Category: ADHD

Diagnostic Information (Psychopathology)

The child’s patterns of inattention, physical agitation, lack of focus in studies, and restlessness attribute to the diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Indeed, the purposeless distractibility and reduced attention span of Jonathan attribute to the preliminary symptoms of ADHD as evidenced by the clinical literature (Millichap, 2010, p. 33). The behavioral treatment of ADHD focuses on strategically implementing positive reinforcement approaches following the DSM – IV standards. The criterion specified by DSM – IV-TR systematically categorizes ADHD into three stages including ADHD (Predominantly Inattentive), ADHD (Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive), and ADHD (Predominantly Combined) (Dziegielewski, 2014, p. 146). The child’s cognitive distortions including distraction and agitation require effective treatment with behavioral strategies advocating the depletion of emotional obstacles for reducing the distressing feelings and negative thoughts (Solanto, 2011, pp. 132-139). The provision of social rewards and encouraging remarks for initiating positive behavioral patterns in Jonathan will certainly enhance his focus and attention leading to emotional and behavioral stability. The intensive behavior therapy recommended by Brown (2009, p. 389) advocates the positive influence of training sessions, consultation programs, and summer treatment episodes and contingency management strategies resulting in positive clinical outcomes. Furthermore, the caretaker requires configuring reasonable and age-appropriate expectations from the child to facilitate its timely accomplishment with the implementation of behavioral strategies. The consistent utilization of effective praises and social rewards indeed results in the behavioral orientation of the child following the treatment goals.

Medical Treatment (Biopsychology/Psychopharmacology)

The research studies reveal the first-line therapy (including stimulant and non – stimulant drugs) for treating the episodes of ADHD among children and adolescents (Burns, Richardson & Brady, 2010, p. 182). The stimulant medications for treating ADHD include amphetamine and methylphenidate drugs; however, the non-stimulant drug atomoxetine is known for its pharmacological actions in reducing ADHD symptoms. Indeed, Vyvanse (lisdexamfetamine dimesylate) could suitably treat Jonathan’s symptoms of agitation, inattention, lack of focus, and distraction. The research studies reveal the effectiveness of Vyvanse in improving working and episodic memory, and cognitive control among the treated population. The initial dose of Vyvanse in treating ADHD is attributed to 30 mg/day among children within the age range of 6 – 12 years (Chew, Hales & Yudofsky, 2009, p. 353). Indeed, Vyvanse instigates task motivation and proportionately enhances performance among students while improving their stamina and reaction time through induction of dopamine reuptake inhibition across the central nervous system. This drug further instills confidence and concentration among the care seekers and therefore, is considered as the best therapeutic remedy for enhancing Jonathan’s performance in relation to his ADHD symptoms. Vyvanse induces efficacy for 12 hours daily and provides sustained effects in a couple of weeks with gradual dose increments accounting to the maximum of 70 mg on daily basis. The consistent administration of Vyvanse provides relief for an extended tenure; however, its growth-suppressive property does not encourage the physician to administer the medicine for a very long tenure. Therefore, this therapy is indeed not suitable for providing permanent treatment to the target population.

Therapy (Learning/Psychopathology/Intelligence/Cognition/Motivation/Emotion)

The treatment best suited for mitigating Jonathan’s symptoms of distraction, agitation follows the contention of the American Academy of Pediatrics advocating the blend of behavioral, and medication approaches for therapeutic intervention (Brock, Jimerson & Hansen, 2009, p. 135). In addition to the medication intervention, Jonathan requires consistent feedback from teachers and parents in the context of their performance-related expectations (from Jonathan). Furthermore, the short-term behavioral goals prove beneficial in improving Jonathan’s performance across family and school environments. The reward and recognition system following the behavioral modification would motivate Jonathan in accomplishing the clinical goals in the shortest possible interval. Indeed, the patterns of intelligence among children affected with ADHD do not exhibit any direct impact on the progression of the disease. The patients with increased intelligence levels continue experiencing inattention and distraction leading to underachievement, irrespective of their intelligence quotient (Kooij, 2013, p. 41). Indeed, Jonathan does not prove problematic for peers and family members and continues displaying curiosity and academic accomplishment during the initial months at school. Therefore, he does have the instincts and motivation for resuming normal behavior.

