Category: ADHD

Assessment

Demographics of the Patient

• The patient is a nine-year-old girl called Alicia.
• The patient lives with her parents and 12-year-old brother in a middle-class neighborhood.
• Her father has a small business, and her mother works part-time in a daycare center.

Identifying Features/Complaints

• She lacks focus and does not do her homework, which has led to multiple arguments with her parents.
• In general, the patient does not appear to care about her studies or academic performance.
• Alicia has very low grades (ranging between B and D).
• She is lagging behind in class and is poor at reading.
• The patient often forgets to hand in her homework.
• She has trouble maintaining eye contact.
• She has trouble concentrating during conversations.
• She has had a violent streak.

Past history shows that the patient has had trouble focusing on academic work and has also been reported to have kicked a fellow student. The patient has been taken to a pediatrician, but it was concluded that there was nothing medically wrong with her. She also tested negative for any psychiatric disease. Due to this, there have not been any past medical trials administered to help Alicia live a normal life.

The patient has no history of substance abuse, and neither do her parents. She, however, has problems socializing with others as some children consider her ‘dumb.’ This has affected her self-esteem and could be the reason why she experienced a violent streak. Since she finds it hard to maintain eye contact and concentrate even during conversations, it has been difficult for her to form healthy relationships with people. The constant arguments with her parents over her disinterest in her homework have led both parties to be frustrated with each other. Arguably, the parents do not understand the cause of disinterest and only want their child to perform better in school.

Alicia may pose a risk to her classmates as they do not understand her or her condition. It can be argued that she pushed her classmate due to frustrations caused by a lack of understanding from both involved parties. The patient’s play and sleep patterns are very normal. Eighty percent of a child’s life consists of going to school, and the other 20 percent consists of physical activities (Toselli, Brasili, Iuliano, & Spiga, 2014).With the provided information, therefore, it can be stated that Alicia is only operating on 20 percent of her capacity, which is a very worrying status for a child her age.

Diagnosis

The diagnosis began immediately. The patient arrived at the hospital. The medical personnel who was assessing the patient asked about her early development, and whether she had problems such as late milestones (walking and talking). It was discovered that she had not experienced any developmental problems and that she had always been an active child, except in school.

Since her previous pediatrician had stated that she had no medical condition, Conner’s’ Rating Scales of ADD was implemented to determine whether the patient was healthy or not. This scale is designed to test the patient’s rating in hyperactivity, ADD index, cognitive problems, and oppositional (Singh, 2014). Rating scales are particularly important in diagnosing mental health issues and can diagnose a wide variety of conditions ranging from depression, anxiety to ADD. In as much as they help a physician gather a lot of information regarding the mental state of a patient, it is still imperative that a clinical test is conducted to understand the context in which the condition occurs.

Both clinical and Corners scale results indicate that Alicia has challenges paying attention. It is for this reason that she cannot focus on her homework as it requires attention. Hyperactivity scores were only high with the parents. However, the teachers reported low hyperactivity. Additionally, oppositional behavior was only reported when she was forced to focus on something she did not like, such as her homework.

From the above results, it was clear that Alicia has an Attention Deficiency Disorder (ADD). This is the problem that made her lag behind in school and also lost concentration easily. The stated premise was reached after comparing normal and expected scores with Alicia’s. It is important to note that there was a huge variation in the ability to pay attention to.

ADD has been known to affect children by making them fidget when they are seated (which was observed during consultation), and not adhere to instruction regardless of how many times they are given (case and point the patient’s homework). Also, ADD can, at times, make a child lazy and disobedient. It can be confirmed that Alicia has exuded all the mentioned habits/ characteristics. Suffices to mention, the unique position that Alicia finds herself in, not only affects her but also her parents, her classmates, and her teachers.

Planning and Treatment

The patient can be put on Methylphenidate and Dexamphetamine as the two main drugs for management and treatment. These drugs have the effect of positively affecting the central nervous system, particularly human moods, concentration, and movement. In the case of Alicia, the central nervous system is not sending the right signals regarding the three main components that the patient is suffering (mood, movement, and concentration). These drugs aim at regulating the said issue.

However, the mentioned are trail drugs, and it is recommended that the dose be titrated according to the doctor’s instructions. Alicia should start with a very low dose, which will be increased over time as she is closely monitored for any change and side effects that she may experience. Some of the side effects that may be expected include insomnia, loss of appetite, and nervousness (McCormick, Wilson, Wilson, & Remington, 2013). The said symptoms are, however, expected to reduce overtime. According to Farhud and Shalileh (2014), ADD drugs administered to children also have the potential of causing problems in growth, and Alicia’s height and weight will have to be monitored regularly as well.

Alicia’s parents were quite apprehensive at first about the treatment plan due to the potential side effects that their child would face. The patient’s parents began to consider and inquire about natural remedies for the problem. During their research process, they came across information claiming that omega 3 and 6 supplements could increase the attention capacity of children (Farhud & Shalileh, 2014). The patient’s parents inquired about the possibility of using Omega 3 and 6 supplements. In as much as there is research that argues for the use of Omega 3 and 6 in such a situation, the healing process is slow and guaranteed. That treatment plan will also rob Alicia of a very important stage in her life as she will not be able to enjoy her childhood due to restrictions in playing. It is recommended that the parents stick to the use of the prescribed medication as it will achieve their main goal, which was to make their daughter perform better in school.

Implementation and Coordination

In this case, the treatment plan will take a bit of time as the chosen medication has to be administered in a graduating manner. It is important that the family members work closely with the physician to ensure that Alicia has a smooth healing process. Teachers in the school will also play a huge role in the patient’s recovery. It will be important for the teachers to write up weekly reports on a performance that can be used as an evaluation tool.

The suggested action will help the physician understand whether the treatment is working or not. Creating a good and strong relationship with the patient’s teachers is very important as they will help with the monitoring of the treatment, management, and healing process. If her concentration and focus improve, it will be concluded that the selected medication plan was successful. Any health care professional that comes into contact with Alicia will have to be made aware of the fact that Alicia’s treatment is on a titration basis; thus, unless her personal doctor recommends, the dosage should not be increased.

Health Teaching and Health Promotion

It is important that Alicia’s parents know that healing for ADD is a process, and changes might not be seen immediately after. However, the beginning will be the hardest part, and the child might find it difficult to cope with the new medication. The parents need to help her in any way possible to ensure a quick recovery. For example, in cases of insomnia, they can read her a book until she falls asleep. In as much as the parents might be busy, they should be the only ones who administer the medicine. Alicia’s classmates need to be sensitized on her condition as well. The biggest challenge with this suggestion is that the classmates are very young and will not fully grasp the situation. However, they can be informed not to bully Alicia and also encouraged to play with her often. The school peer counselor can undertake this role.

Alicia should be made aware of the side effects that she might face in simple terms. Her parents should, however, not scare her as she will refuse to take medicine. A counselor can also be used for this. Medeiros-Melo and Garcia (2016) identify insomnia to be one of the causes of agitation, and it can be argued that the patient might end up being violent with other kids while in the said state of agitation. Parents and teachers should, therefore, be on the look-out for such to avoid fights and discomfort.

Outcomes

ADD medication is not cheap, and the treatment process is also very long. Because of the said reason, Alicia’s parents need to be advised on a payment plan that will ensure consistency of Alicia’s medication. The physician is best placed to give such advice, and can also tell the parents any alternative ways they can pay for the medication or treatment, for instance, through insurance. It is the sole responsibility of a physician to offer comfort to both patients and their caregivers (Reed & Shearer, 2012). One expected outcome of the treatment plan suggested, if taken according to the doctor’s instructions, is that there will be improved concentration levels in the patient.

