• Bank-wiring room observation study – the aim of this study was to find out how remuneration and payment incentives would affect productivity the surprising result was the fact that productivity actually decreased due to various reasons (fear that the company would lower the base rate and the existence of informal groups/cliques etc).

It was further found that social groups are able to influence production and individual work behaviour.

Some very important aspects of the behavioural science approach are:

• Communication
• Employee development
• Leadership
• Employee motivation and
• The organisation as a social system.

Some key lessons from the behavioural approach:

• People are the key to productivity
• Success depends on motivated and skilled individuals who are committed to the organisation.
• Managerial sensitivity is very important in fostering the cooperation needed for high productivity levels.

Modern Management Theory

These are the theories that emerged in the late 90’s and have, to date, transformed the way in which managers view and handle different situations in the workplace

The main modern theories are:

• The quantitative management theory which encourages managers to look into different sciences (like mathematics, physical sciences, etc) and then use these techniques to solve various managerial problems. Mathematical forecasting, for example, helps to make projections that prove to be useful in the planning process. Inventory modelling and the queuing theory can also be used.
• The Systems Approach – what this approach basically means is that it is important for one to understand major departments of an organisation, as well as the sub-units of these departments and also how all of these departments are related to one another. Under the systems approach, managers have a good view of the organisation. It also gives importance to the interdependence of the different parts of an organisation and its environment.
• The contingency view basically emphasises that there is no specific or best way to manage. Every organisation is different and faces different challenges and as a result, deals with its challenged in its own way.

It is seen in the explanation above, how the search for the true meaning and definition of administration truly is a continuous one. To some extent, it can be deduced that the principles of administration border on the same lines universally. We have also learnt that work and interpersonal behaviour of the people in organisations is influenced by many factors.

The facility at Desertcreat is a huge project for Northern Ireland with a budget of £139 million. This project is the first of its kind in the British Isles, and it will provide training facilities for the police, prison service, fire and rescue service. This will be a specialist facility accommodating training in state of the art surroundings. Taking all of this into account it is vital to get the procurement method correct in order for the project to be a success. Gordan 1994 reported “it is possible to reduce project capital costs by an average of 5% through selection of the most appropriate procurement methodology.” Sharif and Morledge describe procurement as “procurement is the framework through which construction is brought about, acquired or obtained.” (Sharif and Morledge 1996, p6) There are a number of different procurement strategies that could possibly be used in order to complete the project.

As this is a multi-million pound project funded by the government time, cost and quality all need to be considered. As this is a specialist building like no other in the country, quality will have to obviously have to be taken into consideration. This project is set to be a world leader in both design and build, which other nations can look to for guidance, as a benchmark for similar facilities in the future. The architect for this project is from America and was appointed because they designed a similar facility for the F.B.I in USA. This shows that the client wants the highest quality possible from this project.

However as this is a government funded project, cost will always be a factor. The government has set £139m as a budget. As this is taxpayer’s money they cannot go over budget and so a procurement route that minimises variations on cost may be needed.

Time is important as the fire and police services need to be able to use the facilities in order to train new recruits to be able to protect the public. I do not believe that the government is that concerned about having the project completed by a specific date, rather they would like some certainty regarding the time of completion. However I do not believe there is as much focus on time as there is on quality and cost.

I shall review the different procurement routes and select one which I feel would be best suited to my clients bespoke requirements.

Traditional

“Probably the most commonly adopted UK strategy, particularly for inexperienced and/or occasional construction clients is that of design-bid-build (traditional).” (Building Procurement, Morledge, Smith and Kashiwagi 2006, p108). Out of all the procurement routes this may be the one with the least risk associated. As the design of the project is carried out before the construction process takes place there is a certainty about the length of the project along with the design of it and total cost.

Under this procurement route the design is complete before the construction phase begins therefore there is separation between the design team and contractor. In the case of the Desertcreat project, an American design team have been selected to design the specialist facility as they have had experience on similar projects. Once that design is complete the drawings of the proposed build will be sent to obtain planning permission. Granted that the build receives permission to be constructed then contractors will be invited to submit their price upon the work. The client will be liable for the accurate nature of the quantities that are included in the bill of quantities prepared by the quantity surveyor. The client then appoints a contractor to construct the facility from the design by the contract completion date to the agreed price. The main contractor is liable for any problems that may occur during the construction phase. Morledge, Smith and Kashiwagi state that “the contractor assumes responsibility and financial risk for the construction of the building works to the design produced by the client’s architect, for the contract sum agreed and within the contract period.” (Morledge, Smith and Kashiwagi 2006, p109) For the Desercreat project this may be a viable option because it is a specialist building that requires a specialist design.

As the traditional route is design-led, the client is able to have a direct influence on the design fulfilling the clients bespoke requirements. Other advantages of the traditional procurement strategy are competitive fairness in awarding the job to the contractor. This is the case because all contractors bid on the same basis. As this is a public sector project this method is good in terms of public accountability as it is based upon competition.

However with the traditional route there are some disadvantages. In the case were the design is incomplete and there is an attempt to move the process on quickly by producing documents for tender, this may result in time and cost certainty being lost that may lead to costly legal debates. The traditional route normally takes a longer period of time compared to other strategies as construction cannot take place until the design process can be completed. Finally during the design process the contractor has no say in what is done as he or she is not appointed until later on in the process. This could cause detrimental problems in the construction stage.

Other variations in the traditional method are; a schedule of rates. Here tenderers competitively price a schedule of rates and not a Bill of Quantities. Actual quantities are measured after work has been completed, and so a contract sum is only established post construction work. This method of work is used when it is not possible to predetermine the nature of the works such as on civil engineering projects. Advantages of this method are that there is a closer working relationship with the client and contractor. However this method leads to a difficulty in predicting the prices in the long term and so it is difficult to assess value for money. As Desertcreat is a public funded project I do not believe this would be beneficial as the public always want to know where their money is being spent and if being spent wisely.

An alternative variation of the traditional strategy is the Ad-Hoc schedule of rates. This is prepared for a particular project and includes special and/or unusual items. A quantity surveyor would price the unit rates. This method is used in the situation when a design is not complete and there is some uncertainty regarding it. This procedure has its advantages as it allows for a restricted number of items to be priced which enables tenders to be submitted more accurately. However there is some uncertainty regarding the final costs and commitment.

Design & Build

Design and build is a different procurement route from traditional in that it is a fast track strategy. At the contractors own risk they can start construction work before all of the details have been agreed on the final design of the facility.

In the design and build procedure the contractor takes on full responsibility for the overall design and construction of the project, in return for a lump sum at a fixed price. Price certainty is known at an early stage. Therefore the contractor is liable for both the design and the construction of the new build. This may suit some clients in that there is only one single point of responsibility.

A variation of the design and build method is known as ‘develop and construct’, this concept is when the client appoints a designer to construct the initial concept of the design before the contractor takes overall control over completing the design and constructing the facility. At the point when the contractor takes all of the responsibility the client loses some control over the project. Any bespoke requirement that is not stated in the tender document and which the client would like to add would be classified as a change to the contract, these variations may end up becoming very expensive. Therefore it is vitally important that the design brief is fully explained and finalised before contracts are signed.

A design and build procurement route is used in the situations were the client would like an ‘off the shelf’ package deal building. In this method the client does not require any specific personal touches. In this method the building loses its aesthetic appeal.

As this is a special type of building we will need to get the planning permission before tendering. For Desertcreat the full design will be needed at the beginning to make sure the builder builds what the client wants. Also Desertcreat will need to be unique and of a high quality standard. Hence Design and Build would not suit.

Construction Management

A third procurement strategy open to the client is construction management. This is the process were a construction manager is employed to oversee and coordinate the design and construction process while constantly promoting collaboration in order to improve the project. In this process the risk is not solely on one main contractor.

This strategy is usually used when speed of completion is a priority. However the client has little certainty from beginning.

The construction manager provides professional expertise and is liable only for negligence. Once appointed he/her shall take responsibility for scheduling and costing information. In this strategy the client must appoint project management to overlook the recommendations of the construction manager, and also the client must have some sort of presence through their team that is technically aware. Therefore this route would not be suitable for inexperienced clients in the construction industry. As Desertcreat needs to built on time, this could possibly be a procurement strategy that could be used. However price certainty is not known until the end of the project.

A variation of the construction management procedure is ‘design and manage’. Here the contractor is paid to manage and take responsibility construction and design. In this way there is a lot of time saved due to the overlapping of the design and construction. However the client loses control over the design process. This would be unsuitable for Desercreat due to this point.

Discretion (Partnering)

Partnering has been described as “a structured management approach which facilitates team working across contractual boundaries by integrating the project team and smoothing the supply chain.” (Procurement, Tendering and Contract administration, Hackett, Robinson and Statham 2007) In essence partnering is a way to establish a common framework based on the same objectives and goals whilst adhering to the same agreed procedures that should be carried out.

In partnering all of the participants in the project come together and plan out all the stages of the project. The objectives that are usually set out at the beginning can be to avoid any disputes throughout the process, improvements in quality of design and build, efficiency in production and making the project within budget and on time.

Partnering carried out well can improve the whole project as a whole from design all the way through to finishing the construction of the facility. However successful partnering only works well if everyone involved takes an active and positive role. Another pitfall may be different objectives and personalities clashing with each other.

As Desertcreat is a very technical and advanced project, I feel it would be too complex a job for partnering to work well. I believe this would lead to disagreements and frustration.

Evaluation/Conclusion

From my in depth analysis of the various procurement methods available for the government, in building the Desertcreat facility, I am able to evaluate my findings. I believe that the government’s main priority is quality as this is a state of the art building that will have world class innovative technology. However as the government are using tax payers money cost will always have to be examined. The government have stated that they are willing to spend £139m, and so I believe they would wish to stay within that budget. Therefore I feel that quality with cost certainty is the main objective for the government.