Family Support (Developmental Psychology, Personality, Health & Stress)

Brown (2009, p. 318) reveals the family history of substance abuse and other comorbidities among family members in established cases of ADHD. The disrupted relationships with parents and caretakers affected with substance abuse adversely affect the behavior of children affected with ADHD. Ryan and McDougall (2009, p. 81) reveal the patterns of behavioral disorientation among children affected by disorganized attachments with their family members. Indeed, the support extended by the patient’s family members through effective counseling and coping strategies potentially assists the child affected with ADHD in overcoming behavioral instability. The expenses incurred in utilizing treatment therapy and psychological counseling indeed financially affect the patient and his family members. Furthermore, Jonathan’s family requires clinical assistance for understanding the patterns of ADHD and effective coping strategies in supporting him in mitigating the behavioral outcomes. The personality traits exhibited by Jonathan attribute to decreased willpower, predisposition to developing other psychological manifestations, decreased listening skills, and instincts related to overlooking the details, thereby resulting in performance errors. The patterns of stress indeed, add up to the clinical manifestations of Jonathan in an ADHD set.

The Psychological Challenges & Community Support

The research studies reveal the psychological challenges attributed to frustration and anger among ADHD patients that aggravate further under the influence of family and school environment (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2014, p. 31). Jonathan’s agitation increases under the work constraints imposed by his teacher in his school environment. The evidence-based academic literature reveals the assistance extended by CHADD (Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorders) to the patients of ADHD and their families in effective mitigation of the patterns of clinical manifestations (Rief, 2005). These social organizations extend support structures for ADHD patients while configuring long and short-term goals in treating the functional difficulties experienced in the community environment.

Conclusion

The cultural perspectives profoundly influence the patterns of ADHD among the affected children. The other multiple factors attributing to the development of ADHD include the conditions of infection, poor nutrition, substance abuse, toxicity, and hereditary and cultural factors in the community setting. The patients affected by ADHD may exhibit dangerous influences on themselves as well as the society; however, the treatment approaches are affected by the cultural, historical, and psychosocial outlook in the community environment. The best remedial strategies in treating ADHD among children include the blend of therapeutic and behavioral therapies and family counseling for mitigating the clinical outcomes. Indeed, the behavioral modification among ADHD patients induced with effective family training results in enhanced psychosocial outcomes. Furthermore, enhancement of social skills and cognitive abilities also influence the positive outcomes among ADHD patients in the community environment.

References

Brock, S.E., Jimerson, S.R., & Hansen, R.L. (2009). Identifying, Assessing, and Treating ADHD at School. New York: Springer.

Brown, T.E. (2009). ADHD Comorbidities: Handbook for ADHD Complications in Children and Adults. USA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Burns, C., Richardson, B., & Brady, M. (2010). Pediatric Primary Care Case Studies. USA: Jones & Bartlett.

Chew, R.H., Hales, R.E., & Yudofsky, S.C. (2009). What Your Patients Need to Know about Psychiatric Medications (2^nd ed). USA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Dziegielewski, S.F. (2014). DSM-IV-TR in Action: Includes DSM-5 Update Chapter (2^nd ed). New Jersey: Wiley.

Kooij, J.J.S. (2013). Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment. London: Springer – Verlag.

Millichap, J.G. (2010). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician’s Guide to ADHD. New York: Springer.

Plotnik, R., & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2014). Introduction to Psychology. USA: Wadsworth – Cengage.

Rief, S.F. (2005). How To Reach And Teach Children with ADD / ADHD: Practical Techniques, Strategies, and Interventions (2^nd ed). USA: Jossey – Bass.

Ryan, N., & McDougall, T. (2009). Nursing Children and Young People with ADHD. New York: Routledge.

Solanto, M.V. (2011). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult ADHD: Targeting Executive Dysfunction. New York: Guiltford.

Case Discussion

ADHD and similar conditions affect children’s lives across the world. Dias et al. (2013), state that 5% of the global population were diagnosed with the disease. The primary concern in the presented case study would be Derrick’s ability to learn the required skills, which would enable him to continue his education. It is necessary because at the age of 9 he has to adhere to his homework and develop social connections, both aspects are adversely affected by ADHD’s symptoms.

Identifying proper treatment strategies, either by school supported intervention or therapy sessions should be the primary step in this case. According to Dias et al. (2013), it is a “prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, often associated with other psychiatric comorbidities, functional impairments, and poor long-term outcomes” (p. 40). The authors state that the condition has several neurological components, which help identify it. Additionally, it often co-occurs with other disorders, for which Derrick must be diagnosed to ensure that the treatment plan can target every aspect of the issue.

Medication is typically utilized in cases of children with ADHD. However, Singh, FilipeImre, Bard, Bergey, and Baker (2013) raise a question of ethical problems connected to pharmacological treatment of ADHD in children and adolescents. Thus, medication would be another concern in Derrick’s case because proper treatment plan may require several tests. It is done to ensure that the chosen medication appropriately affects the condition and does not present side effects.