In order to determine success, it is important that Alicia is assessed from time to time throughout the course of the treatment. A self-generated report that can be done by the parents to highlight changes or lack thereof should be drafted in the form of a schedule. Additionally, there are some providers administered tools such as Conner’s rating scale that can be used by the physicians to assess the patient.

References

Farhud, D., & Shalileh, M. (2014). Relation between omega 3 fatty acid, iron, zinc and treatment of ADHD. Zahedan Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 16(8), 1-5.

McCormick, P. N., Wilson, V. S., Wilson, A. A., & Remington, G. J. (2013). Acutely administered antipsychotic drugs are highly selective for dopamine D2 over D3 receptors. Pharmacological Research, 70(1), 66-71.

Medeiros-Melo, A. C., & Garcia, L. P. (2016). Involvement of school students in fights with weapons: Prevalence and associated factors in Brazil. BMC Public Health, 16(1), 1-10.

Reed, P., & Shearer, N. (2012). Perspectives on nursing theory. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer.

Singh, S. S. (2016). Effects of mindfulness therapy in managing aggression and conduct problem of adolescents with ADHD symptoms. Indian Journal of Health & Wellbeing, 7(5), 483-487.

Toselli, S., Brasili, P., Iuliano, T., & Spiga, F. (2014). Anthropometric variables, lifestyle and sports in school-age children: Comparison between the cities of Bologna and Crotone. HOMO – Journal of Comparative Human Biology, 65(6), 499-508.

Agnew‐Blais, Jessica C., et al. “Mother’s and Children’s ADHD Genetic Risk, Household Chaos and Children’s ADHD Symptoms: A Gene–Environment Correlation Study.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 63, no. 10, 2022, pp. 1153-1163.

This article is the description of the longitudinal risk study aimed at measuring the manifestation of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In particular, this research study’s focus is the investigation of the impact of household chaos on the development and behavior of children with ADHD. The relevance of this work to the research topic is validated by attention to the immediate daily experiences of children with ADHD, which unfold the problematic issues with the hindrance of the development of such individuals.

The unique features of the study are the investigation of how household chaos, which is an under-researched phenomenon, continuously impacts ADHD children’s symptoms within a long-term perspective. The credentials of the authors of the research study, who constitute an international group of academics working in the fields of psychiatry, behavioral science, and education, contribute to its findings’ reliability. The findings suggest that household chaos reflects children’s genetic predisposition to ADHD. Conclusively, this article might be a valuable data source on the evolution of the disorder in the context of daily experiences and developmental processes.

Christiansen, Lasse, et al. “Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Performance in Children and Adolescents with ADHD: Potential Mechanisms and Evidence-Based Recommendations.” Journal of Clinical Medicine, vol. 8, no. 6, 2019, pp. 1-51.

The focus of this scholarly article is the impact of exercising interventions on the cognitive abilities of ADHD children. The study is particularly relevant to the research topic due to its specific investigation of cognitive development changes under the influence of ADHD. The special features of the work include an extended literature review of relevant research and the establishment of the relationship between the physical and cognitive development of ADHD children.

The authors of this source are renowned Danish scholars with expertise in neurodevelopmental disorder research, which adds to their credibility. The researchers reached the conclusion that since multiple research findings imply the ability of physical exercise to improve cognitive malfunction, such interventions should be promoted. Within the context of the proposed research, this source allows for accumulating a broad in-depth knowledge of the impact of ADHD on children’s cognitive abilities.

Smit, Sophie, Amori Yee Mikami, and Sébastien Normand. “Effects of the Parental Friendship Coaching Intervention on Parental Emotion Socialization of Children with ADHD.” Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, vol. 50, no. 1, 2022, pp. 101-115.

This article’s purpose is to identify the impact of ADHD on socialization development in the context of parental emotional involvement with their children diagnosed with the disorder. The source is useful for the researched topic since it provides a direct set of data on the impact of ADHD on the social development of children and broadens the scope of knowledge on the methods of ADHD management. The work’s uniqueness is manifested through the emphasis on the opportunities for facilitating social skills and emotional development in ADHD children through parental training interventions.

The authors of the article are academics working for Canadian psychological departments at renowned universities, which is why their scholarly findings deserve trust and are worth relying on. The study found that positive parenting with appraisal improved ADHD children’s socioemotional development. When using this source for the research study, one might conclude that the socioemotional development of ADHD children is a complex issue that requires the thoughtful involvement of parents, educators, and counselors.

Wylock, Jean-Francois, et al. “Child Attachment and ADHD: A Systematic Review.” European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2021, pp. 1-12.

The article’s focus is the investigation of the relationship between ADHD child’s attachment to their parents and the symptoms and severity of the disorder. It is useful for the research topic because this systematic review accumulates a significant body of relevant, up-to-date scholarly literature on the topic of cognitive, emotional, and social development of ADHD children. Several unique features of the study include its attention to recently published articles and the focus on attachment theories as the factor impacting ADHD symptoms.

The credibility of the authors of the study is justified by their scholarly expertise in neuropsychology and neurophysiology. The study findings helped the researchers to conclude that the level of ADHD children’s social and emotional development is predetermined by the type of attachment to their parents, which is why attachment should be modified accordingly. As for the proposed study-related conclusion, one might emphasize that this article allows for considering the particularities of ADHD symptoms within the context of parent-child relationships, the knowledge about which might facilitate children’s development.

One of the counseling theories that align with the needs of a client with ADHD is the cognitive theory. The theory is based on the assumption that an individual suffering from a mental condition experiences certain negative thoughts that influence his or her emotional state (Beck & Haigh, 2014). This phenomenon, known as automatic thoughts, covers the individual’s self-assessment, the perception of the environment, and the ability to make decisions about the future (Corey, 2015).

According to the common approach, the possibility to reflect on automatic thoughts usually results in their re-evaluation, which is more realistic and, in most cases, less negative. The counselor is thus expected to assist the self-reflection and guide it in the direction that promises the most favorable outcome as well as raise the client’s awareness of the effect and, by extension, enhance his or her self-sufficiency (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016). The theory often used for the treatment of depression and anxiety as well as any condition associated with patterns of negative thinking.

In the client’s case, the theory can be implemented through several sessions during which specific situations will be identified that have a negative effect on client’s life. The scenario will then be analyzed in order to identify the core cause of the challenge as well as the falsely attributed side-effects. Finally, tactics will be assigned to each major issue that would help the client to reframe his perception and manage the situation.

Considering the theory’s focus on thinking as a determinant of behavior, it would be reasonable to identify the following goals:

• Improved self-esteem in terms of academic achievement (the increased confidence in school performance and the ability to accomplish tasks given by the teachers);
• Overall improvement in the quality of life (the improved positive perception of the environment, peers, teachers, and the new community).

The first goal is expected to address the gaps in academic performance associated with ADHD. According to the available information, the client is unable to concentrate on a specific task for a long time and is rarely attentive during the lessons. However, he occasionally displays above-normal results in some disciplines. Since there is no system to the tendency, it would be reasonable to attribute the outcome at least partially to the fact that he is aware of his underperformance and, as a result, is discouraged by it.

As is common in such scenarios, he is subject to at least one mental distortion, such as mental filtering (in which he remembers the negative results associated with his efforts and ignores the positive ones) or mind reading (where Andres makes an inadequate estimation of others’ negative thoughts about him and holds the as objective reality) (Wells, 2013). The latter is especially relevant since the client also undergoes treatment for type 1 diabetes which often serves as a cause for stigmatization by the peers (Mayo Clinic, 2017).

The second goal is intended to facilitate an overall improvement in Andres’ quality of life. Several issues, such as a recent move, a serious medical condition, a language barrier, and the lack of community involvement likely have a cumulative effect on the boy’s well-being. While each of these aspects can be addressed separately, it would be more appropriate to adopt a holism principle (Moe, Perera-Diltz, & Rodriguez, 2012). From such perspective, most of the said issues can be partially linked to self-esteem. Thus, the overall improvement can be considered a wellness-oriented goal.