The procurement strategy that I believe would most suit the Desertcreat project would be the traditional method. I have come to this conclusion due to the fact that this is a specialist design like no other in the UK and so a specialist Architect is required that has experience in this field of work. As this is a specialist building it will require a fully designed and specified tender package before construction work begins. In this case the design and construction teams will need to be separate.

References

1. Morledge, R, Smith, A and Kashiwagi, D.T. (2006) Building Procurement.Oxford. Blackwell Publishing.
2. Hackett, M, Robinson, I and Statham, G (2007) Procurement, Tendering and Contract administration, Blackwell Publishing
3. Gordan, C.M. (1994) Choosing appropriate construction contract method. Journal of Construction Engineering,120 (1), 196-210
4. Sharif, A and Morledge R. (1996) Procurement Strategies and national organisations: the dependency linkage. In: Proceedings of CIB W92 Symposium, ‘North meets South’ Procurement Systems, Durban (ed. R.G. Taylor), pp. 556-557

Abstract

Marketing plays an essential role in the healthcare industry. As an integral component of sustainable growth, it helps healthcare organizations to create, communicate and offer value to their target market. Marketing healthcare services present unique challenges in comparison to other consumer services. This is because, unlike other consumer services that deal with purchasing behavior, healthcare services deal with healthcare behaviors. This paper focuses on the marketing strategies used in healthcare. It begins by defining health care consumers and the various factors that affect their behavior. Health care consumers as used in this paper refer to people who use the services of healthcare providers, along with their family and carers. The key factors affecting consumer behavior addressed in the paper include financial, geographical, age, and social factors. The paper then addresses some of the elements that are necessary to achieve success in health care marketing and the key strategies and techniques that healthcare organizations currently use in marketing including developing a content marketing plan, asking for online reviews, cultivating a social media following, and using paid search ads.

Healthcare Administration

Marketing plays an essential role in the healthcare industry. Healthcare organizations need it to promote brand image while the public needs it to promote their health and well-being courtesy of the free health information they get. Healthcare organizations also need marketing to show patients that their practice is different from the competition and that they offer a much better option with regards to service delivery. Marketing healthcare services present unique challenges in comparison to other consumer services in that, unlike other consumer services that deals with purchasing behavior, healthcare services deal with healthcare behaviors. This paper focuses on the marketing strategies used in healthcare. It begins by defining health care consumers and the various factors that affect their behavior. It then addresses some of the elements that are necessary to achieve success in health care marketing and the key strategies and techniques that healthcare organizations currently use in marketing.

Health care consumers refer to people who use the services of healthcare providers, along with their family and carers. Healthcare consumer behavior can be defined as the study of healthcare consumers and the criteria that they use to select, consumer, and dispose of healthcare services. There exist many factors that influence healthcare consumer behavior. Some of these include financial, geographical, age, and social factors. Financial situations define a consumer’s purchasing power. Like any other consumers, healthcare consumers generally analyze their purchasing capacity before deciding to purchase healthcare services. A consumer can only purchase those services that meet their purchasing ability. With regards to age, the consumption of healthcare services tends to change with time. This is because the medical needs of individuals tend to vary with age (Cheah, 2014). For instance, as individuals grow older, their expenses on health care services may rise. Geographical factors such as the extent of urbanization also influence consumer behavior. For instance, the number of health care providers per capita tend to be higher urban location than in rural areas, providing consumers in urban locations with more options (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2018).

Social factors that affect consumer behavior include roles and status, family, and reference groups. Family influences the behavior of healthcare consumers by influencing how they make decisions regarding the purchase of health care services (Rani, 2014). For instance, in some families, the head of the family may alone decide on which health care service providers should be visited. Reference groups, on the other hand, can influence the behavior of a consumer by affecting how they perceive a healthcare service. Eventually, roles and status can affect the behavior of a consumer by influencing the type of services that they purchase (Rani, 2014). For instance, a person that holds a higher status in the society is expected to purchase healthcare services that befit his/her status.

To achieve success in health care marketing, several requirements need to be fulfilled by healthcare leaders. These can be categorized into 5P’s namely portable, patient-centered, personalized, prompt, and pathways. (Healthgrades Operating Company, 2016). Being patient-centered entails placing the consumer at the center of everything. It encompasses using the data available to identify target audiences and communicating with them in a way that is most meaningful, relevant and personalized. This way, healthcare consumers can be moved through their decision journey in a manner that is cost-effective and efficient. Marketing of health care services can also be made successful by providing patient-centered care. Providing patient-centered care entails aligning health care services to consumer’s preferences, needs, and values (Wilson, 2008). It details dimensions such as emotional support, respect, being responsive, involving family members, physical comfort, and information and communication. Research indicates that patient-centered care help enhance patient’s experience with the care provided and create public value for services (Wilson, 2008). Employing patient-centered approach in marketing is necessary to create an immediate connection with patients, build authority with the marketing content, focus on what patients care about that is outcomes and benefits, and establish trust in the marketing message.

Being prompt as one of the 5P’s of healthcare marketing encompasses ensuring that information that is sought by consumers is easily accessible (Healthgrades Operating Company, 2016). It entails offering an appropriate response to consumer needs and streamlining encounter experiences as much as possible. Personalized, on the other hand, entails ensuring that messages are targeted, valuable, aligned with consumer needs and delivered in a manner that is desired by consumers. With regards to pathways, marketers must understand the pathway by which healthcare consumers identify, choose, engage with, and return to the healthcare system (Healthgrades Operating Company, 2016). One of these pathways is the consumer buying journey. Building a relationship with consumers start with awareness and move through consideration and engagement. This is then followed by successful service delivery and creation of experience which then cultivate trust and brand loyalty. Finally, being portable is another element that is necessary to ensure success in health care marketing. It encompasses expanding access, aligning services with lifestyles, and incorporating modern technologies that are increasingly becoming important to consumers.

Implementing marketing strategies in healthcare is essential because it helps improve the competitive advantage, increases visibility, and enable health care providers to understand their customers’ needs and expectation as well as create a solid reputation among patients (Purcarea, 2019). There exist various strategies and techniques that healthcare organizations currently use in marketing. Some of these strategies include developing a content marketing plan, asking for online reviews, cultivating a social media following, and using paid search ads (Husson University Online, 2019). Healthcare organization that wants to attract customers to offer quality information that is designed to educate their audience. Such information can be delivered in the form of videos, high-quality articles, and other pieces of content. By offering useful information the target audience, health care organizations can capture healthcare consumers who are looking for solutions to their problems. With regards to online reviews, healthcare organizations can ask for reviews using an automated system (Husson University Online, 2019). Reviews enable people to see positive experience while health care organizations can respond to and engage with dissatisfied patients to attempt to resolve their problems.

Cultivating a social media following is another strategy that healthcare organizations currently use in marketing. With the increased usage of social media sites like YouTube and Facebook, various hospitals have adopted the use of social media as a powerful strategy to build brands as well as attract and retain patients. Eventually, some health care organizations use paid search ads as a strategy to get their practice noticed. Such ads are usually location-specific, and they tend to target customers that are nearby.

In conclusion, marketing is necessary for healthcare organizations to create, communicate and offer health care value to their target market. Some of the techniques and strategies explained in this paper, that healthcare organizations currently use in marketing include developing a content marketing plan, asking for online reviews, cultivating a social media following, and using paid search ads.

References

1. Cheah, Y. K. (2014). Factors influencing consumer purchase decisions for health-promoting goods and services in Malaysia. The Malaysian journal of medical sciences: MJMS, 21(6), 36.
2. Healthgrades Operating Company. (2016). The Five Ps of Consumerized Healthcare: Converting Challenges into Opportunities. Retrieved from https://d26ua9paks4zq.cloudfront.net/db/bf/9e6175a6425dadd2a7511ea6f33f/hospitals-pdf-the-five-ps-of-consumerized-healthcare.pdf
3. Husson University Online. (2019, August 6). The Elements of a Healthcare Marketing Strategy. Retrieved from https://online.husson.edu/healthcare-marketing/
4. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018). Health-care utilization as a proxy in disability determination. National Academies Press.
5. Purcarea, P. V. (2019). The impact of marketing strategies in healthcare systems.
6. Rani, P. (2014). Factors influencing consumer behaviour. International journal of current research and academic review, 2(9), 52-61.
7. Wilson, E. V. (Ed.). (2008). Patient-centered e-health. IGI Global.

Introduction

Over the last few years, there has been interest surrounding the development of conventional drug delivery systems with the aim of improving efficacy, safety and patient compliance of medications. In contrast to the typical enteral routes such as oral and sublingual administration, drug delivery through the skin is now being seen as an alternative and more convenient means of drug delivery via dermal and transdermal systems. These types of drug delivery embrace the means of delivering medications at a controlled rate across the skin for systemic distribution, and continue to accumulate vast amounts of innovation and investment with the continuous advancement of new approaches (1). Dermal, also known as topical administration, allows drug absorption at specific areas of the skin as a cream, ointment or lotion, thereby limiting systemic absorption. Transdermal administration delivers medication through the skin into the blood stream (10). Throughout this essay, I will be outlining the advantages and disadvantages of dermal and transdermal drug delivery and how they compared to oral and sublingual drug delivery respectively.

Transdermal vs Sublingual Delivery of Glyceryl Trinitrate

Glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) is commonly used to treat and also prevent angina. It works by causing vasodilation of the veins and arteries of the heart, making it easier to pump blood around the body (9). GTN is said to have a high hepatic first pass effect which means that if given orally, 96% the drug would be metabolised by the liver before reaching the rest of the body. Ultimately, this leads to low bioavailability of the drug as well as no therapeutic effect being produced. Therefore, glyceryl trinitrate is often administered either via a sublingual or transdermal route.