However, the primary focus should be on cognitive-behavioral therapy and involvement of parents in the process. Piepmeier et al. (2015) state that one session of such treatment significantly improves the skills of such children. Thus, the primary objective with ADHD should be teaching children and adolescents to coop with their condition and adapt behavior models, which help them minimize the symptoms of ADHD.

Peer Responses

Response 1

This peer focuses on the importance of therapy in Derrick’s treatment. It is a valid approach because according to Rapport, Orban, Kofler, and Friedman (2013) the condition is typically treated with a combination of medication and therapy. The strategy presents a significant reduction of behavior problems, which is the primary concern with ADHD. Thus, such children can function in a school setting and do their homework as required.

An appropriate alternative for the scenario would be a computer-based intervention. Rapport et al. (2013) state that “computer-based cognitive training can remediate these impairments and provide significant and lasting improvement” (p. 1237). Such an approach can be better when compared to traditional therapy. Rapport et al. (2013) state that previous researchers have proven that cognitive behavioral therapy has limited long-term effects on the issue. The information that would be important to know when treating this patient is the availability of school-based programs that would help teach Derrick appropriate skills.

Response 2

The post mentions Erikson’s criteria for the psychological crisis, which helps identify proper interventions in Derrick’s case. Primarily, the involvement of the school’s personnel and support from parents members is crucial for the scenario. Cortese et al. (2015) state that cognitive behavioral therapy is overall a practical approach to the treatment of the condition, which would be the primary intervention in this case. However, it does not help reduce the symptoms of impulsivity and hyperactivity (Cortese et al., 2015). Thus, a broader and more inclusive approach is required to ensure that Derrick develops the required skills.

Additionally, assessing Derrick for other psychiatric conditions is crucial for this case. Many researchers point out that ADHD occurs with other mental health issues. Thus, additional information required for adequately managing this treatment plan is a mental health examination. In addition, psychical health should be assessed before prescribing medication for controlling symptoms of ADHD.

References

Dias, T. G., Kieling, C., Graeff-Martins, A., Soledade, M., Tais S., Rohde, L.A., & Polanczyk, G. V. (2013). Developments and challenges in the diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 35(1), 40-50. Web.

Cortese, S., Ferrin, M., Brandeis, D., Buitelaar, J., Daley, D., Dittmann, R. W., … Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2015). Cognitive training for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Meta-analysis of clinical and neuropsychological outcomes from randomized controlled trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(3), 164-174. Web.

Piepmeier, A. T., Shih, C., Whedon, M., Williams, L. M., Davis, M. E., Henning, D. A., … Etnier, J. L. (2015). The effect of acute exercise on cognitive performance in children with and without ADHD. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(1), 97-104. Web.

Rapport, M. D., Orban, S. A., Kofler, M. J., Friedman, L. M. (2013). Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 1337-1252. Web.

Singh, I., FilipeImre, A. M., Bard, I., Bergey, M., Baker, L. (2013). Globalization and cognitive enhancement: Emerging social and ethical challenges for ADHD clinicians. Current Psychiatry Reports, 15, 385. Web.

ADHD is a condition which impairs the ability of a child to function correctly, because an individual is unable to be attentive, and is hyperactive or impulsive. In Derrick’s case, he is unable to study because he experiences difficulties with being seated for long periods of time. In addition, his problems with sleep are of a concern because they may lead to other issues and worsen the existing symptoms (Owens et al., 2013). An intervention carried out by medication can affect his sleep adversely as well. Therefore, accurately diagnosing comorbid issues and choosing a proper intervention while ensuring its effectiveness would be the biggest challenge when treating a child or adolescent from ADHD.

ADHD often occurs together with other issues, for instance, it is commonly diagnosed alongside ODD or conduct disorder. According to Perou et al. (2013), ADHD is among serious public health concerns due to “prevalence, early onset, and impact on the child, family, and community” (para. 1). The mentioned components and specifically the effects of the condition on a child and his family would be the biggest challenge in the case of Derrick.

Additionally, it is crucial to identify whether the patient has any their mental health issues. It is necessary because of Perou et al. (2013) state that suicide among children aged 12-17 in due to mental health issues was the second most prevalent cause of death in 2010. While the authors do not elaborate on the reasons, the events suggest that mental health issues severely affect children and adolescents. Proper diagnosis, family support, and an intervention plan which includes behavioral therapy, medication, and school-based program are essential in cases of severe mental health concerns in children and adolescents.

Response to Peer Posts

First Post

The post identifies psychological treatment as a crucial component of intervention for Derrick. According to Winter (2015), the most effective intervention for the Derrick’s condition includes behavioral therapy in combination with school support and pharmacological treatment. The response suggests medication, which is often used together with therapy in treating ADHD. An essential aspect of this response is co-occurring disorders.