The successful application of the theory to the counseling process is expected to alleviate the negativity associated with academic underperformance and, by extension, encourage the client to adequately evaluate his academic progress (Wells, 2013). In other words, he will be able to critically analyze his productivity, identify improvement, recognize positive results, and maintain effort at a steady pace. Another likely outcome is the improved perception of the environment and a more positive perception of peers’ treatment. Andres’ behavior will not be inhibited by his expectations of rejection associated with the treatment of a medical condition, insufficient knowledge of English, recent immigration, or any of the unaddressed cultural or socioeconomic issues (Pineros-Leano et al., 2017). Simply put, the holistic, wellness-oriented application of the theory will produce a net improvement of the client’s quality of life and minimize the occurrence of negative behaviors in the future.

The second theory that is relevant to the client’s case is the behavioral theory. According to the theory, the behavior is based on previous experience and is learned (Corey, 2015). This also means that the acquiring of the desired behavior can be achieved through the collaboration between the client and the counselor and peer support. In counseling practice, the behavioral theory can be utilized through several approaches that usually include training, rehearsal, reinforcement, and education (Corey, 2015).

The first step necessary for such approach is the identification of positive goals, usually by the client. Once the intentions and goals of the client are clear, techniques can be chosen that reinforce them. Depending on the nature of the desired skill, the techniques can be based on repetition or situational application (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016). Once the rehearsal is performed, the counselor is expected to provide feedback in the form of praise for improvement or corrective remarks to improve certain areas.

Considering the case at hand, two goals can be identified pertinent to the theory:

• Better results in academic performance (the improvement of attention span and minimization of wasted time during classes);
• Greater independence in individual academic assignments (e.g. the decreased reliance on supervision during the completion of the homework).

It should be pointed out that while the distorted perception of the environment and inadequate self-assessment is at least partially responsible for the presenting problem, the effect can be alleviated through a development of relatively simple skills. The effect can be applied with equal success to self-esteem once the specific causes of its decline are identified. Importantly, the latter approach has been criticized for targeting the symptom rather than the causes (Fall, Holden, & Marquis, 2017). On the other hand, it provides a feasible, robust solution that can produce an observable and measureable effect. Thus, in combination with the cognitive theory suggested above the behavioral theory is expected to be effective.

If the first goal is successfully met, the client is expected to show stronger ability to concentrate on a given academic task, focus on the instructions of teachers, and demonstrate better communication skills. Consequently, these enhancements would allow for better academic performance, a more even distribution of results, and, by extension, a more predictable progress. The second goal is expected to equip Andres with the techniques and tactics that minimize distraction during independent tasks performed individually (e.g. homework). Such improvement will eliminate the need for parental supervision, which is especially important considering their current socioeconomic situation and mutually reinforce the trust within the family. It is also noteworthy that decreased reliance on external assistance will have an overall positive effect on many aspects of quality of Andres’ life and can thus be considered a wellness-oriented goal.

Special Needs

The special needs identified in the case are the ADHD and type 1 diabetes. The former is associated with disruptions of the boy’s social and academic interactions due to the behavioral issues. The latter introduces several undesirable psychological effects such as a negative reaction from peers in response to observing unusual practices (e.g. administration of medications). In the long run, such reaction can be amplified by the distortion of perception through automatic thought and compromise the client’s self-esteem. Thus, the ADHD can be considered the primary focus of the intervention.

The special need should first be introduced in a session through mutually agreeable terms. Most likely, it should be related to the inability to concentrate attention on specific tasks or people. Once the negative effects of such phenomenon (e.g. poor performance) are outlined, it is then possible to set goals for the following sessions. The goals need to be realistic, doable, and, preferably, observable and measurable. For instance, the inability to concentrate on a homework assignment can be addressed by the goal of engaging the task for a certain period of time.

This, in turn, can be achieved either through a rehearsed action (e.g. setting a time limit and keeping a record of successful adherence to it) or through the deconstruction of the scenario and the subsequent identification of the core cause. It should be noted that while the former example is relatively straightforward and requires no major planning, the latter needs to be based on the conclusions reached in collaboration with the client and would thus require at least one session to be formulated.

For instance, if the inability to finish the assignments will be tied to the perceived inevitability of the unsatisfactory results, the respective goal would be the ability to objectively estimate the outcome and predict the most likely (rather than the most negative) result. Such goal can be met through a variety of techniques achieved either through learned behavior or through the breakdown of necessary activities. For the homework assignments, the components can be the ability to start working on time, tackling the tasks that the client would otherwise avoid, and review of the tasks at hand in order to prioritize them by difficulty.

Importantly, at least some of the techniques and tactics need to be performed in-session while others can be left for Andres’ independent use. The latter would then require progress logging. The easiest example is a daily journal where Andres would describe or grade his success in completing school assignments. Such information would allow evaluating his progress in reaching the formulated goals and adjust the content and focus of the future sessions if necessary. More importantly, it would visualize the progress for the client and boost his confidence, strengthening his independence.

It should also be emphasized that the client’s cultural background may require minor adjustments to the intervention. Specifically, his recent change of schools due to immigration as well as a lack of English proficiency likely has at least some effect on the overall self-esteem as a result of social anxiety disorder (Patel & Reicherter, 2016). The said disorder is a thoroughly studied phenomenon that can be addressed through several well-established techniques (Pineros-Leano, Liechty, & Piedra, 2017). Importantly, the failure to recognize the possibility of the disorder can compromise the feasibility of the intervention whereas its acknowledgment requires only minor adjustments of the session protocol. In other words, its inclusion is relatively simple and should not be overlooked.

References

Beck, A. T., & Haigh, E. A. (2014). Advances in cognitive theory and therapy: The generic cognitive model. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 1-24.

Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (Eds.). (2016). Counseling and psychotherapy: Theories and interventions (6th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Corey, G. (2015). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (10th ed.). Chicago, IL: Nelson Education.

Fall, K. A., Holden, J. M., & Marquis, A. (2017). Theoretical models of counseling and psychotherapy (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Mayo Clinic. (2017). Type 1 diabetes in children. Web.

Moe, J. L., Perera-Diltz, D. M., & Rodriguez, T. (2012). Counseling for wholeness: Integrating holistic wellness into case conceptualization and treatment planning. Web.

Patel, S., & Reicherter, D. (Eds.). (2016). Psychotherapy for immigrant youth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Springer.

Pineros-Leano, M., Liechty, J. M., & Piedra, L. M. (2017). Latino immigrants, depressive symptoms, and cognitive behavioral therapy: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 567-576.

Wells, A. (2013). Cognitive therapy of anxiety disorders: A practice manual and conceptual guide. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

ADHD in Children (K-3, Age 5-6): Disorder Description

Signs and Symptoms: How ADHD Manifests Itself

Determining the presence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in a child and addressing the disorder is often a rather intricate process because of the vagueness that surrounds the issue (Smith, 2017). Although the symptoms appear in K-3 children with ADHD just as prominently as they do older patients (e.g., first-graders), there is a very fine line between the regular behavior of a child and the behavioral characteristics of those with ADHD (Mullet & Rinn, 2015). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.) (DSM-V) identifies ADHD, or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), as a “neurodevelopmental disorder defined by impairing levels of inattention, disorganization, and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 32).

Traditionally, the following symptoms are viewed as the sign of ADHD: failure to pay close attention to details, inability to listen closely when being addressed directly, difficulties organizing activities and managing time, being easily distracted, social issues (particularly, the development of the relevant communication skills), stranger fear, etc. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). However, as stressed above, the list provided above may not represent the actual manifestation of the disorder in specific children since the range of symptoms, their severity, frequency, etc., may vary significantly depending on the social, genetic, and biological factors (Pappa et al., 2014).