Transdermal patches contain a larger amount of the drug which is controlled to release the dose over either a day or several days. This method also ensures that the body has a consistent supply of the necessary medication (4). One of the advantages of transdermal drug delivery of GTN and the reason why this method of treatment has been gaining popularity over oral treatment is because when patients are expected to take pills multiple times every day, it increases the risk that they may miss doses, which can result in dangerous symptoms. In addition to this, the medication in the patches tends to last a long time before they need to be changed which can aid with compliance, especially with the elderly (4). Another advantage of transdermal administration is that it avoids the first-pass effect of metabolism associated with the oral route, which allows for improved bioavailability (10). In addition to this, a large surface area of skin and ease of access allows many placement options on the skin for transdermal absorption. It can improve patient compliance due to the reduction of dosing frequencies and is also suitable for patients who are unconscious or vomiting, or those who rely on self-administration (1). On the other hand, transdermal drug delivery can be unsuitable for some people because even when using them as prescribed and under physician supervision, skin irritation and sensitisation can occur. Under various environmental conditions, adhesions of the system to different skin types sometimes result in technical difficulties (3). Although transdermal administration appears promising it is not compatible with all medications (10) and the main disadvantage of them is that only drugs that are small enough to penetrate the skin can be delivered by this method (5).

Sublingual administration also has its advantages. GTN sublingual tablets are designed to dissolve quickly under the tongue. This area of the mouth has a large supply of blood vessels, and via this route, the drug is absorbed rapidly through the mucous membranes of the mouth and directly into the blood stream which provides effective relief from the pain of an angina attack (9). Conversely, the sublingual route also has some disadvantages. Eating, drinking, or smoking, can affect how the drug is absorbed and how well it works. Also, these forms don’t work for drugs that need to be processed slowly by your system, such as extended-release formulations. Any open sores in your mouth can also become irritated by the medication (11).

Topical vs Oral Use of Diclofenac for Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic condition, particularly in older people. Around 36% of those aged over 50 suffer from knee pain, half of whom have severe difficulty with physical function or severe pain. Analgesics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most commonly prescribed drugs to relieve and control the painful flares experienced by sufferers of OA. Both topical and oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used to treat this (7). A study was conducted to compare the effectiveness of topical vs oral use of Diclofenac to treat OA. Diclofenac was used in for this study because analysis suggests that it is the most potent COX-2 inhibitor compared with other commonly used NSAIDs. Topical drugs must be small enough to pass through the skin and Diclofenac is a small molecule (296 g/mol), allowing it to do so. Topical Diclofenac is proven to be effective in relieving the pain of OA, and there are various reasons to use a topical NSAID in preference to an oral NSAID. Gels, sprays and microemulsions may be absorbed through the skin more effectively than creams, and an in vitro study has suggested that Diclofenac gel has faster flux than a Diclofenac solution or patch (8).

An advantage of topical treatment is that the drug is delivered to the site of action, providing a more local effect and as a result may have fewer side effects due to lower serum concentrations (7). Dermal delivery of drugs often has similar efficacy and is potentially a more favourable tolerable. In addition to this, topical NSAIDs have been proven to be as effective as and better tolerated than oral NSAIDs in the treatment of OA, and are recommended in certain guidelines before the use of oral NSAIDs in OA of the knees or hands. In a preference study, almost three times as many OA patients chose to use a topical rather than oral NSAID, particularly those who were more concerned about toxicity such as the elderly (8). A meta-analysis of studies using topical NSAIDs concluded that they were more effective than placebo ointments for chronic musculoskeletal disorders at up to two weeks of use and that they were more preferable to oral ones as routine treatment for older patients with knee OA. Although a study showed that topical NSAIDs were proved to be effective up to two weeks of use, longer periods of use found that they were no more effective than placebo at three or four weeks of use (7). One other disadvantage is that in order to relieve pain effectively, topical NSAIDs need to work at the appropriate site of action. However, in OA there is still uncertainty regarding the target tissues and how OA-associated pain is generated (8).

On the other hand, the oral route has the advantage of pre-determined doses, portability and patient self-administration. For these reasons, the oral route remains the most convenient means of delivering medications (1). Oral administration remains the most commonly used route for medication. An oral medication generally becomes active when it passes from the gastrointestinal tract and the liver into the blood. Most newly approved medications are developed in oral forms to improve patient access and adherence (10). However, the risks of gastrointestinal effects, renal insufficiency and cardiovascular problems are higher with oral treatment of OA compared to dermal treatment (7). This can be an issue for older patients who form the OA population, who often have co-morbid conditions or an increased risk for gastrointestinal, cardiovascular or renal complications (8). Another disadvantage of the oral route is that it is unsuitable for patients who are uncooperative or who are vomiting profusely and the first-pass effect is involved which can reduce bioavailability of the drug. Furthermore, oral dosing can be inconvenient for elderly patients and they may have issues with co-operating or sticking to the dosing schedule.

Conclusion

To conclude, the main objective of transdermal drug delivery system is to deliver drugs into systemic circulation through skin at predetermined rate and is becoming a more promising delivery method for certain drugs. It eliminates the effect of drug degradation by the liver, has shown to enhance patient compliance and minimises harmful side effects (2). Looking at the second study and taking these factors into consideration, there is a sound rationale to use topical Diclofenac to relieve pain and inflammation in OA. The available evidence suggests that after topical application, the drug can penetrate the skin and permeate to deeper tissues, with generally higher levels in muscle than in plasma compared with oral administration. The concentrations achieved in the target tissues appear to be sufficient to exert a therapeutic effect. Thus, combined with its more favourable safety profile, there is a sound basis to use Diclofenac administered topically rather than orally (8).

Nevertheless, there is room for improvement with future formulations as the skin offers an accessible and convenient site for the administration of medications (1). Despite some studies claiming uncertainty, it is clear that dermal and transdermal drug delivery is pharmacologically effective, and patients report significant benefits comparable to oral administration (8).

References

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4695828/
2. https://ijpsr.com/bft-article/transdermal-drug-delivery-system-a-review/?view=fulltext
3. https://www.indiaparenting.com/womens-health/170_3256/benefits-and-drawbacks-of–transdermal-drug-delivery-systems.html
4. https://deserthopetreatment.com/addiction-guide/administration-methods/transdermal/
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transdermal_patch
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transdermal 10.1186/1471-2474-6-55
7. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03007995.2017.1352497
8. https://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/heart-blood/a6820/gtn-sublingual-tablets-glyceryl-trinitrate/
9. https://www.pharmacytimes.com/publications/issue/2016/August2016/Delivery-Methods-The-Patch-Versus-the-Oral-Route
10. https://www.healthline.com/health/sublingual-and-buccal-medication-administration#disadvantages

INTRODUCTION

Globalisation as a ‘Concept’ has become a worldwide approach to development. Although it is not a new phenomenon as we are in the third arena of globalisation. Firstly, it was Authority dominance and military power, second one was Industrial Revolution and third is basically Cyber revolution. According to Thomas L. Friedman carved up the history of globalisation into three periods and that’s to say,, Globalisation 1.0 (1491–1800), Globalisation 2.0 (1800–2000) and Globalisation 3.0 (2000–present). He gave voice that Globalisation 1.0 involved the globalisation of countries, on the other hand Globalisation 2.0 involves the globalisation of companies, and Finally, Globalisation 3.0 involves the globalisation of individuals.

Given that, Advances in technology such as mobile phones, airplanes and the internet have made the growth of transport and communication networks faster and more convenient. Countries can exchange information and goods quickly in a less complicated and secured way. One would be keenly interested to better understand the definition of globalisation. So, what is globalisation? Globalisation has been defined by different authors. According to prof. Y Pardhasaradhi, Osmana University, Hyderabad, India. who explained that, Economists view globalisation as an advance step towards a fully integrated world market. Political scientists consider globalisation as a new world order with supranational and global governing bodies while Business Scholars interprets it as unlimited opportunities in a borderless world. Others see globalisation as a phenomenon driven only by the private sector not government. Similarly to many concepts in social science, globalisation as a word also escapes the understanding of it’s meaning. Usually, the word globalisation is often mistaken by globalism. However , (Nye, 2002) in his book of Rethinking Globalisation, Globalist Perspective, explained the term globalisms as, nothing more than a world which is characterised by networks of connections that span multi-continental distances and globalisation.

This can be identified as a ‘stretching of social, political and economic activities across political frontiers’; the ‘intensification or the growing magnitude of interconnectedness in every sphere of social existence’; the ‘ac- celebrating pace of global interactions and processes’; and the ‘deepening enmeshment of the local and global’ (McGrew in Baylis and Smith 2005: 22). Farazmand (2007: 13).

However , Malcolm Waters, (2001) contorted globalisation as ‘a social process in which the constraints of geography on economic, political, social and cultural positioning recedes, in which people growly notice that they are moving away and act consequently.