Perou et al. (2013) state that it is crucial to test children with ADHD for other mental health problems as well. The post identified that proper diagnose is vital in this case, which is a valid approach to ADHD and similar conditions. Winter (2015) supports the argument by stating that “young people with ADHD have a greater than the chance occurrence of a number of other psychiatric conditions” (p. 23). This aspect may include anxiety, depression, disruptive behavior disorder or other mental health concerns.

Second Post

The response states that at the current development level it is crucial for Derrick to receive support from his social circle. According to Clarke et al. (2015), parent-teacher relationship and their involvement in the process of treatment are crucial for school-aged kids. It is especially vital as the peer states that adequate school performance is the primary concern for Derrick. Clarke et al. (2015) state that cases in which parents help children develop homework adherence have better treatment outcomes.

Thus, an adequate school-based intervention, together with other treatment strategies should help Derrick. Additionally, self-esteem that was mentioned in the discussion is among the crucial factors for Derrick. This statement corresponds with the evidence presented by Perou et al. (2013) and Ownes et al. (2013). It is necessary to evaluate the patient for other concurring conditions and create a treatment plan, which corresponds to the individual’s mental health state.

References

Clarke, A. T., Marshall, S. A., Mautone, J. A., Soffer, S. L., Jones, H. A., Costigan, T. E., … Power, T. J. (2015). Parent attendance and homework adherence predict response to a family-school intervention for children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescents Psychology, 44(1), 58-67. Web.

Owens, J., Gruber, R., Brown, T., Corkum, P., Cortese, S., O’Brien, L., … Weiss, M. (2013). Future research directions in sleep and ADHD: Report of a consensus working group. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17(7), 550-564. Web.

Perou, R., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Pastor, P., Ghandour, R. M., Gfroerer, J. C. … Huang, L. N. (2013). Mental health surveillance among children — United States, 2005–2011. Web.

Winter, J. O. (2015). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Psychosocial interventions for young people. Medicine Today, 16(5), 16-24.

Introduction

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders. According to Gehricke et al. (2017), it is diagnosed in 5% of children and 2.5% of adults, and over 60% of children with ADHD do not outgrow this disorder. ADHD affects human behavior and cognition, causing people to struggle with inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Further, the information is presented about what brain structures are involved in ADHD and how the brain’s perception of information influences the learning process. In the end, recommendations are given as to what can be done to mitigate the impact of ADHD on academic performance.

Structures of the Brain Involved in ADHD

The brain has a crucial role in determining people’s behavior and cognitive processes. In individuals with ADHD, specific brain structures are different from those in people without ADHD. It was found that children and young adults with ADHD had structural changes in the basal ganglia, frontal, occipito-parietal, temporal, and anterior cingulate regions of the brain (Gehricke et al., 2017). In particular, they had a reduced concentration of grey matter, increased concentration of white matter, and smaller temporal, frontal, striatal, limbic, and parietal regions, which could be linked to incomplete maturation of these regions (Gehricke et al., 2017).

Ciccarelli and White (2019) report that ADHD is marked by decreased sizes of basal ganglia, the prefrontal cortex, corpus callosum, and cerebellum. Thus, many brain structures are smaller in people with ADHD than in those without this disorder, which contributes to the development of ADHD symptoms.

Many of the affected regions are involved in controlling cognitive and behavioral characteristics such as attention, motivation, learning, and emotions. For example, basal ganglia, subcortical structures located near the base of the brain, are responsible for motor control, the learning of motor skills, and emotional responses (Ciccarelli & White, 2019). Since individuals with ADHD have smaller basal ganglia, they have difficulty controlling their movement and emotional responses, which explains their impulsivity. Further, the prefrontal cortex, which is the front section of the frontal lobes, is responsible for controlling emotional responses, focusing attention, planning, motivation, and storing short-term memories (Ciccarelli & White, 2019). The cerebellum is in charge of storing memories of conditioned responses, habits, and skills (Ciccarelli & White, 2019).

The function of the corpus callosum, which connects the right and the left hemispheres, is to ensure the communication between the two cerebral hemispheres (Ciccarelli & White, 2019). The changes in this brain structure may cause a decline in individuals’ cognitive functions. Thus, the smaller sizes of the reviewed brain structures associated with ADHD result in problems with attention, memory, and controlling movement and emotional responses.

The Perception of Information by the Brain

People with ADHD perceive information differently from those without ADHD. Researchers link this fact to abnormalities in the neurotransmitter system inside the brain, particularly the decreased input of dopamine to the prefrontal cortex (Fuermaier et al., 2018). Studies show that individuals with ADHD have reduced speech recognition thresholds (Fuermaier et al., 2018). It means that they have a higher minimum hearing level at which they can recognize speech. However, since speech recognition is related to such cognitive functions as attention and working memory, researchers link this problem to decreased cognitive functions rather than impaired hearing (Fuermaier et al., 2018).