Furthermore, the common myth about hyperactivity as the crucial ADHD marker often misleads parents and even healthcare professionals (HPs). Studies show that ADHD children are not necessarily hyperactive, and vice versa, healthy children may have hyperactivity issues (Mullet & Rinn, 2015). Nevertheless, ADHD can be identified and addressed accordingly with the help of behavioral interventions including praise and emphasis on self-regulation, thus, leading to a gradual improvement of the learner’s abilities, faster acquisition of the relevant skills, including social ones, and overall more successful development (Cavanagh et al., 2017).

Apart from the lack of attention and hyperactivity, impulsivity is often listed among the signs of ADHD development, as DSM-V indicates (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Impulsivity is assessed together with hyperactivity, whereas inattention is evaluated in a separate test according to the DSM-V instructions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Therefore, it is suggested that the general set of symptoms of ADHD should be split into two key parts, i.e., the inattention- and the hyperactivity/impulsivity-related ones. As a result, the possibility of misinterpreting the specifics of a child’s behavior for an ADHD symptom and, thus, misdiagnosing them, is reduced significantly (Rosales et al., 2015).

Problems Triggered by ADHD: Impediments to Learning

Children with ADHD show the propensity toward developing the following issues: failure to work in a team; failure to complete the assignments that have been started; being easily distracted; talking to other students, etc. (Rothe et al., 2016). Students with ADHD may get distracted with virtually any visual, sound, or kinesthetic experience, therefore, triggering a disruption in the classroom and making it difficult for the rest of the children to concentrate (Ross & Randolph, 2014).

Not only visual and sound-related distractions but also the elements that learners can use to fidget pose a significant threat to the young students’ ability to concentrate (DuPaul & Jimerson, 2014). The factors such as unpleasant kinesthetic experiences are likely to create the distraction of a sizeable effect as well (Seines, McLaughlin, Derby, & Weber, 2015). As a result, the students are unable to develop the required skills or get a good grasp on the material taught to them in class, in general. Consequently, a significant drop in the learners’ performance along with a possible drop in their cognitive development, may become a possibility.

To be more specific, time management problems are likely to make ADHD learners fail to perform the tasks efficiently. Failing to organize their time successfully, the students will be forced to revisit the instructions and guidelines several times, as well as face the necessity to correct the mistakes that they are likely to make when implementing the task in between the distractions.

The identified issue will lead to not only the failure to meet the existing academic standards but also to a rapid rise in frustration in ADHD learners (Heiman, 2017). Feeling distressed about their inability to perform, the students will gradually become highly unmotivated to excel in their academic performance; furthermore, consistent failures may ultimately trigger a significant drop in the levels of their self-esteem. Consequently, ADHD may jeopardize not only the academic processes but also the learning process at a much deeper level, i.e., making the learners fear to make an unsuccessful endeavor (DuPaul & Jimerson, 2014).

Furthermore, one must bear in mind that ADHD triggers a range of comorbid conditions that inhibit the process of learning and prevent children from acquiring the relevant skills and knowledge (Rothe et al., 2016). For instance, the following issues can be viewed as the possible factors contributing to a gradual drop in the performance of students with ADHD: learning issues, anxiety, language development problems, disruptive behavior, mood disorders, developmental coordination disorder, insomnia, etc. (Mayes et al., 2015). The identified issues will have their mark on the development of a child with ADHD, causing the learner to fail to build relationships with their fellow students and maintain relationships with their family members (Rothe et al., 2016).

Managing the Problem: How ADHD Can Be Addressed

Classroom Strategies: Changing the Approach to Teaching

Seeing that the unreasonably high activity levels are the most common reason for the target population to get distracted, it will be reasonable to include short breaks of physical exercises during the classes (Heiman, 2017). Thus, ADHD learners will get an opportunity to handle their activity levels and maintain the proper level of attention during classes. The identified exercises should be designed for ADHD students, as well as those learners wishing to participate.

Furthermore, teachers must collaborate with parents so that the appropriate classroom environment could be created for the target students. The communication with ADHD learners’ families is also important for showing parents how ADHD students can receive support from their family members and, thus, gain a significant amount of confidence. Finally, the partnership-based relationships between parents and the school staff will serve as the foundation for better monitoring of the learners’ progress and faster identification of the changes in the general tendency. As a result, an adequate response can be produced in a fast and efficient manner (Shillingford-Butler & Theodore, 2014).

A change in the environment of the classroom should also be viewed as an important step in addressing the needs of ADHD learners. For instance, getting rid of cluttered areas and creating a single open space will allow “maximizing structure and predictability” (Shillingford-Butler & Theodore, 2014, p. 236) of the classroom. Thus, students with ADHD will feel more comfortable and inclined to engage in the suggested activities.

Active supervision should also be viewed as part and parcel of the teaching techniques deployed to address the needs of ADHD learners. Because of the lack of focus, the target population needs consistent support and mentorship. Therefore, supervision must be included in the list of teaching approaches. One could argue, though, that peer mentorship could become a nonetheless important device in monitoring the ADHD learners’ progress. Indeed, studies show that students tend to accept the suggested behaviors and rules once they are taught to them through games and collaboration with peers (Geng, Midford, Buckworth, & Kersten, 2017). Therefore, peer mentorship will have to be considered as a possible teaching strategy. The inclusion of technology should also be considered a step toward creating an improved environment for the target population (Geng et al., 2017).

Possible Issues, Their Resolution, and Expected Outcomes

The identified approaches have their limitations, which are likely to reduce the efficacy of the suggested interventions. For instance, there is a range of extraneous factors that educators can hardly affect, such as family-related issues. Defining the learners’ initial motivation levels, the family-associated factors can be managed by establishing a link between educators and family members. However, the lack of control over the family-related factors may become a significant impediment to managing ADHD students’ needs. That being said, by creating the classroom environment that will encourage ADHD K-3 students to acquire the relevant skills and focus on the learning process, a teacher is likely to attain success in helping the ADD learners.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Cavanagh, J., Cole, J., Kynaston, J., Gilson, K. M., Davis, E., & Hazel, G. (2017). Building the capacity of early childhood educators to promote children’s mental health: Learnings from three new programs. In Susanne Garvis & Donna Pendergast (eds.), Health and wellbeing in childhood (pp. 362-379). Cambridge, UK: CUP.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Symptoms and diagnosis. Web.

DuPaul, G. J., & Jimerson, S. R. (2014). Assessing, understanding, and supporting students with ADHD at school: Contemporary science, practice, and policy. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(4), 379-384. Web.

Geng, G., Midford, R., Buckworth, J., & Kersten, T. (2017). Tapping into the teaching experience of final year education students to increase support for students in their first year. Student success, 8(1), 13-23. Web.

Heiman, T. (2017). The Internet forums as tool for coping and consultation of mothers’ with their child with ADHD. Psychology Research, 7(1), 29-41. Web.

Mayes, S.D., Waxmonsky, J., Calhoun, S.L., Kokotovich, C., Mathiowetz, C., & Baweja, R. Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) symptoms in children with autism, ADHD, and neurotypical development and impact of co-occurring ODD, depression, and anxiety. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 18(1), 64-72. Web.

Mullet, D. R., & Rinn, A. N. (2015). Giftedness and ADHD: Identification, misdiagnosis, and dual diagnosis. Roeper Review, 37(4), 195-207. Web.

Pappa, I., Mileva-Seitz, V. R., Szekely, E., Verhulst, F. C., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., Jaddoe, … van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2014). DRD4 VNTRs, observed stranger fear in preschoolers and later ADHD symptoms. Psychiatry Research, 220(3), 982-986. Web.

Rosales, A. G., Vitoratou, S., Banaschewski, T., Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J., Oades, R. D., & Chen, W. (2015). Are all the 18 DSM‑IV and DSM‑5 criteria equally useful for diagnosing ADHD and predicting comorbid conduct problems? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(11), 1325-1337. Web.