OBJECTIVE

The central focus of the assignment is to take stock of what I have learned in the Introduction to Public Administration Module to discuss why globalization is important in Public Administration. Identify the changing perspective and meaning of globalization in the new millennium. This apparently, has been a scholarly writing both in political and management discussions and also human enquiry all over the world. One of the main topics related to the discussion in this assignment is the Public Administration aspect and globalisation. Relevant academic theories such as the Concept of Globalization, Cosmopolitanisms, and Concluding Observations as evolved during the first part of the Introduction to Public Administration module will be applied.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Concept of Globalization in Public Administration

Whenever we talk about Public Administration we would notice that all Administrations are based on Weber’s Bureaucratic Model. such as hierarchical structure, division of Labour, unity of Command and span of control. In any State, the government follows Weber’s Bureaucratic Model. But globalisation is changing this type of Organization structure to Network Structure, Cellular Organization, Virtual Organization and Joint Venture and Strategic Alliances. Globalisation has shown a lot of significant impact in Public Administration. Previously we used to see that Public and Private Companies were working together and private companies are learning from the public but now that has changed. Various techniques are learned from the corporate system, private organisation into the government and vice versa. Although all this is happening because globalisation has been incorporated into Public Administration. Essentially, economic in nature, the word globalisation is interpreted in multiple ways which include political, social, and cultural dimensions. Putting it simply, Globalisation can be conceptualised as a ‘tripartite cluster of forces viz. increasing global economic interconnectedness, repositioning of political space and national sovereignty, and last but not least the growing and deepening enmeshment of global and local cultures’ (Held and McGrew 2003). Globalisation has brought a new approach to Public Administration, organisations have become more active, and responsive. Once upon a time, somebody will go to the bank and spend 1:30 minutes to submit a cheque after a long queue to collect his own money. Now because of Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) people can take their money wherever they are and whenever they want in less than 2 Minutes. So globalisation proposes new models that fasten business transactions and share information. It’s very important to highlight that Public Administration is changing very fast in the area of globalisation even administration is not an exception on this point. Hence, three remarkable aspects of globalisation can be identified, namely, economic, political, and social/cultural. Here, we shall try to unify the concept in a more communicative or reader friendly mode. Theoretical debate around globalisation is centring around three positions as Waters (2001: 6–7) has shown:(a) that globalisation has been in progress since the dawn of human existence, that it has increased in its effects since that time, but that there has been a sudden and recent accelerations;(b) that globalisation is contemporal with modernisation and the development of capitalism, and that there has been a recent acceleration; or (c) that globalisation is a recent phenomenon associated with other social processes called post industrialisation, modernisation or the disorganisation of capitalism.

Why globalization is important in Public Administration.

First and foremost, whenever we discuss the importance of globalisation in Public Administration, we would see one by one the positive impact it has both on the State and Society. The State first of all is responsible for the regulation of the Economy. We cannot underestimate the role of the State. Although, many authors said in the new world order, end of state or a new form of social organisation, the state continues to persist and is responsible for checking the balances between private and its dominance. At the end we cap globalisation and Public Administration as significant elements that introduced changes structurally, the entire paradigm of public administration had undergone a sea of changes, that is, from a state-controlled and bureaucratically managed paradigm of administration to a more flexible, market-based administration. Unlike what Weber seemed to have suggested, public administration as heuristic type, based on strict adherence of hierarchy, rule-boundedness, neutrality, and impersonality, the globalisation administration had reposed maximum faith on decentralisation of authority, flattening of hierarchies, slimming of bureaucracy, and so on (Bhattacharya 2001) Interacting with the globe for economic development as to what to import and export as now become much easier and faster. Transfer of modern management techniques: it’s not like the previous management models where government and society would have a single window system. However, Expanding infrastructure because of globalisation and Public Administration, the global companies can invest in some of the countries of their choice infrastructure would be expanded and poverty would be drastically reduced

Cosmopolitanism

Another important philosophical source of the concept of global justice is cosmopolitanism which is two-joint words. Cosmos and Polis. ‘Cosmos’ stands for the world as a whole and ‘Polis’ meaning a self governing political entity.The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy has defined cosmopolitanism in the following words. The definition shared by all cosmopolitan views is the idea that all human beings, regardless of their political involvement , do (or at least can) belong to a single community, and that this community must be refined and well educated. Different versions of cosmopolitanism visualize this community in different manners, some focusing on political institutions, others on moral norms and values and still others focusing on shared markets or forms of cultural expression. Generally speaking, there are two versions of cosmopolitanism, namely, consequentialist cosmopolitanism and human rights cosmopolitanism. In fact, unlike the nationalists who have an un- adulterated obligation to members of the nation, cosmopolitans believe that national borders have nothing to do with our moral obligations to others as all human beings have equal moral value (McKinnon 2008). The term is practiced by NGOs such as Amnesty International and Human Right Watch. However, it’s quite difficult to identify human rights equally, a typical example I would like to pass is people from Europe responding to terrorisms than people in Syria. According to cosmopolitan vision (2006) by Ulrich Beck portray cosmopolitanisms as a necessary response to globalised word order causing global crises like climate change. Beck’s work has been criticised by Robert J Hoiton cosmopolitanisms (2009) who pointed out that globalisation or global crises is not historically new. Adding that it’s important to have in mind as a political scientist that an increase in globalisation does not necessarily create openness in the political climate.

In summary we can understand Cosmopolitanisms as practised by individuals with fundamentally equal rights and obligations toward each other. A cosmopolitan world view includes an intercultural openness and inclusiveness. Finally, Cosmopolitanism as an ideology and worldview is extremely difficult to truly and fully practise.

CONCLUSION

Globalisation can simply promote and increase interactivity between unalike regions and populations around the globe. Hence the need to globalise is essential.What is important is to realise that globalisation is good ,it all depends on how people deal with the possibilities in the future. The process has an effect on Public Administration and human and physical well being around the world as transporting goods across international borders is constantly on the increase. However , not only exchange of product and economic goods take place but also services, Knowledge and even culture. All these individual elements are closely linked and influence each other

Globalisation and Public Administration has been associated with contribution to a significant fall in extreme poverty, mainly in developing and underdeveloped countries. Example if a company decides to move production to an economically disadvantaged country, people in this country would secure jobs. Again, the idea of globalisation for States to build a deeper division of labour and build a global supply chain to optimise factors of production worldwide is the thing that they are best at is of paramount importance . Globalisation linked with public administration has brought a dynamic efficiency gain flowing from transfer of ideas, skills and technology that stimulates the process of innovation

On this paper, globalisation and Public Administration are considered positive by managerial view, looking into Administrative theory exclusively from the viewpoint of managers. globalization also had a powerful impact on the public administration, researchers and university which is an important role and it could help countries to sustain themselves strong economically and financially, while the well-developed countries have remarkable advantages regarding the transnational corporations and the supranational global organizations.

REFERENCES

1. Waters, Malcolm. 2001. Globalization (2nd edition). London, New York: Routledge.
2. Farazmand, Ali. 1999. ‘Globalization and Public Administration’, Public Administration Review, 59 (6, November–December): 509–22, 2007. ‘Globalization: A Theoretical Analysis with Implications for Governance and Public Administration’, in Ali Farazmand and Jack Pinkowski (eds), Handbook of Globalization, Governance, and Public Administration. London, New York: Taylor & Francis.
3. Savas, E.S. 1987. Privatization: The Key to Better Government. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
4. Sen, S. and Bhattacharya, C.B. (2001) Does Doing Good Always Lead to DoingBetter Consumer Reactions to Corporate Social Responsibility. Journal of … Accessed online: 3rd September 2020,https://plato.stanford.edu/ For details, see Held and McGrew (2003: Part II, 105–90)
5. Bennis, Warren B. 1968. ‘Beyond Bureaucracy’, in Warren B. Bennis and Philip Slater (eds), The Temporary Society. Harper and Row Publishers. Reprinted in an abridged version in Nigro, F. and G. Nigro. 1983. Readings in Public Administration. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
6. Macmillan International Higher Education, 28 May 2009 – Political Science Accessed on the 28th/10/2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SRzcqI_1Gkw

INTRODUCTION

Malaysia is a different and multiracial society, grasping different religious convictions and rehearsing different societies, and setting a government state. It is much in the organization and administration of a nation to impart morals while administrating the nation. It compares to the use of an administration plan and an activity plan that is executed to accomplish the targets to help the general population and the nation. In organization, great organization is enormously refreshing by a public, for example, correspondence, advertising, evaluations, and basic leadership solid, experienced, dynamic and touchy to the outside condition. The open division has much been exposed to get the reactions for among others, unskillfulness formality, absence of adaptability, ineffectual answerability and poor execution that had been experienced by the public. The center of open organization lies in open administrations. Apart old, administrations, the conjointly grasps some antiquated organization exercises in cutting edge nations, for example, issuing licenses, allows, report’s testaments and methods for giving data. Some this action’s, partners aren’t any more longer seen as a restrictive space of the State and the operational undertakings, proficient basic leadership, execution of supervision, testing can be suburbanized and exchanged to self-rules or to non-open elements.

IMPORTANCE TO ADMINISTRATIVE ETHIC

Morals are the establishments that diagram moral lead in venture with the philosophy of a chose bunch. Besides, morals publically organization territory unit basic forever business lead bolstered the prerequisites of a chose city, state, or nation. The open organization’s, essential position is to execute government approaches at all dimensions of the country’s organization. Brilliant staff or government workers are a significant resource for progress associations and nations. Morals in the open part might be a wide theme that is commonly thought of a part of political morals. In elective’s words, it is the moral defense and thought for choices and activities made all through the culmination of an everyday obligation once working to create the administrations of government and non-benefit associations. Aside from that, morals are fundamental on the off chance that we are to have a spotless, productive and reliable common administration. Government workers must build up a culture that will prepare for the rise of not just a committed, productive and moral common administration, yet additionally one that underlines the board respectability. To accomplish this, it is important to have a work culture that joins trustworthiness, trust, order, duty and straightforwardness. While a joining of honorable qualities in the common administration, what is significant in the last examination is to guarantee the act of these respectable qualities by all. The idea of trust, straightforwardness, obligation and serving in the open intrigue is the embodiment of respectability and moral terms. Understanding moral goals is one of the terms related with mankind’s history, human character and character. It is talking about fortunate or unfortunate, set in stone, assessing conduct against some supreme criteria and put negative or positive qualities on it. Another positive result of fine morals freely organization is auspicious and educational correspondence with the network. This sort of straightforwardness manufactures trust and avoids or limits the potential issues that can emerge when data is unveiled from outside sources. On the off chance that there is something of outcome that the open has to think about, it’s better for it to come legitimately from the pioneers and organization. Correspondence additionally keeps all gatherings included with the goal that they would all be able to move in the direction of a shared objective. Great correspondence guarantees that the network will impart their pioneers on essential issues. Reasonable and solid open administrations and certain basic leadership motivate trust. The trustworthiness, straightforwardness, and answerableness of open organizations zone unit conditions for, and support, beneficent trust, as a cornerstone of brilliant administration. Trust relies on a faith in the honesty of authorities, who are required to act in a way that will bear the nearest conceivable examination. Trust furthermore needs that officers make proposals and decisions exclusively with a watch to serving the overall population intrigue, that is, not to benefit themselves, their families, or their companions. Sound open organization includes open trust.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

In a dynamic and violent air where social, monetary and political issues mount and along these lines the requests of society increment quicker than the ability of open assets to deliver for, government particularly the regulatory association for doing strategies and executes activities and projects is called upon to embrace suitable component to adapt to this worries with the collaboration of different gatherings to make the authoritative framework progressively proficient and powerful.