While the speech recognition threshold in people with ADHD is reduced, they also have a narrower range of sounds that they perceive as tolerable (Fuermaier et al., 2018). It means that they can tolerate only softer sounds, but their speech recognition threshold does not allow them to recognize the speech if it is not loud enough. As a result, individuals with ADHD cannot adequately process auditory information (Fuermaier et al., 2018). Therefore, in academic settings, students with ADHD can have difficulties retrieving important information from auditory lectures.

The issues with attention and working memory mentioned above also influence how people with ADHD perceive visual information. Researchers report that the decline in these cognitive functions leads to problems with peripheral vision, visual processing speed, visual search, and depth perception (Fuermaier et al., 2018). These problems become more observable when people with ADHD are engaged in completing tasks requiring attention (Fuermaier et al., 2018). Thus, it may be concluded that, due to inattention, students with ADHD spend more time processing visual information than their counterparts without this disorder do.

Suggestions for Academic Success

Although studying is challenging for students with ADHD, they can use several strategies to cope with inattention and impulsivity. Barnett (2017) suggests that students with ADHD should keep their workspace clean and uncluttered to get rid of possible distractions. It is also helpful to engage in some physical activity during the breaks from classes to release energy (Barnett, 2017). There is also a variety of digital apps that can help students with ADHD better organize their work.

For example, they can use apps for making mind maps, taking notes, and watching online lessons (Barnett, 2017). Apps for time management, such as electronic timers, can also be helpful because they help students to stay concentrated for a set period. Apart from that, people with ADHD sometimes use headphones with white noise when they feel overwhelmed by the noises around them. Sometimes, it can be difficult to cope with the effects of ADHD on one’s own. Therefore, one should have external support, for example, a friend who would exert outside influence on a person with ADHD when the symptoms are particularly severe.

References

Barnett, J. E. H. (2017). Helping students with ADHD in the age of digital distraction. Physical Disabilities: Education and Related Services, 36(2), 1–7. Web.

Ciccarelli, S., & White, J. N. (2019). Psychology (6^th ed.). Pearson.

Fuermaier, A. B. M., Hüpen, P., De Vries, S. M., Müller, M., Kok, F. M., Koerts, J., Heutink, J., Tucha, L., Gerlach, M., & Tucha, O. (2018). Perception in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 10, 21–47. Web.

Gehricke, J. G., Kruggel, F., Thampipop, T., Alejo, S. D., Tatos, E., Fallon, J., & Muftuler, L. T. (2017). The brain anatomy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in young adults – A magnetic resonance imaging study. PloS One, 12(4), e0175433. Web.

A child counselor works with children to help them become mentally and emotionally stable. The case that is examined in this essay is a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The disorder is about disruptive behaviors of children, such as difficulty in communication, aggressiveness, not obeying school or parents’ commands, etc. The child is 12 years old and was diagnosed with ADHD when he was six years old. Numerous complaints from teachers and others around him were due to his disrespectful actions towards them. He does not get well at home or in school and does not listen to anybody. The child has a lot of siblings and a family that is in a financial state of poverty. His parents do not discipline him and place the responsibility of his actions on ADHD. The child usually causes trouble when he is not monitored.

I will use a cognitive theory of counseling to maintain the mental health of the child. The cognitive theory emphasizes an individual’s feelings and present behaviors. It is also more oriented to problem-solving rather than the past of the individual. To communicate with the child and know him better, I will apply “play therapy.” During the therapy, children are expected to play games with different toys that they enjoy. Such activity may reveal various aspects of a child’s personality and mental health. In addition, a counselor can engage more with a child, so having a connection with him. Nielsen et al. (2017) investigated that occupational therapy that includes “play, sensory, motor, and cognitive skills” have a positive impact on children with ADHD (pp. 73). When having play therapy, the child obtains all the attention of a counselor and has the ability to communicate with the adult nearby. Such a comfortable place may make the child feel safe so that he is ready for examination by a counselor.

Moreover, a study of 40 preschool and school-age children with ADHD and their parents and teachers was conducted to examine the effects of play therapy on stabilizing attention deficient hyperactivity disorder (El-Nagger et al., 2017). The study found a positive correlation between the therapy and children’s mental health. There also were significant statistical differences in children’s emotional and behavioral conditions before and after the use of play therapy sessions.