Ross, P., & Randolph, J. (2014). Differences between students with and without ADHD on task vigilance under conditions of distraction. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 4(1), 1-10. Web.

Rothe, E. M., Lewis, J. E., Aftab, A., Mehdi, S., Lages, L., Sharma, R., …Ray, M. D. (2016). An assessment of comorbidity and social demographics in a primarily African-American and Hispanic population of boys with ADHD treated in psychiatric/non-psychiatric and public/private clinics in Miami, Florida. Journal of Child & Adolescent Behavior, 4(1), 277-289. Web.

Seines, A., McLaughlin, T. F., Derby, K. M., & Weber, K. P. (2015). The effects of direct instruction flashcards on sight word skills of an elementary student with a specific learning disability. International Journal of Advances in Scientific Research, 1(3), 167-172. Web.

Shillingford-Butler, M. A., & Theodore, L. (2014). Students diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Collaborative strategies for school counselors. American School Counselor Association (ASCA), 16(41), 235-244. Web.

Smith, M. (2017). Hyperactive around the world? The history of ADHD in global perspective. Social History of Medicine, 30(3), 1-27. Web.

Introduction

The question of whether kids with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder should be treated with medicine has always been a heated one. First signs of the disorder can appear as early as 5 years old, and a lot of parents are concerned if it may be too early their children to start taking medication and are wondering about the alternatives.

ADHD Treatment

In the US, medication and behavioral therapy are the principal tools for treating the disorder. The exception to this rule is the treatment of pre-school children, where only therapy is utilized (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), 2016), although medication can still be prescribed if the former does not show a positive result. The consensus in the US is that the dangers of delayed treatment often outweigh the risks posed by the early medication. The traditional view is that the drugs for the disorder are some of the safest in the psychiatric practice, while the dangers posed by untreated ADHD include failure in studies, inability to construct social connections, accidents due to lack of focus, and problems with alcohol and drugs (McCarthy, 2016).

Implications

Despite the recorded effectiveness of the ADHD stimulant medication, there are still concerns about some of the implications of their prolonged use.

Most of the academic studies support the short-term effects of medication, but there is still very limited research on the long-term effects and how lasting they are.

However, there are recorded examples of severe side effects in children, from weight loss to low-grade depression, character tics, and hallucinations. There are recorded cases of the disorder returning after the medication was stopped (Side Effects of ADHD Medication, 2016). Some sides of the discussion insist on religion and belief as a useful tool for coping with ADHD both in children and adults (ADDitude Editors, 2016).

However, behavior treatment on its own does not always produce results, and, according to Parritz and Troy (2014), lack of effective treatment can cause “noncompliant and negative behaviors [to] occur more frequently, particularly related to issues of responsibility (e.g. chores), rights and privileges (e.g. driving)” (p. 149). Finally, a large number of adults continue to experience ADHD related issues into their adulthood if untreated, which results in antisocial behavior, abuse of substances, and other problems.

Conclusion

I believe that ADHD is a problem that cannot be solved by using a simple approach for every person. The dangers of the disorder are severe enough, that the need for treatment should be accepted as a fact. Whether it would be though belief, behavior treatment, or medication, should be dependent entirely on the needs of an individual child.

References

ADDitude Editors. (2016). Faith, Hope, and ADHD. Web.

Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). (2016). Web.

McCarthy, L. (2016). Top 10 Questions about Medications for Children with ADHD. Web.

Biarritz, R. & Troy, M. (2014). Disorders of childhood. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Side Effects of ADHD Medication. (2016). Web.

For many decades, ADHD has been treated using a stimulant medication. As far as its efficacy is concerned, medication is essential in controlling the symptoms of ADHD. However, if used alone, medication is not an easy cure; indeed, it will be unsuccessful. The assertion that medication as a method of transforming the behavioral patterns of learners suffering from ADHD in an inclusive setting is not only effective, but it also holds true (Smith et al. 2012). With this regard, this paper aims at deriving well researched and documented evidence to support this assertion.

It is worthwhile and justifiable to indicate that using medication to modify the behavior of students with ADHD is essential. However, it should be used along with other non-medicated methods. The validity of this position is backed by the NIMH (2004) who conducted a study on Children with ADHD. From NIMH’s study, out of four groups of treatment; community support, medication only, behavior therapy and combination of medication and behavior therapy, medication and behavior therapy combined is the most effective. This is because it was found to decrease depression, lowering social skills problems, improving academic performance, and it was paramount in improving parental relationships. Similar inferences can be inferred from the findings of the research conducted by Reid, Trout and Schartz (2005) that revealed that medication is the most appropriate treatment of the symptoms associated with ADHD. Additionally, Reid, Trout and Schartz’s research also recommended that ADHD patients should never be kept in isolation.

With these considerations, there is there is nothing wrong with placing students with ADHD in regular education classes. Gartner and Lipsky (1987) claims that the proposal to engage disabled learners in a general classroom has gained support from both the guardians and the scholars. Such a student has the right to be in a general class. However, the setting of the class might be altered to fit the needs of disabled the learners. Indeed, if students with any form of disability are placed in a general educational facility, improvements in standardized tests become evident. In addition to this, disabled students are well positioned to acquire social and communication skills, which were previously underdeveloped. A general classroom setting is ideal for the disabled student since the student will have increased interactions with peers (Cooper and McEvoy, 1996). Here, the student will not only achieve more, but will also add to the IEP goals of higher quality. As compared to those in special schools, the student in a general school will have a higher chance of acquiring more experiences to cope with life after school.

Vereb and DiPirna (2004) claim that teachers always accept medicated treatment on ADHD students placed in general classrooms. Furthermore, Vereb and DiPirna (2004) found that the acceptability of other treatments decrease as energy and time required increases. From this, it is valid to conclude that the techniques used in behavior management not only require more time, but also demand more attention and immense efforts. However, despite their effectiveness in the treatment, they are often perceived negatively.

There are several other strategies that can be used to help students with ADHD increase their ability to learn in a regular education setting. In determining the most effective treatment for ADHD in students, the answer should be based on the diagnosis (Smith et al. 2012). Medical practitioners assert that there are significant numbers of symptoms of this condition attributable to other causes. These causes should not be included in determining, or giving the right diagnosis. Such situations include learning disabilities, abrupt change in the life of a child and depression. After ascertaining that the problems root from ADHD, an assessment should be done followed by an appropriate treatment.

On the other hand, other than the medication, there are several non-medicated treatments used as remedies to this condition. One of the most acknowledged method is self regulation coupled with monitoring. For students with ADHD, this strategy works on its own. However, in acute circumstances, this method should be used alongside medication. Here, the student learns to assess and control own behavior (Smith et al. 2012). This method is founded on the idea that the disabled learner be provided with regular feedbacks on behaviors in an effort to assist him or her to attain personal objectives. This strategy is ideal in promoting the organizational skills of the student with ADHD.

Another viable strategy is physical exercise. Physical exercises are advocated because of their ability to calm and relieve stress. Additionally, exercises also help in the management and control of behavior, thereby, aiding the student acquire individual goals.

A review of documented research studies led to a conclusion that medication is effective if adopted as a treatment plan for students with ADHD. However, most researchers advocate that this form of treatment should be used hand-in-hand with other methods in an effort to lower the dosage. Nevertheless, medication is vital in assisting the disabled learner attain an ideal lifestyle and lead a better lifestyle in the society after school.

References

Cooper, C. S. & McEvoy, M. A. (1996). Group Friendship Activities: An Easy Way to Develop Social Skills of Young Children. Teaching Exceptional Children, 28 (3), 67-69.

Gartner, A. & Lipsky, D. (1987). Beyond Special Education Toward A Quality System For All Students. Harvard Educ. Rev, 75(4), 367-395.