LACK OF CONSCIOUSNESS

The open administration part is looked with various difficulties that request change and a move in open segment initiative. The job of open division hierarchical pioneers is basic in characterizing course, concocting procedures and assembling assets astutely to accomplish the objectives and to prevail in the change of the legislature. Morals are a lot of qualities and ethics that become standard for the conduct of people, associations and callings. The test of making a National Blue Ocean Strategy activity that can affect open division pioneers is significant by infuse the soul of development and thoroughly considering of the container to improve the nature of the open administration. YAB Prime Minister has mentioned to apply four key components contained in the Blue Ocean Strategy in the administration of open part, for example, decreasing, evacuating, making and expanding openings. Through this procedure, open area pioneers need to comprehend the necessities and requirements of the division’s general association so inventive thoughts can be connected in NBOS’s new activities in the offices and offices concerned.

RESISTANCE OF PROGRESS

The change associated with regulatory change meets impressive obstruction. The primary difficulties, for example, the trouble in changing the attitudes of workers, the requirement for preparing and retraining to actualize new aptitudes and learning, and to build the executives ability and operational limit in the present complex condition the need to successfully impart justification for new approaches, finding the proper philosophy for the usage of these changes.

BUREAUCRATIC CONCERNS

Standing up to open administration is the means by which to manage negative bureaucratic conduct. Organizations themselves will in general abhorrence change particularly when their very own advantages are in question. The activity endeavor to addresses explicit aggravations to open administration to constrain prohibitive wet blanket and make the framework extra clears, responsible, and unsurprising. There are numerous ways which will encourage to downsize methodology in our common administration for example by diminishing an authoritative weight. It happens once a local official must be constrained to complete an endless work and tight to bound system and approaches. Along these lines, it will prompts slower in basic leadership. In a roundabout way, the quantities of labor are adequate so as to serving an open. The cut back bureaucratic strategy Initiative underneath the support of YAB the Prime Minister of Malaysia is designed for improving obligation, straightforwardness and intensity of open administration. Among others, it plans to quicken key procedures, for example, applications. Bureaucratic system in Malaysia could have as of now value the nation billions in income misfortunes and a fundamental six-year begin inside the world IT redistributing and debacle data reinforcement recuperation industry. This stunning revelation was acknowledged amid Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak’s visit to India’s driving programming exporter.

STRATEGY FOR CHANGE MIGHT BE EXCESSIVELY UNCLEAR

Those whose are in charge of execution may have almost no comprehension of what should occur or what has been propose. The issue absence of an attention to quality as a key social. The upper strata ought to dependably show the accepted procedures to their subordinates. Other than that, they have to impart and pass on the messages obviously about the way of life that should be rehearses in an association. A moral isn’t a piece of the guiding principle. Neglecting to receive, send and authorize a code of morals. Code of morals is important as direction for the representatives in an association. Subsequently, code of morals must be made as the guiding principle in the association. Inability to do as such will cause dishonest conduct among the government worker

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

In spite of its commendable jobs in controlling the technique for financial improvement, government shapes in Malaysia have not free to move around at will open reactions for its unskillfulness, defilement, and inability to secure open interests.

TRANSPARENCY

The job of pioneers in recognizing harried and irrational officers to make a move is an issue among pioneers who should be disposed of as this can be a thistle in the substance. The connection between the pioneer and his staff should be worked through a reasonable relationship and both should know about the commitments and obligations depended. The present difficulties confronting common administration pioneers are the manner by which to approach and investigate the general population. In this open time, with ongoing data, open segment administration can’t abstain from managing the general population. Government employees pioneers need to screen government employees under the supervision to be increasingly delicate to the earth and new difficulties particularly from clients who have higher desires for quality, proficiency and adequacy of administrations. This incorporates the frame of mind of direness in tending to any issues or issues of the general population before it turns out to be increasingly genuine. With regards to the nation’s change approach, the legislature has recorded one of the key territories of achievement that is to destroy debasement. The achievement of the National Integrity set up is frequently hurried through the quick usage of straightforwardness as a center rule in any regard government levels. Privatization customized and government acquirement in Malaysia is led through non straightforward procedures. The exertion additionally incorporates annihilating defilement among government employees. This is additionally a test for open part pioneers as people who should be imitated by the authorities under it human advancement of moral common administration. Malaysia has been positioned as a standout amongst the most degenerate countries and recorded as nation which is most similar to take alternate ways to meet targets when financial aspects circumstances are difficult, as indicated by an ongoing overview by Ernst and Young, flagging that the administration’s Performance Management and Delivery Unit (Pemandu) has bombed in its job to change the economy.

ETHICAL AND LEGITIMATE CONDUCT

Morals and honesty in administration ought to be exhibited by government workers through execution trust and specialist endowed to them to support the general population. In the event that it is deceptive and non-uprightness works are left continuous with no push to manage it can kill the trust of the network and influence the picture of laborers, the nation also incapacitating a solid corporate substance. It is justifiable in this way that morals and uprightness inside among government workers are essential to be sustained so as to create a solid Malaysian country aggressive and progressed. Work culture alludes to esteem, convictions, frames of mind, convictions and demeanors towards the work. With regards to honesty it isn’t simply centered around debasement issues, however it is a greater idea just as including work culture rehearses that request respectability practices, for example, uprightness practicality, trustworthiness in passing on data, uprightness in giving administrations best practices, honesty in connection to heads of divisions, associates, networks and staff support. One of precedents for exploitative issues that incorporate the imprisoning of previous Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia overseeing executive Mukhtar Ramli for criminal rupture of trust of RM3.8 million denotes a dull scene in the chronicles of the establishment that had picked up the world’s consideration as the most established reproduction of the outstanding Grameen Bank model of miniaturized scale financing for mitigating bad-to-the-bone neediness. Incidentally, political support wad to cloud its future, as it prompted a float in needs from the most unfortunate dimensions of the general public.

ACCOUNTABILITY

Responsibility is how much individual must response to some more recognizable specialist for activities in the bigger society or in the organization. It tends to be resolved both remotely by codes of morals, lawful commands contained in a constitution and approvals laws and expert codes or principles and a misfortune by inside which is by the office guidelines and guidelines or actually disguised standards of conduct and good morals. Popular government requires frameworks of responsibility, for example, check and parity on government structures, standard reviews and curious eye of network.

SUSTAINABILITY

The significance of a proficient and moral regulatory framework in creating and executing sound advancement approaches and projects is all around perceived. There is the need to change the open part to conquer numerous unscrupulous and wasteful bureaucratic capacities and issues. So as to accomplish the worries of the board and administration, regulatory change approaches have accentuated not just changes of the common administration framework, open fund, and state-possessed endeavors, yet additionally rebuilding in market progression, privatization, deregulation, and decentralization. Strategy estimates need to underline proficient effectiveness and moral standards that can prompt the productive administration of the economy.

TECHNOLOGY REFORMS

The progressions inside the field of information innovation (IT) has offered gigantic prospect for changing administration arrangement and enlarged residents’ desires for a great deal of conservative and responsive conveyance of open administrations. This has also put weights on the administration to reexamine itself and turn out advancements inside the administration conveyance frameworks. The Malaysian government has likewise gives off an impression of being great in front of numerous other creating nations as far as underscoring its centrality and undertaking programs for data innovation (IT) application in the organization. The Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) built up in 1996, for instance, is viewed as an achievement in the advancement of IT application by and large territories just as the legislature. So as to upgrade the presentation and nature of open administration, the legislature started an E-Government by tackling IT and sight and sound (GOM, 2000; Karim and Khalid, 2003). The legislature is sure that with this activity an ever increasing number of administrations could be given online where organizations at the government, state and nearby specialist will work together identifying with administrations and present them on the whole open administration entrance. The proactive connection between segments is basically plan to meet the client desires in the data age (GOM, 2000).

CONCLUSION

As to finish up, Malaysia is a creating nation that requirement to concentrate on morals and rule in association to limit any bad behavior. There are different unscrupulous issues and acts of neglect including both general society and private division in Malaysia. The open’s needs are quickly changing as society’s turned out to be progressively differing, divided and complex. They anticipate that the open administration should convey a greater amount of these administrations precisely better, quicker however financially savvy. The capacity to convey progressively decision administrations, more straightforwardness and greater responsibility is what is expected to restore open trust in the open administration. It is critical to conceptualize the regulatory change at work in both driving and limiting change and thusly advance effective administration and moral practices inside the state organization.

ABSTRACT

The Public administration field focuses on public administration as a process. Historically and conventionally it has been primarily concerned with problems of how to apply or effect law faithfully, honestly economically and efficiently. The process of public administration consists of actions involved in intent of government. It is continuously active business part of government carrying out the law made by legislative bodies and interpreted by courts through process of organization and management and its function varies accordingly to form of government as it has been experienced that in democratic states aspiration of masses are being considered while in autocratic system its national interest is being preferred over inspiration of masses. It doesn’t mean that demands of the people are being totally neglected. So here we would see how it works in democratic state and especially here we will discuss the role, functions, issues and challenges and performance of Pakistan in the perspective of it.