In addition to the play therapy, I suggest using therapy with the child’s parents. Parents-child interactions are shown to be effective in mitigating the disruptive behavior of children (Hosogane et al., 2018). Parents may be involved after an individual therapy session with a counselor. This is because the child may feel aggression towards his parents and be triggered by them. Therefore, careful engagement of parents in game therapy is crucial. By systematic work with parents and the child, a counselor can identify effective treatment and teach parents how to deal with their child outside of a counseling center.

To conclude, the role of a child’s counselor in maintaining the mental health of a child is vital, as he reveals problems of the child and helps him to control his emotions. Play therapy can be applied to work with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. By active interaction with a child and providing him a comfortable place, a counselor can analyze the actions of the child and suggest treatment. Moreover, there is a need to encourage parents in play therapy to have a persistent treatment.

References

Nielsen, S. K., Kelsch, K., & Miller, K. (2017). Occupational therapy interventions for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review. Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 33(1), 70-80.

Hosogane, N., Kodaira, M., Kihara, N., Saito, K., & Kamo, T. (2018). Parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT) for young children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in Japan. Annals of General Psychiatry, 17(1), 1-7.

El-Nagger, N. S., Abo-Elmagd, M. H., & Ahmed, H. I. (2017). Effect of applying play therapy on children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 7(5), 104.

Introduction

The research problem that the article addresses is the effects of disorder features and medication on the levels of self-worth in children having ADHD. The research question of the present study is concerned with the extent to which self-esteem depends on the use of medication and the course of the disease. The researchers also try to define the factors that influence the self-esteem of children with ADHD. The purpose of the present research is to understand the correlation between the self-esteem of children with ADHD and the use of medication (or specific treatment) and the disorder’s characteristics.

The major independent variable in the study is self-esteem while the dependent variables are disorder characteristics and medical use. The problem warrants research because there are few conceptual models that explain self-esteem in children suffering from ADHD. The theory underlying the relationships between the variables is that treatment may facilitate improved self-esteem in children with ADHD. The relationship linking medical use and self-esteem suggests a complex interplay of social, demographic and treatment factors. Some scholars argue that children who are treated for ADHD have a positive transformation in feelings associated with self-esteem (Zimmerman et al., 1997). The hypothesis of the study is that children with more symptoms, comorbid conditions, and greater functional impairment are more likely to have lower self-esteem.

Review of the Literature

The literature review provides a foundation as to what is currently known about the research problem. Bussing et al. (2000) report about the surveys and some research implemented on the matter. In the first place, Bussing et al. (2000) provides certain information about self-esteem in children with ADHD. Apart from this, the researchers also report that it is found that development of self-esteem of children with ADHD follows general rules, as all children, irrespective of their health conditions, are influenced by certain factors which form their self-esteem. Bussing et al. (2000) reveal these factors, which is very important for the present research as this information can help to understand principles of self-esteem formation in children with ADHD. More so, Bussing et al. (2000) reveal the major findings in the field.

Thus, the researchers point out that there is correlation between the treatment and self-esteem development. Thus, long-term treatment helps children with ADHD to develop higher self-esteem, whereas children who do not obtain treatment have lower self-esteem. This information is very important for the present research as Bussing et al. (2000) focus on the influence of the use of medication on self-esteem of children with ADHD. Thus, the researchers understand that treatment plays a positive role in self-esteem formation, and it is important to work out the most effective strategies to treat children with ADHD. The literature review provided has helped me to understand the relevance of the present research. Thus, I have found out that it is already known that treatment is beneficial for the development of self-esteem in children with ADHD.

Thus, I have understood that Bussing et al. (2000) focuses on another facet of the problem. Now I understand that it is important to understand what kind of treatment can be the most effective and how characteristics of the disorder can influence the development of self-esteem in children with ADHD. Basically, these are major questions to be answered so far.

Of course, there are certain limitations to the studies cited. One of such limitations is that they were very general due to their use of clinic-based study populations and their underrepresentation of ethnic minority children. It is also important to note that the studies cited do not provide evaluation of the treatment. Thus, it is rather unclear whether it is possible to generalize the fact that the treatment obtained by the children with ADHD influenced the children’s self-esteem. There are chances that the positive affect of the treatment depended on its effectiveness.

Perhaps, less effective treatment will not positively affect self-esteem of children with ADHD. Besides, according to the studies cited children with ADHD of different ages differently reacted to the treatment. However, the reasons for that were not identified. Nevertheless, the literature is relevant to the hypothesis of the study as it provides the necessary background information to conduct the research. The information provided enables the researchers to formulate their hypothesis: children with more symptoms, comorbid conditions, and greater functional impairment are more likely to have lower self-esteem. Thus, the present study fills in one of the gaps which exist in the field.