National Institute of Mental Health (2004). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Department of Health and Human Services, Exceptional Children, 3(7), 1-49.

Reid, R., Trout, A. L., & Schartz, M. (2005). Self-Regulation Interventions For Children With Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Exceptional Children, 5(71), 361.

Smith, T., Polloway E., Patton, J., & Dowdy, C. (2012). Teaching Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Settings. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Vereb, R. L. & DiPirna, J. C. (2004). Teachers’ Knowledge of Adhd, Treatments For Adhd, And Treatment Acceptability: An Initial Investigation. Research Brief. School Psychology Review, 9(33), 421-428.

In the contemporary world the society experiences a massive clash of social, economic, cultural life with financial and scientific aspects. Today, we live in a world of high speeds. Rapid changes and quick solutions are an essential part of the modern life. As a result, medicalization of problems of social and cultural characters became one of the most discussed issues. This paper discusses the phenomenon of medicalization of ADHD, along with the medicalization of other aspects perceived as deviant or atypical, it will also review the clash of scientific ideas and cultural assumptions where medicalization dominates due to the promotion of beliefs that issues of social and cultural characters can be treated medically.

The term “medicalization” first appeared in 1970s, it was defined as the phenomenon that redefined non-medical issues and behaviors in order to present them as medical disorders and treat them scientifically (Wright 1). Many scholars approach medicalization as a way of social control. Medicalizaion today is viewed as an issue with multiple dimensions that includes a variety of social phenomena. Martin states that nowadays it is difficult to see how modern cultural assumptions influence scientific ideas (27). In my opinion, medicalization is a good example of such influence, as it demonstrates how cultural and social assumptions label various happenings presenting them as problems that should be treated.

Medicalization is a part of the modern perception of the world where money can buy everything and where quick solutions are valued and pursued. This way, issues that are not easy to deal with in everyday life are promoted as minor problems that do not require much effort to treat. Medicalization of anorexia nervosa is a good example of the confusion of cultural assumptions and scientific ideas. Treatment and research of anorexia nervosa today are conducted scientifically based on the processes that happen in human body exposed to this disorder. Lester points out that the changes of human body suffering from anorexia nervosa are the outcomes, while the roots of this issue should be sought in the cultural surroundings of the patients (479). Eating disorders, just like overweight are widely medicalized and defined scientifically, but both of these notions are the outcomes of socio-cultural assumptions.

For example, calling someone overweight and labeling it as a negative characteristic or a disease is arbitrary, because in many cultures this is considered a beautiful and positive feature (Jutel 2269). Another modern aspect of medicalization of human appearances was described by Kaw in “Medicalization of Racial Features: Asian American Women and Cosmetic Surgery”. The author describes how social stereotypes affect women’s preferences about their own faces and bodies and result in multiple visits to cosmetic surgeons from the groups of people, whose faces do not match the socially approved criteria (Kaw 75).This was medicalization of race returned even though it was widely rejected decades ago, when the scientists all around the world came to the conclusion that racial differences of human bodies cannot serve as the base for scientific assumption that some individuals can be predisposed to certain diseases due to belonging to certain race (Goodmann 1699).

Undefeatable social pressure creates limitations and rules for everyone labeling the unwanted behaviors, features, and appearances. ADHD is in the list of the unwanted behaviors due to its symptoms. Hyperactive, loud and fussy children are not appreciated by the adults that do not have as much energy or simply lack patience. ADHD widely starts to be medicalized when it becomesthe issue for the adults. In such cases the medical treatment of the behavior is sought not because the patients need it, but because people around require more comfortable conditions. The question arises: are most of the ADHD symptoms simply the symptoms of being a child? If so, then who actually needs the treatment, children or their parents and teachers? Maturo presents teachers are the “drivers of modern medicalization” viewing human enhancement as “the use of biomedical technology to improve performance on a human being who are not in need of a cure” (175). According to the statistics gathered in 2011, over six million children aged four to seventeen were diagnosed with ADHD, which estimates eleven per cent of all children in the United States (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) par. 2). This number grew gradually; in 2003 it was about seven per cent, in 2007 – nine and a half per cent (Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) par. 2).

Due to the popularity of the medications for ADHD, the list of its symptoms grew longer; this way more and more patients fit the diagnosis. As a result, today ADHD can be found in noisy children as well as in forgetful elderly people. The party that benefits immensely from the ADHD medicalization are pharmaceutical companies that produce and distribute such medications as Adderall, Concerta, and Ritalin. These days such medications are actively and aggressively advertised in the United States strengthening the social pressure and convincing the parents and teachers of active children that medications are the best and only solution to all of their problems. The advertisement for Adderall described by Marcotte features a happy woman with her child, and says, “Finally! Schoolwork that matches his intelligence” (par. 1).

The very top line of the advertisement says “for parents of children with ADHD” which leaves no doubt that the medication targets adults looking for comfort but not the health of their children. The advertisement emphasizes that Adderall is extremely useful because it helps children get better grades, which makes parents proud of them and releases the teachers from the burden of discipline and academic success maintenance in the classroom, so everyone benefits. This is clear case of medicalization of education which forces the medicalization of ADHD. The next rather popular ADHD advertisement also employs powerful social forces such as celebrities. The campaign designed to raise ADHD awareness was studied by Scott, it features famous people of art and sport speaking about their ADHD issues and suggesting to “own it” (par. 1).

By involving artists and sportsmen into advertisement campaigns ADHD promoters integrate the disorder into the cultural life. This was having ADHD becomes “fashionable”, “popular” and “cool”. Such approach raises the chances of ADHD medications to be purchased, because the well known athlete Shane Victorino openly admits that a medication played an important role in his way towards becoming a star. The message communicated by this campaign encourages the adults watching it to wonder and ask themselves, “what if I also have the potential of becoming a start and my hidden ADHD prevents me from it? What if ADHD medication is what I really need to become more productive and successful?”

Based on powerful advertising medications for ADHD, which in reality are nothing but psychostimulants, the modern society gets an idea that these drugs are the key to academic success, better careers, more productive life and more effective socialization. ADHD medications today are positioned as the ultimate and, most importantly, quick solution to the behavioral and personality issues that may take months or even years to overcome by less invasive means and therapies. This is happening mainly because of the popularity of quick solution in the contemporary world fond of high speeds. Modern individuals are used to quick response, they are unwilling to wait. Technological progress that created this dynamics eventually affected our perception of various spheres of life on cultural level. The power of business in our society turns everything into goods and purchases.

The desire of drug distributors and pharmaceutical companies to make more money enforces them to create cultural impacts and exploit all available means to promote their business and products. General social connectedness through the Internet and television makes the advertisements several times more efficient. The participation of famous individuals creates public interest in the subject, and inspires the masses to pursue the ways advertised by the stars, as everything advertised by celebrities carries a hidden illusion that using whatever is promoted by these people is what made them popular. In case with ADHD, Shane Victorino actually states that this particular disorder is incredibly popular among athletes, which implies that the medication for it also heavily used for the sakes of better focus, and, obviously, is healthy and miraculously helpful (Scott par. 3).

ADHD today is one of the phenomena that became sucked into the contemporary high speed life and turned into the means of earning money, fame, emotional comfort and better social performance. This happened due to the complex interaction of our society’s cultural, scientific and technologic life.

Works Cited

Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). CDC. 2014. Web.

Goodman, Alan H. “Why Genes Don’t Count (for Racial Differences in Health).” American Journal of Public Health 90.11 (2000): 1699-1702. Print.

Jutel, Annemarie. “The emergence of overweight as a disease entity: Measuring up normality.” Social Science & Medicine 63 (2006): 2268–2276. Print.

Kaw, Eugenia. “Medicalization of Racial Features: Asian American Women and Cosmetic Surgery.” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 7.1 (1993): 74-89. Print.