INTRODUCTION

Public Administration is the implementation of government policies. Today it is often regarded as including also some responsibility for determining policies and programs of governments. Specifically, it is the planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling of government operations. It is a feature of all nations, whatever their system of government. Within nations it is practiced at the central, intermediate, and local levels. Indeed, the relationships between different levels of government within a single nation constitute a growing problem of it.

In most of world establishment of highly trained administrative, executive, or directive classes has made it a distinct profession. The body of public administrators is usually called civil service. In United States and few other countries, the elitist class connotation traditionally attached to the civil service has been either consciously abandoned or avoided; with the result that professional recognition has come slowly and only partially.

Literature Review

The process of public administration consist of action involved in effecting the intent of desire of state it is thus the continuously active business part of government concerned with carried out the law as made by legislative bodies and ratified by administration . Administrative question are not political questions it has to do only deal with the implementation of policies rather state masses will. There are three challenges that have emerged as a consequence of global trends to wand democratization, privatization and internationalization of the world economy. The civil service of Pakistan is being confronted with how to combat the challenges. The social consequence of it will be great because of effect in it will do more harm to the public but in private administration this will be less even if any harm is done by it will be of less significance and their ma be negligible .

It has certain distinctive features which differentiate it from others administration it is for more closely tied up with constitution and the formal law of a country (Amna Imam, 2014)

It is the implementation of government policies also in academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepare civil servants working in the public sector as field of inquiry with a divers scope its fundamental goal is to advance management and policies so that government can function some of the various definitions which have been offered for term or management of public program ,translation of politic into reality and study of the government decision making analysis of policies themselves , various input that have produced them and inputs necessary to produce alternative policies .It is centrally concerned with organization of government policies and program as well as behavior of officials formally responsible for their conduct many un elected public servants can be considered to be public administrator including heads of each level .(Niazi L.k.A,2018)

Early History

Early systems, It has ancient origins .In antiquity Egyptians and Greeks organized public affairs by office, and principal officeholders were regarded as being principally responsible for administering justice, maintaining law and order, and providing plenty.

Public administration in Democratic State

In democratic state administration is being done for the welfare of masses when the policies are being made the demands of people are reconsidered and that would only possible if state have solid it on contrary to this Dictatorship or authoritarian regime policies are not people oriented but that does not mean that aspiration of people being totally rejected they mainly focus on the national interest and when talk about authoritarian regime then national interest comes first where sometimes the aspirations of the people can be partially neglected rather totally. There is no doubt that it was present before democracy introduced and meanwhile it raised standard of the it because here in democracy we are not being subjected by God(Divine Theory) rather by people and for sure if you want to remain in power then for sure you have to serve in the best interest of people. In democracy everyone is accountable be it ruler of beau crate even the every personal working the at any designation are accountable to the System made under the best it. Moreover structural rigidity should be there in order to maintain merit of policy makers. And as much there will be meritocracy so much will be comfort ability of the public. And this structural rigidity makes the system more strengthen.

Modern Public Administration Issues and Challenges

A modern public administrator in any country has to grapple with multifarious issues and face multiple challenges which are in addition to the traditional challenges of delivering quality service in given time and with limited resources. I have identified issues which you can remember in form of an acronym badstep. This acronym is composed of first letter of following respective seven issues of a public administrator as Behavior, Attitudes, Demographics, Society, Technology, Economy and Politics. Let me explain . Technology has been with us for centuries but its rapid speed and widening coverage,deepening impact poses threats as well as offer tremendous opportunities for modern public servants. On the demand side public is forcing them to quicken pace of decision making and adopt it as a tool of service delivery and grievance redress. They demand comprehensive E-governance facilities such as online tax payement, availability of information on public service recruitment, public procurement of goods and services etc . There are attitudinal changes in the citizens who are becoming an increasingly complex ,diverse population, with shifting and contradicting expectations. They expect that government agencies will provide a level of service comparable to that of private sector. Modernization, which always accompanies industrialization, has brought fundamental changes in attitudes and behavior of citizens all over world. Once set in motion, modernization becomes a self-reinforcing process, penetrating all aspects of life and brings multidimensional changes in any society. Four types of behavioral changes in different stakeholders are putting pressures, directly as well as indirectly, on a civil servant in every country. Thanks to globalization, societies are transforming in multiple ways and at rapid speed. These developments now demand modern style of governance which is open, participatory and responsive, executed through a highly decentralized governance structures with maximum autonomy. Quick response to complaints and their timely redress, people friendly processes, ethical behavior, analytical prowess, change management, use of technology, emotional stability etc., are now name of the game. Almost all developing countries are passing through most crucial phase of their demographic transition. While rate of child births is gradually falling in almost all countries due to long term changes in social values and growing prosperity, death rates are falling even more rapidly because of better health facilities. Consequently, global population is growing at unsustainable rate, creating an aging bulge in the developed countries; however, in the developing countries, there is not only youth bulge but also aging bulge. Age-old pursuit of growth for sake of growth ultimately resulted in certain unintended but inevitable consequences, particularly rising poverty gap within every country and dismal record of their social and human development in the developing countries. Consequently, concept of equating economic growth with GDP growth has been replaced by concept of all inclusive, socially just and environmentally sustainable development with aim of improving quality of life of the people From inception of Pakistan as a state ,its planners focused on the it as it is the core cause of any welfare state and it is colonial legacy of British as to meet needs of masses but here In case of Pakistan we as guardian of state failed to establish it, state come into being in the name of Islam but at current our stake holders badly failed to maintain good administration.

Public Administration issues in Pakistan

Since the inception of Pakistan , Bureaucracy has suffered a slow institutional decline, most notable factor in this process has been sharped decline in the thoughtful caliber of the civil servants. The structure of the civil service is not formal one that take the intellectual class to the civil service but contrary to this the cramming system of civil exams brings the book worms students to the upper bureaucratic structure and most of the time these officers go for their personal interest rather than the interest of the public and then at the end public suffers a lot just due to the structure. And moreover to this our politician use bureaucracy as their personal service men and which make the bureaucracy controversial and they make them political. And all their affiliations with politicians make their role questionable. From the inception of the Pakistan we have faced many martial laws those badly hindered (Amna Imam, 2014) the development of Pakistan no doubt the core cause of these were the incompetency of our rulers. Military is strong and well-structured with the colonial legacy .and the role of Army as an institution become essential when state is born with the domestic and international problems states as an institutional is supreme enough that it involve its interest in the political parties and works for their vested rather those directly effect to the people a state is born with a number of problems in every field and more worse it the scourge of incompetency of ruling class then role of military becomes effective there is huge difference between the understanding of the military and civilian one , here in case of military, military officials has to study different aspects and diverse perspectives with acquiring the new skills and for the promotion. They has to pass the exams so when an institution be it a military or other one has tough selection criteria with a departmental test promotion is no doubt will be more formal organized rather the other one those are military focused to come in power be it legal or illegal way . Military as institution has a proper formal structure hierarchal structure in comparison to the ruling class that creates distinction between the military and ruling class so here in Pakistan military has an influential rule in Pakistan. At the time of independence there were three type of classes be it Landlord, military official and Bureaucracy but after that Army and bureaucracy has overdeveloped with respect to the Ruling class .The military bureaucratic oligarchies has become the cause of political intervention in Pakistan as we see in case of Iskander Mirza, a powerful member of the military, bureaucratic oligarchy is being elected as the first president of the Pakistan under the first constitution of Pakistan. So yes military has a bureaucratic oligarchy in Pakistan as it has developed more than other two classes of Pakistan and it can influence the political activities of ruling class.

Challenges in Public Administration in Pakistan

The core problem in implementing the it in Pakistan is that the absences of transparency because there is no formal structure where a ruler can be made accountable for its deeds when he was in power .as other is not properly defined rules and structure ruler mostly tries to make money rather to serve the people so still there is no concept of the transparency then it would not be able to work in the best interest of the people . There is a dire need of transparency in the selection of the bureaucracy as in future it is going to implement the policies made by the legislative bodies and ratified by the government still we lack the transparency system the it would not be able to work in the best interest of the people .There is a need of transparency in the every institution of the Pakistan there should be a selection n merit rather relations still in the absence of the meritocracy there will be no constructive rule of the administration in society and as much will be the merit there will be enough administration. Three challenges that have emerged in the form of globalization are democratization, privatization and internationalism of the world economy. The civil services are confronted with how to combat these challenges. The major challenge is hot to adopt and operate in a quasi-democratic system. Civil service reflects the continuity of policies irrespective of who is ruling. They should be given their education, training, social background, they can play a vital role in strengthening democratic institutions. For the past two decades, conflict among the political leadership has polarized the society. This polarization has affected almost all segments of civil society. The challenge for the civil services as an institution .The major and effective reason in regard for the poor it is the interference with administrative tasks by the political elite. And they try to do corruption and they want civil servants to help them in getting kickbacks in different manners. And this Negative influence on the bureaucracy and their unwillingness to take risks involved in any rhetoric. Parliament may exercise a negative influence over the bureaucracy. And another main reason is the instability of political system. When we have an overlook to history of Pakistan we see a lot of instability especially in exercising democracy. And due to this instability the continuity of policies is also much difficult to exercise.

CONCLUSION

Development administration was inaugurated in the 1950’s as a modernization paradigm to develop third world along capitalist lines. Bureaucratic rationality, battery of the administration reform tools, and the magic wand of management science. it was to be state-led development. By the late 60’s development started showing signs of fatigue and failure. The modernization drive failed to remove poverty and social inequity. And if Pakistan has to come to list of those states which are welfare states and have good public administration then Pakistan has to work hard in the field of it and will have to work on structure of the administrative system. And will have to follow the Weberian conceptualization of hierarchical public administration and this will be a good option for Pakistan to recover its bad administration.