Method

The present study can be identified as cross-sectional survey. Admittedly, the researchers focused on a large group of children. The researchers analyzed behavior and attitudes of both children with ADHD and children without this disorder. Thus, the sampling method enables the researchers to compare self-esteem of both children with ADHD and children without the disorder. Besides, the number of participants verifies that the data obtained can be generalized and can be regarded as accurate.

The study uses a number of research methods. Data were collected through both telephone and face-to-face interviews. It is important to note that parents also completed specific questionnaires and after that they were invited to face-to-face interviews. The study sample entailed a student population of 722. More than two thirds (499) of the parents took part in the screening interview. The screening process was based on ASQ and ADDES. Self-esteem ratings scores were measured using the Piers-I-Jarris. However, teacher ratings were available for only 88 children. This is because only two thirds of the school principals allowed the teachers at their schools to complete teacher questions.

This sampling method is appropriate for the research question because it entails all stakeholders involved in child development. It is also important to point out that the data were carefully analyzed using various methods. Thus, the researchers come to precise conclusions which are well-grounded. The conclusions made by the researchers can be regarded as accurate and precise. The researchers do provide an in-depth analysis of a particular facet of the problem which has been considered throughout decades. The authors describe how they ensured the rights of the participants of the study. Bussing et al. (2000) note that the design of the study and the procedures were approved by the necessary authorities.

Therefore, this information verifies that the rights of the participant were secured. Furthermore, even though the authors do not mention precise strategies to secure the participant’s rights, it is possible to assume how the researchers secured these rights. Apparently, personal information (for instance, names, addresses, etc.) was not revealed by the researchers. Thus, the data were properly codified, which can be regarded as one of the techniques to secure the rights of the participants of the present study.

Reference List

Bussing, R., Zima, B.T. & Perwien A.R. (2000). Self-esteem in special education children with ADHD: Relationship to disorder characteristics and medication use. JAACAP, 39(10), 1260-1269.

Zimmerman, M.A., Copeland, L.A., Shope, J.T. & Dielman, T.E. (1997). A longitudinal study of the self-esteem: Implications for adolescent development. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 26(5), 117-141.

Attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder among children. According to Hervas et al. (2014), the global prevalence rate of this condition in individuals under the age of 18 years is estimated at 5.3 percent. These numbers underline the need to have comprehensive medication regimes to ensure that the affected children are treated effectively for improved quality of life. The commonly used drugs to treat ADHD in children are stimulants, especially amphetamine-based medications and methylphenidate, but their effectiveness might be affected by several factors including inadequate response and severe side effects. Therefore, non-stimulant medications have been developed as an alternative to stimulants for individuals not getting the desired efficacy from stimulant-based drugs. However, these drugs also have some side effects, which hinder their efficacy. This paper discusses two empirical articles investigating the use of guanfacine extended-release (GXR) (a non-stimulant medication) to treat ADHD in children.

Hervas et al. (2014)

The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy, in terms of symptoms and function, and safety of “once-daily dose-optimized GXR compared with placebo in the treatment of children and adolescents aged 6–17 years with a diagnosis of ADHD as measured by the ADHD Rating Scale version IV (ADHD-RS-IV) in Europe, the USA and Canada” (Hervas et al., 2014, p. 1862). The study sample included children and adolescents (both male and female) aged between 6 and 17 years randomly selected for this study (n=114 for the intervention group and n=111 for the control group). For a participant to qualify, he or she had to have been diagnosed with ADHD of at least moderate severity.

The selected participants were required to take GXR medication once every morning for four weeks, for those aged under 13 years, and for seven weeks, for those aged between 13 and 17 years, as part of double-blind dose optimization. A six-week maintenance period followed, whereby the participants continued taking the medication, and then a 2-week tapering period. A follow-up visit was conducted one week after the last dose. The results showed that GXR has robust efficacy by improving the core symptoms of ADHD among the participants. The researchers recommended GXR up to 7 mg (0.05-0.12 mg/kg/day) as an effective dosage for treating ADHD among children and adolescents. The study was limited in its scope of population because individuals with co-morbid conditions were excluded from the study. However, in the real world, people with ADHD have co-morbid conditions, thus these results may not be generalizable in other population set-ups.

Stein et al. (2015)

The objective of this study was to “determine whether once-daily GXR (1–4 mg/day) monotherapy, administered in the morning or evening in children aged 6–12 years, impacts overall functional impairment, as measured by the WFIRS-P” (Stein et al., 2015, p. 955). Participants were randomly selected children aged between 6 years and 12 years with ADHD diagnosis. For a participant to be included in the study he or she was required to have “ADHD-RS-IV Total score ≥ 28 and a CGI–Severity of Illness score ≥ 4 at baseline” (Stein et al., 2015, p. 955).