Lester, Rebecca J. “The (Dis)Embodied Self in Anorexia Nervosa.” Social Science & Medicine 44.4 (1997): 470-489. Print.

Marcotte, Amanda. Who Wouldn’t Want an Adderall Prescription?2014. Web.

Martin, Emily. The Woman in the Body. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992. Print.

Maturo, Antonio. “The medicalization of education: ADHD, human enhancement and academic performance.” Italian Journal of Sociology of Education 5.3 (2013): 175- 188. Print.

Scott, Kyle. Shane Victorino Promotes ADHD “Own It” Campaign. 2012. Web.

Wright, Gloria Sunnie. “ADHD Perspectives: Medicalization and ADHD Connectivity.” Joint AARE APERA International Conference (2012): 1-18. Print.

The problem of ADHD treatment has been brewing for quite long; however, the solutions for preventing the disorder or at least fighting it successfully have been provided comparatively recently. As researches say, for a number of years and even decades, the existence of ADHD as a disorder has been questioned; even nowadays, the debates concerning the controversial nature of ADHD, or ADD, are still continuing. Hence, the problem concerning the treatment methods for ADHD (ADD) stems. According to the existing definition, ADHD (ADD) is a behavioral disorder that can be characterized by listing its five key symptoms, i.e.: impulsivity, inattention, overarousal, difficulty with gratification and emotions and locus of control (Goldstein & Reynolds, 2011, 135).

As it has been mentioned above, the existence of ADHD (ADD) has been proven quite recently; as a matter of fact, even nowadays, ADHD treatment has been referred to as “fraud” by several researchers, such as Baughman (2006). Nevertheless, the existence of ADHD has finally been acknowledged (Lougy, DeRuvo & Rosenthal, 2007, 1), which triggered a number of other issues, such as the treatment options. Because of the lack of sufficient evidence concerning the effects of various treatment methods for ADHD, as well as the recent Ritalin scandal, the idea of treating children with ADHD with the help of stimulant medications gets a very hostile reception from the concerned parents, which prevents from efficient ADHD treatment.

As a result, the opinions concerning the treatment of ADHD are strikingly different. Some people claim that drug treatment of the ADHD children is the only possible option since the disorder has a clear biological origin. As researchers say, drugs work on a cellular level, which allows for more efficient and faster treatment. It is also important that the use of medicine for treating ADHD has a clearly positive effect on children’s cognitive functions. Arnsten (2000) claims that the ADHD syndrome is clearly caused by the dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex (PFC): “The right PFC has been shown to be consistently smaller in ADHD patients than in age-matched controls” (Arnsten, 2000, 186).

Therefore, the use of medications should clearly be authorized for children with ADHD, since the disease has clearly biological origin. By treating the problem with the help of a psychological approach, i.e., attempting at changing the child’s behavioral patterns, one will fail to eliminate the reasons for ADHD to have happened and, thus, will risk recidivism. Meanwhile, by using the drugs that have a tangible impact on the brain and, thus, contribute to the process of PFC functions recovery, one can eliminate the root of the problem and, thus, cure ADHD.

Although the given opinion has the right to exist, one must admit that drugs often have negative side effects: “A controversial stimulant treatment for ADHD is pemoline (Cylert)” (Mash & Barkley, 2006). In addition, some researchers say that pharmaceutical treatment of ADHD contributes to the development of the bipolar disorder in patients (Association for Natural Psychology, 2009, 27).

Therefore, other treatment methods have been developed. Non-drug treatment is another existing alternative. According to the existing evidence, non-drug treatment is much safer than the pharmaceutical one, since it does not influence chemical and biological processes within a human body. On the other hand, though, it is worth mentioning that a non-pharmaceutical method is far more time-consuming and demands more efforts from a patient, which is especially inconvenient in treating children. Speaking of the positive aspects of a non-drug treatment, it is worth bringing up the multiple targets that such approach can address. It helps specify the problems with the executive function, the issues concerning inattention, the key factors causing hyperactivity, and the problems related to the impulsivity of the patient (Wells, 2010).

In addition, a drug-free approach allows to understand the problem, learn its psychological causes and, therefore, solve the problem itself, instead of relying on the effect of drugs, which dull the reaction towards the irritants instead of dealing with these irritants.

Therefore, I believe that using solely Ritalin or any other stimulant medication for the sake of treating the ADHD (ADD) in children is rather undesirable. Instead, the treatment of ADHD should combine medical treatment with the elements of non-drug therapies. For example, alternative methods for treatment of ADHD in children and adults offer such programs psychological treatment, or the so-called “behavioral therapy.”

According to what Jacobelli and Watson say on the issue, the first step to successful treatment is recognizing that the child with an ADHD syndrome needs a specific learning style and studying environment. In addition, the ADHD diagnosis should not be considered as a typical disorder; according to Jacobelli and Watson, “a diagnosis is nothing more than a label placed on the child, based on a group of observable or otherwise verifiable behaviors” (Jacobelli & Watson, 2011, 9). As soon as the specifics of the child’s development and learning patterns has been recognized, an individual treatment that comprises the elements of psychological healing and medical treatment must be applied.

Reference List

Arnsten, A. F. T. (2000). Dopaminergic and noradrenergic influences on cognitive functions mediated by prefrontal cortex. In M. V. Solanto, Stimulant drugs and ADHD: Basic and clinical neuroscience. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 185–209. Web.

Association for Natural Psychology, (2009). Overcoming ADHD without medication: A parent’s and educator’s guidebook. Newark, NJ: AYCNP. Web.

Baughman, F. (2006). The ADHD fraud: How psychiatry makes patients of normal children. Victoria, BC: Trafford. Web.

Goldstein, S. & Reynolds, C. R. (2011). Handbook of neurodevelopmental and genetic disorders in children. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Web.

Jacobelli, F. & Watson, L. A. (2011). ADHD/ADD drug free: Natural alternatives and practical exercises to help your child focus. New York, NY: AMACOM. Web.

Lougy, R. A., DeRuvo, S. L. & Rosenthal, D. (2007). Teaching young children with ADHD: Successful strategies and practical interventions for preK-3. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Web.

Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (2006). Treatment of childhood disorders. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Web.

Wells, A. (2010). A multi-modal approach to address ADHD: A non-drug emphasis. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. Web.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a medical disorder that affects development and functions of the brain. There are several causes associated with the occurrence of ADHD including genetic effects, exposure to toxic substances and brain injury among others.

Broad studies carried out on genetic relationship within families, adopted children, between twins and molecular genetics research confirms that ADHD is a hereditary medical disorder. Family studies show that, “over 25% of the first Degree relatives of the families of ADHD children also had ADHD, whereas this rate was only about 5% in each of the control group” (My ADHD, 2010). High occurrences of ADHD in families indicate that it is a hereditary condition.

To confirm whether it may be a social issue, psychological studies of ADHD on adopted children in relation to their biological and adaptive parents indicates that, hyperactive children relates more to their biological parents than to the adaptive parents.

These findings prove that, ADHD is not due to social influences but a genetic disorder. Further studies on twins, both identical and non-identical twins show that, “…82 percent concordance rate for ADHD in identical twins as compared to a 38 percent concordance rate for ADHD in non-identical twins” (My ADHD, 2010).

Similarity the severity of the ADHD condition in identical twins is due to same genetic make-up, hence giving concrete evidence that ADHD is an inheritable disorder. Eventually, molecular studies have isolated dopamine genes that are responsible for the ADHD, thus most probable cause of ADHD lies in genetics.

Another cause of ADHD is exposure to toxic substances. Research findings indicate that, there is positive correlation between pregnant mothers exposed to toxic substances such as lead, nicotine and alcohol, and susceptibility of their children to develop ADHD. These substances “…can be toxic to the developing brain tissue and may have sustained effects on the behavior of the children exposed to these” (My ADHD, 2010). This result supports only the cause of ADHD in children but do not give explanation to the cause of ADHD in adolescents. Brain injury also causes ADHD but in rare cases.