References

1. https://nation.com.pk/10-May-2016/society-and-public-administration
2. Amna Imam, E. A. (2014, 2 20). Centre for Public Policy & Governance. Retrieved from http://cppg.fccollege.edu.pk/democracy-and-public-administration-in-pakistan/
3. I, A. (2016, may 10). Society and public administration. The Nation
4. Khan, Sultan, Public Administration with special reference to Pakistan

We understand that ethics refer to the principles that form one’s behavior. (Oxford,2020). Ethical behavior is every important in a sector because the society believes that one should act consistent on what the society typically thinks are good values .It represents respect for key moral, principles that include honesty, fairness, equality, dignity, diversity and individual rights. (WebFinance Inc, 2020). The four principles of health care ethics are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. These are also referred to as “the 4 moral principles”.

Confusing ethics and morality is a common thing because they both deal with how a person is expected to react if they are good people with good life intentions. People with morals are able to differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable behavior and that what ethics relate to. Morals are ethical principles that are always the same (Baker, 2008). The term “morals” is in fact a broad word because it is “frequently distinguished between etiquette, law and religion” which are codes of conduct proposed by society (Gert, 2008). The difference between ethics and morality is that while morals define our own character, ethics dictate the inner working of a social system. Ethics are based on moral codes adopted by members of a given group.

In a business sector it is important to consider how moral standards are appreciated and applied in official work, what the difficulties are and how they are resolved. It also important to be able to verify what problems occur and be able to suggest the new strategies that should be implemented if the previous ones are no longer adequate or practicable (Richard A. Chapman, 2010).

The main idea for the discipline of Public Administration are meeting the needs of the society in the best and honest way possible. Ethics and public administration come a long way. The ethical order under the New Public Service presents a number of challenges not readily addressed under the ethical consideration of traditional public administration. Citizens have a limited participation apart from the traditional democratic role of service requests. Problems might occur within the production team such shirking or rent-seeking behaviors. These are problems that have structural priors that must be addressed before they can decide on a solution.(Johnathan Rauh, 2017). According to Thornhill et al(2014:6), Wilson viewed the field of administration as a field of business and it is removed from the conflicts of politics and that is why public administration takes ethics so seriously because it is part of the discipline it promotes.(Thornhill et al, 2014)

We have 6 ethical theories which include ethical egoism, utilitarianism, the ethics of care, deontology, rights theory, theory of justice. All these are important because general riles ar always not sufficient, moral decision must be justified and conventional morality is not always correct. In making ethical decisions, there are three approaches from the ethical theories: ethical egoism, utilitarianism and altruism. Ethical egoism is the belief that the highest good is to always be self-serving regardless of other people, which comes across as a bit selfish. The altruism is the belief that the highest form of good is to always help others.

As a leader you need to understand that some practices are not only unethical but illegal as well and if you practice illegal things it is called malpractice, for example, insider trading where an investor might use information that isn’t know publicly to gain profits that are higher than what they would normally receive(Chron, 2019). I think it is essential to be encouraged by the role that were adopted by Public administration which are maintaining stability and order, ensuring growth and economic development, protection of weaker sections of society, influencing public policies and political trends and lastly be able to form and work around the opinion of the public. Henri Fayol provided 14 principles that need to be followed in order to produce effective results a leader. They read as follows, division of work, discipline, unity of direction, unity of command, subordination of individual interest to general interest, payment, centralization, scalar chain order, order, equity, stability of tenure, initiative, spirit of cooperation. These principles lay the foundation to Gulick’s core values called the POSDCORB. They were created to fulfill the needs of the society. They are the “ethics” to control the behavior of the state officials( Thornhill et al,2014)

I believe that it is important to have ethics in public administration because it mainly deals with the public and when you are working with people it is important that you are open and really considerate. Your decision need to be those that will portray an idea of putting the society first. As a leader you are elected out of trust and hope that you will deliver what is the best for the people. Society already as an idea of what is right and what is wrong, if one acts out in what is not right then they will be judged and their actions will be considered unethical. Ethics are discussed in the society. You need to have strong confidence in what you do in order to have the society on your side. As humans we all have different opinions and views so ethics are what bind us together in having a common understanding. Morality and ethics are truly needed in serving the people because they are the roots to an effective delivery.

Reference list

1. Johnathan Rauh.2017.Ethics Problem in the New Public: Back to a Service Ethic? [Abstract]. Public Integrity, 234-356(20), e3. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2017.1381541
2. Oxford.2020.Lexico.com. https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/ethics Date of access: 17 March 2020
3. Richard A. Chapman.2010. Problem of Ethics in Public Sector Management[Abstract]. Public Money and Management, 9-13(18), e1. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9302.00098? journalCode =rpmm20
4. smallbusiness.chron.com.2019.Ethical theories in Business. https://smallbusiness.chron.com/ethical-theories-business-74122.html
5. Thorhill, C., Van Dijk, G., Ile, I.2014. Public Administration and Management in South Africa: A developmental perspective. South Africa, SA: Oxford University Press Southern Africa(Pty) Limited

Environmental policy has been the topic of major debate for the greater part of a century. The United States faces both short-term and long-term issues, including air pollution, climate change, and the ensuing threat of global warming. The Obama Administration set policy priorities towards environmental protection, enacting and enforcing many regulations by the Environmental Protection Agency, the federal agency of the government of the United States dedicated to environment health, to decrease pollutants and climate change (Knickmeyer). Stressing the importance of environmental education and law compliance, as illustrated by a $2.8 billion fine against Volkswagen over diesel emission violations, the Obama Administration E.P.A. aimed to set energy-efficient standards and reduce environmental damage (Knickmeyer). Additionally, under President Obama, the United States signed the Paris Agreement, an ambitious goal set by more than 190 countries to cut down on emissions of greenhouse gases, a major contributing factor towards global warming (“U.S.”). The Agreement sought to limit the increase in global temperatures by using clean energy resources and holding countries responsible for their contributions to climate change (“U.S”).

In direct contrast to the Obama Administration’s efforts to tackle climate change, the Trump Administration has aimed to reduce federal climate policies in favor of furthering the American economy (Plumer). Obama-era regulations such as the Clean Power Plan, which proposed a push away from coal and other nonrenewable sources of energy, have been swept aside and replaced by weaker business standards, such as for vehicles and coal plants, (Plumer). Under the Trump Administration, the E.P.A. has disallowed California’s former ability to regulate tailpipe emissions from vehicles, a program that played an integral role in reducing greenhouse gases and smog (Carlson). Looser vehicle regulations alone could add 83 million metric tons of carbon dioxide in ten years to the Earth’s atmosphere (Houser). Trump’s pollution regulations aim to allow American businesses to flourish without the inconvenience of having to prevent the destruction of the Earth’s environment (Carlson). The Trump Administration should not undo Obama-era environmental policies because the environment would be catastrophically harmed by America’s increased carbon emissions and the globe would lose America’s crucial leadership role in combating climate change, although having less environmental restrictions could conceivably strengthen America’s economy by cutting down on costs for businesses and creating jobs. By foregoing environmental protection in order to protect America’s interests, the Trump Administration is continuing its ideology of nationalism at the expense of other countries, as also seen with American protectionism and other international agreements.

If the Trump Administration were to successfully implement looser environmental standards, America’s carbon emissions would dramatically increase and ultimately amplify climate change and the threat towards humanity’s future as a whole. Climate change is an encompassing term for the complex shifts in long-term weather systems, resulting in global warming and extreme weather events such as natural disasters (Nunez). As more carbon dioxide, a “greenhouse” gas that absorbs light and traps heat, is added to the Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human activity, the Earth’s temperature is shifting higher and higher, degree by degree (Nunez). During Obama’s presidency, the United States decreased its total carbon dioxide emissions from nearly 1000 million metric tons to a total of 6511 million metric tons (Cushman). Despite this reassurance, in 2018, under the Trump Administration, U.S. carbon emissions rose by 3.4% (Plumer). This incline is a result of President Trump’s apparent disregard of the consequences of global warming and climate change (Plumer).

The short-term effects of global warming are apparent. California’s wildfires, once scary but still bearable, have turned cataclysmic. For weeks, people in California inhaled thick smoke, dusted off layers of ash, and even lost their lives to fires that have dramatically increased in size and severity (Taylor). The increase in global temperatures sucks moisture from plants and soil, creating the perfect dry environment for rapid and uncontrolled burning (Borunda). For an entire season, California was helpless to the fires that ravaged its homes, fires that burned because the United States failed to reduce its carbon emissions. In wetter areas, downpours and storms have strengthened, exemplified by hurricanes that devastated areas in[a]cluding the Gulf of Mexico and the East Coast of the U.S. (Schwartz).

The long-term effects of the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are catastrophically significant. Climate analytics have concluded that for every five years that climate change is insufficiently combatted, the sea level is doomed to rise eight more inches by the year 2300,a phenomenon known as the Committed Sea Level Rise (Mooney). The Antarctic ice shelf is already beginning to melt at an alarming rate of 245 billion tons per year on average (Mooney). As Trump rescinds Obama-era regulations and America fails to meet the targets set years ago, projected sea levels will bind the world to a grim destiny. The implications of present choices encompass disastrous changes to the Earth’s environment in the distant, but very real, future.

As one of the most powerful countries in the world, the United States has a responsibility to be a leader in climate change prevention. America has the ability to make an incredible impact on the amount of carbon in our atmosphere. The U.S. has the largest gross domestic product, at 19 million (GDP). In correlation, the United States has one of the largest carbon emission rates in the world at 14% of total emissions (Plumer). This is why it is imperative that the U.S. continues the Obama Administration’s efforts to lead the global movement in climate change. At the Paris Climate Conference in 2015, Obama pledged America to join 190 other countries in tackling climate change (“U.S.”). Under the Paris Agreement, countries set ambitious targets to reduce pollution and carbon emissions for themselves and promised to hold themselves accountable in a transparent system, coordinating their targets in hopes of a low-carbon future (“U.S.”). From 2014 to 2017, U.S. carbon emissions fell by 5%, by far the largest cut by any nation in terms of millions of tons, while in comparison, European Union emissions grew by 3% (Rautviki). The Obama Administration publicly set a national policy of reducing climate change. In contrast, the Trump Administration dropped out of the Paris Climate Agreement, rescinded Obama’s Clean Power Plan, and rolled back many environmental regulations for businesses (Plumer).