Despite the availability of credible scientific studies, there are numerous misconceptions surrounding the causes and treatment of ADHD, which boils down to controversy. ADHD Library (2004) acknowledges the controversy that, while National Institute of Health supports that diet can cause hyperactivity, Food and Drug Administration discredits the claims that, diet and certain food additives cannot contribute to hyperactivity in children.

Contradiction by great authorities as these, results into misconception concerning ADHD. Another misconception is that ADHD is a childhood disorder only, and affects boys more than girls. Studies show that ADHD does not only occur in children, but also in adults, and affects girls and boys equally. Other misconceptions claim that poor parenting, too much television watching, playing computer games and hormonal imbalance cause ADHD. All these are misconceptions, which distort scientific evidences.

Genetic inheritance is the most plausible explanation of the cause of ADHD since scientific evidence proves that ADHD is a genetic disorder that affects the brain. Family studies, relationship studies of adopted children, twin studies and molecular research have all confirmed that, ADHD is a genetic disorder. Molecular studies have also identified the dopamine genes responsible for the ADHD. In addition, psychological studies confirm that ADHD is not a social issue but a genetic one.

References

ADHD Library. (2004). ADHD Myths and Misconceptions. Web.

My ADHD. (2010). Causes of ADHD. Web.

Introduction

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that occurs during the early development of children. It is whereby an individual has both attentional issues and experiences hyperactivity. Both of these behaviours occur separately and infrequently. They may start to occur earlier than seven years of age.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is one of the most studied psychiatric disorders in children. It is believed to affect approximately five percent of children around the world. This disorder may be chronic as it extends to the victim’s adulthood.

The symptoms of the disorder are usually similar to those of other disorder and this increases the risks of misdiagnosing it or missing it all together. The treatment of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder requires proper training. Many clinicians have not received formal training for treating the adults suffering from the disorder and this is one of the drawbacks.

Adults and adolescents suffering from this disorder normally develop compensation mechanisms (accommodations) for their problems. A large number of populations around the world live successfully with the disorder. Some studies suggested that boys are more frequently diagnosed with the disorder than girls are.

However, it is disputable that this irregularity is caused by the subjective biasness of the teachers. ADHD may be managed using a combination of interventions. They range from medicine administration, lifestyle changes, counselling and behavioural modifications.

Toby has been diagnosed with Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, behaviour disorder and lack of decoding skills. This has caused him to have disruptive behaviour in class. He also has problems learning and does not complete assignments. Some of the other social problems that Toby experiences include being teased for being a short boy and wearing large glasses.

He is also over active and this makes students laugh at him and tease him even more. It is important that he receives help from the teachers and parents so that some of his behaviours (disruptive and inappropriate behaviour) can be minimized. This would also be important in order to ensure that he is able to learn and complete the assigned class work.

Issues faced by the student

Toby has been determined to have issues with decoding (lack of decoding skills). This is common in people suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. This is because the disorder is associated with major deficits in executive functions. The student lacks the ability to perform cognitive functions that are necessary to perform problem solving.

Research suggests that children suffering from the disorder are slow and experience more varied response speeds when it comes to performing tasks that require reasoning (decoding skills) (Shanahan, Yerys, & Willcutt, 2006).

Toby has been teased for being over active. This is one of the signs and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. This is because the disorder is associated with impulsivity, inattention and hyperactivity. At times, it is difficult to determine the levels at which impulsivity, inattention and hyperactivity have exceeded the normal ranges.

Therefore, in order to determine that one is suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, it is important to observe the victim in different settings over a long time. This is whereby the degree of activity will be compared with those of other children of the same age as the victim. However, Toby’s behaviours have been determined to be similar to those shown by children suffering from ADHD. The other students have gone ahead to start teasing him for his differences.

Toby finds difficulty learning and finishing his class assignments. This could be due to inattentiveness that is a symptom of the disorder. This disorder usually cause children to be easily distracted and they seem to miss details and easily forget things. This causes them to switch from one activity to another one quite frequently such that they are not able to concentrate on one thing and complete it successfully. Since Toby has difficulty focussing on one task, he is not able to learn or finish his class assignments.

Such children also seem to daydreamers and are easily confused. They seem not to listen while they are being spoken to. They also have problems processing information as accurately as required. This is also often slow and this describes why the student has problems learning. Children suffering from such disorders usually have difficulty following instructions (Chronis, Jones, & Raggi, 2006).

Toby is said to be over active and this is one of the reasons he is having social problems. His classmates are teasing him for this reason. Children (students) suffering from such disorders show hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. This may be in the form of fidgeting and squirming in the seat.

They may talk nonstop and are constantly in motion. These children are also seen dashing around and touching and playing around with almost anything that they see around. Due to the hyperactivity, such children have trouble sitting still. This may be in a classroom situation, at the dinner table or any other setting. In class, they also have problems performing quiet tasks because they are always playing around with things and in motion.

Strategies to be used to assist the child

There are various treatment interventions for children suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Stimulant treatment is one of the treatment procedures for the disorder that involves medication. The pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of the stimulant intervention have been determined earlier.

This was used to treatment of behavioural and cognitive issues in children in a classroom situation (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP], 2007). This lead to the development of Focalin, Metadate CD and Concerta.

Psychological interventions may also be used in the management of the disorder. Several studies have suggested that a combination of the pharmacological and behavioural treatment of the symptoms. This has also been used to treat some of the impairments on the social and academic functions of the children.

Therefore, a patient’s treatment plan should be prepared as the teachers and the parents prepare to begin the treatment of the student (child). It should include a child and parental psychoeducation on the various intervention options. They include both medication and behavioural therapy.

A physician normally performs psychoeducation. It is whereby the parents and the child are educated about ADHD. The parents are normally educated on the challenges to encounter as their child develops. They are also advised on how to improve the behavioural and academic performance of the child.

Various researches have shown that behavioural interventions are effective. These include parent training, school interventions and social skills training. Parents should target and monitor some of the problematic behaviours in the child. They should reward prosocial behaviour by praising the child.

Providing positive attention and tangible rewards may be helpful to the child. They could also help to reduce some of the inappropriate behaviour through planned ignoring, issuing time outs and other forms of discipline that are not physical. Therefore, behavioural parent training is one of the most effective ways of treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Chronis, Jones, & Raggi, 2006).

Teachers are also supposed to be trained on how to deal with the student’s situation and know how to use behavioural therapy to help improve the child’s behaviour. They could use various behavioural techniques. These include time outs, planned ignoring, praising the student and commanding the student effectively (Chronis, Jones, & Raggi, 2006).

Summary and conclusion

Toby has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, behaviour disorder and decoding issues. These issues are causing him to be disruptive in class and making him unable to learn and complete assignments in class. This is due to the fact that he is unable to concentrate on one activity because he is easily distracted.

He is also experiencing social problems due to the fact that he is hyperactive and his appearance amuses his classmates causing them to tease him. This is not healthy for Toby since it may affect his adulthood. Therefore, a plan of intervention is needed.

ADHD is a disorder that has been researched widely and several treatment interventions proposed. Such a student may be provided with medication. However, the most effective intervention is behavioural treatment. This could be administered by both the parents and the teacher.

This could be in the form of providing commands and forms of punishments in order to manage the behaviour of the child. Providing rewards and praising the child for particular tasks completed may also encourage the child to like the particular activity. Toby requires this behavioural intervention and this will be the responsibility of both the parents and teachers.

References

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP]. (2007). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 46(7), 895-921.

Chronis, A., Jones, H., & Raggi, V. (2006). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology, 26(1), 486-502.

Shanahan, M., Yerys, B., & Willcutt, E. (2006). Processing speed deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and reading disability. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(1), 585-602.