The Paris Climate Agreement was drawn with the factor that the United States would be a part of it (“U.S”). It was a show of universal cooperation towards working against climate change (“U.S.”). Without the support of America, it seems unlikely that even 2015’s goals to avoid 2 degrees Celsius of warming will be met (Plumer). America’s demonstration of its commitment and leadership was pivotal in the overarching fight against climate change (Plumer). Now that the U.S. has walked away, other nations may see their own regulations under the Paris Agreement as unfair and withdraw, ultimately undermining the entire point of the Conference (Plumer). Considering America’s dominating presence in the world, it not only makes sense but is fully necessary for the Trump Administration to make strides in the war against climate change.

Some may argue that enforcing strict environmental standards is too costly for America’s economy. In a presidential statement, President Trump cited numerous disadvantages as the reason for dropping out of the Paris Climate Agreement (Trump). Regulating businesses and switching to non-renewable sources of energy can result in job loss (Trump). He argued that by adhering to the set targets, the United States was carrying a much greater financial and economic burden than other countries (Trump). Trump claimed that according to the National Economic Research Associates, complying with the Paris Accords agreements would cost America as many as 2.7 million jobs by 2025 (Trump). These jobs include manufacturing and automobile jobs, whose numbers would diminish by numbers greater than 500,000; paper, cement, iron, and steel industries would drop between 10 to 40% (Trump). The American economy would take a serious blow, losing at least 3 trillion dollars in GDP (Trump). Using the findings of this study done by the National Economic Research Associates[b], the disadvantages of continuing the progress made by the Obama Administration are clear. America’s economy would suffer under stricter environmental policy, but could flourish under a looser one.

The Obama Administration was characterized by its “war on coal” (Plott). President Obama ordered the shutdown of countless coal plants, and new coal leases on public land were temporarily banned (Lipton). Obama was viewed as intent on killing the coal industry entirely (Lipton). However, under the Trump Administration, the coal industry has made a minor resurgence (Lipton). Regulations on coal-powered plants were rolled back, allowing some coal plants to rejoin the market (Plumer). Randy Johnson, a veteran in the coal mining industry, reported gazing at trucks full of newly mined coal, describing a “Trump-sparked enthusiasm” (Plott). Under Obama’s Clean Power Plan, his mining company was deprived of the business that had once brought him success (Plott). Others, such as Barry Chambers, a private contractor whose income relied on mines, lost their jobs and were put in millions of dollars of debt (Plott). Once Trump took presidency, Chambers referenced a “growing optimism that things would get better” felt by all members of his community (Plott). President Obama’s determination to diminish America’s coal industry ravaged the lives of countless Americans and left them jobless, but President Trump’s rollbacks have given them hope.

However, the renewable energy sector supplies millions of new job opportunities (Horn). The clean energy workforce grew by 12% in just the last year, and now outnumbers the coal industry’s workforce in 30 states (“Clean”). Although the coal industry has been declining, solar, wind, and hydropower energy job growth has been able to fill that gap. Renewable energy jobs employ over 800,000 people in the United States, and 9.8 million worldwide. Ultimately, the Obama Administration was creating more jobs than destroying them.

Furthermore, President Trump’s citations for dropping out of the Climate Agreement and rolling back business regulations are heavily controversial. In 2016, the Obama Administration estimated a cost of $50 per ton of carbon dioxide emitted (Plumer). Even this number was criticized for leaving out the cost of damages from wildfires and other natural disasters, and only considering harm to human health and coastal property (Plumer). In contrast, the Trump Administration estimated a cost of merely $7 per ton of carbon dioxide emitted (Plumer). By disregarding any factors outside of U.S. borders despite the fact that damage done in other countries would eventually affect the United States as well, the Trump Administration E.P.A. severely underestimated the cost of climate change (Plumer). The fatal effects of climate change will not overlook the United States. Any benefits that America is able to reap by not participating in environmental protections are minuscule in comparison to the global destruction that climate change will bring.

Furthermore, the renewable energy sector supplies millions of new job opportunities (Horn). The clean energy workforce grew by 12% in just the last year, and now outnumbers the coal industry’s workforce in 30 states (“Clean”). Although the coal industry has been declining, solar, wind, and hydropower energy job growth has fulfilled that gap. Renewable energy jobs employ over 800,000 people in the United States, and 9.8 million worldwide. In the long run, the Obama Administration was creating more jobs than destroying them.

Rolling back environmental regulations reflects President Trump’s use of nationalism as a policy throughout his presidency in order to boost America’s economy. Nationalism is the political ideology of solely supporting one’s own nation and its interests, often at the detriment of other nations (“Trade”). The Trump Administration’s raising of tariffs, taxes on products made abroad, and approaches to trade reflect a policy of protectionism, the practice of protecting a nation’s economy through negatively affecting foreign competition (Levinson). President Trump has levied taxes upward of 200 billion dollars on Chinese imports, accusing China of unfair trade practices that injure America’s economy (“Trade”). These tariffs are intended to raise domestic economic growth, but in doing so, China’s economy would also ultimately suffer, inclining them to raise tariffs of their own (“Trade”). This global trade war affects nations all around the world by raising prices for companies and pushing them onto consumers (“Trade”). President Trump’s tariffs have affected other countries as well, including India and South Korea (Levinson). These tariffs are pushing countries away from collaboration, negatively impacting many of the countries involved.

In addition to tariffs, the Trump Administration has made international agreements solely to further American interests. In a free trade agreement with South Korea, President Trump lifted tariffs on South Korean steel imports only in exchange for a cap on South Korean steel imports (Tankersley). His negotiations with South Korea would eventually harm the South Korean steel industry, which provides the third-largest exports for the U.S. (Tankersley). Additionally, although the tariff on steel imports was lifted, a 25% import tariff on Korean trucks was put in place (Tankersley). President Trump’s foreign policy was also heavily skewed in regards to the murder of U.S. journalist Jamal Khashoggi (“Trump”). At first, he refused to publicly comment on whether or not Saudi Arabia’s Crown Prince Salman had been involved in the murder, even after many world leaders and U.S. senators denounced Saudi Arabia for their ruler’s actions (“Trump”). Finally, in an Oval Office interview, he spoke about how Saudi Arabia was a “‘good ally’” to the United States and denied that Salman had any role in the journalist’s death (“Trump”). President Trump chose not to acknowledge the surmounting evidence in favor of keeping good trade relations with Saudi Arabia, instead of forcing the Crown Prince Salman to take responsibility for his corrupt actions and denouncing him (“Trump”). The Trump Administration’s focus is clearly exclusively on American interests, even at the expenditure of American morals, demonstrating its policy of nationalism at every level.

If President Trump were to fully roll back President Obama’s environmental policies, America’s carbon emissions would increase dangerously and the globe would be harmed by America’s lack of participation in combating climate change, although it would also bring about some economic benefits. The United States, along with every other nation in the world, must meet its emission targets if they do not wish to doom their planet to an uninhabitable future. The Trump Administration’s actions demonstrate a greater theme of nationalism even at the cost of other nations and our shared environment. The benefits of protecting the health of the planet outweighs financial and economic gain that would come about from disregarding it; President Trump would do well to follow the warnings for the sake of both America’s future and the world’s.

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Public administration is a combo of hypothesis just as training , its training is as old as human development , investigation of public administration has been described by standardizing approach (political ,reasoning, law making) up till nineteenth century.

According to A Kindle, there is a need of broadening of endeavors towards observational examination, investigation of organization, which will try to rectify ways of govt. these underlying down to earth and hypothetical endeavors combined with that of the individuals who may be known as the establishing father of open organization.

According to Bartholomew there are five phases of advancement of open organization as a control:

• Stage1: Politics organization polarity
• Stage2: Principles of organization
• Stage3 Era of test
• Stage4: Crises of character
• Stage5: Public strategy point of view

The primary stage was based on Woodrow Wilson’s perspective on legislative issues organization polarity yet around then individuals was tired of the administration and its approaches and individuals promptly drink up his view. Second stage was set apart by a similar supporting the Wilson’s view and develops esteem unbiased or climate free exploration of the board; this was the develop modern insurgency period. Around then Max Weber was the main who give the control a strong hypothetical base and worried about the advancement of present day human advancement with organizations. Third stage stressed on the human parts of organization and specialists were tested. Fourth stage is set in the late twentieth century, and denoted a discussion for the arrival of qualities in open organization and cross culture. It purchased majority rule humanism and customer introduction just as the science point of view in new open organization.

Hypotheses of Public Administration: there are three classified speculations:

• Classical
• Modern
• Postmodern

That approach depends on the monetary soundness all things considered and developed around the suspicions of Adam Smith, that individuals are spurred by giving them financial motivating forces. That hypothesis likewise pays light upon the three branches fundamental the guideline of traditional hypothesis these are:

• Administrative standards.
• Bureaucratic association.

The first logical alluded to Frederick Taylor; he began the time of present day the board and furthermore upheld the efficient preparing of specialists in THE ONE BEST PRACTICE. The second authoritative guideline dependent on the Henri Fayola’s view, he centers around the individual obligations of the executives at a considerably more granular dimension and POSDCOB exercises also. Third bureaucratic guideline created by Max Weber, he was wary of organization when he saw that the more completely understood, the more administration depersonalizes itself.

That hypothesis more underscores on social and quantitative school of contemplations so headway and refinements have empower directors to advance. It is result situated and centers around customers.