One group of participants (n=107) was given GXR in the morning and a placebo in the evening, while the other one (n=111) was given a placebo in the morning and GXR in the evening. The control group (n=109) was given a placebo in the morning and the evening. The dose optimization period took 5 weeks followed by 3 weeks of maintenance and 9 days of tapering. The results showed that GXR alleviates symptoms of ADHD significantly regardless of the time of administration. This study had several limitations – first, the ADHD symptoms measures were based on parents’ reports, hence subject to bias. Second, the participants had varying ADHD severity ranging from moderate to severe, which might affect the generalizability of the results in other populations.

Advice to Parents and Professionals

These two studies have shown the efficacy of using GXR as an alternative non-stimulant medication for ADHD in children and teenagers. Therefore, professionals should be comfortable prescribing this drug, especially for children with unfavorable outcomes when treated with stimulant-based drugs. Parents should know that the drug works well despite the time of administration (whether in the morning or the evening). However, these studies did not highlight possible side effects associated with GXR, thus professionals and parents should consult other sources to understand the issue comprehensively for their children’s safety.

Conclusion

The global prevalence of ADHD among children is high and it keeps increasing with changing human lifestyles that contribute to childhood developmental disorders. The commonly used medications for children with ADHD are stimulant-based. However, some children experience adverse effects after taking these drugs, hence the need for an alternative. GXR is a non-stimulant drug that can be used in the treatment of this condition. The two articles used in this study have shown that GXR has high efficacy in alleviating ADHD symptoms among children and teenagers. Therefore, professionals should be comfortable when prescribing GXR to their patients. However, parents and clinicians should be careful to understand the side effects of these drugs.

References

Hervas, A., Huss, M., Johnson, M., McNicholas, F., van Stralen, J., Sreckovic, S., … Robertson, B. (2014). Efficacy and safety of extended-release guanfacine hydrochloride in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A randomized, controlled, Phase III trial. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24(12), 1861-1872. Web.

Stein, M. A., Sikirica, V., Weiss, M. D., Robertson, B., Lyne, A., & Newcorn, J. H. (2015). Does guanfacine extended-release impact functional impairment in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Results from a randomized controlled trial. CNS Drugs, 29(11), 953-962. Web.

Introduction

The theoretical perspective plays a significant role in the understanding of logic, methods, and components of any research. It forms the philosophical approach to a methodology, and, as any research is political due to the individual perception of the world, the choice of a paradigmatic stance is highly subjective. This theoretical perspectives paper identifies concept theories within the study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and describes constructionism, a paradigmatic stance that guides the researches.

Concept Theories of ADHD

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a predominantly children’s biopsychosocial dysfunction that is characterized by inattentive, impulsive, and overactive behavioral problems. Children with ADHD have difficulties with focusing on details, organizing tasks, and sustaining attention during various activities (Barkley, 2003). They may have problems with discipline, as they are not able to stay in one place and be occupied with one task for a long period of time. Children with ADHD frequently cannot wait their turn or be patient to listen to a question or task description until the end (Barkey, 2003). The symptoms and nature of ADHD have been investigating by scientists for decades.

Based on scientific observations, there are several concept theories that describe the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder nature and explain the children’s behavior. The first theory focuses on the psychological and environmental explanations of ADHD that are viewed as conduct problems (Mahone & Denckla, 2017). According to this theory, the treatment of ADHD implicates the correction of the child’s psychological state. Another approach to the nature of ADHD is a neuropsychological, or biopsychosocial, the concept that explains ADHD’s symptoms by the organism’s malfunctions.

This concept includes several theories: executive functions, cognitive-energetic models, and delay aversion (Mahone & Denckla, 2017). Regardless of their peculiarities, all theories explain ADHD as behavioral inhibition, the disruption of executive functions, and a lack of control caused by the dysfunction of brain systems (Mahone & Denckla, 2017). A neuropsychological concept is currently predominant, however, the psychological approach is still widespread in cultures with particular ethic norms.

Concept theories concerning the nature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder influence treatment, the approach to the education of children with ADHD, and the social perception of this disease. According to the contemporary approach, ADHD is prevalently identified as a neuropsychological problem that is caused by brain dysfunctions and in need of qualified medicated assistance. However, it is highly essential to differentiate ADHD and age-related behavioral disorders that substantially decline with age and may potentially be corrected with psychological therapy (Barkey, 2003).

The modern diagnostics of ADHD include the analysis on several levels, and it takes into consideration neurological, neuropsychological, genetic, social, familial, and behavioral factors (Maag & Reid, 1994). Educational systems should invariably consider the peculiarities of children with ADHD to provide a special approach to their tuition.

Constructionism

The paradigmatic stance that characterizes qualitative research and underlies the study of ADHD is the view of constructionism. This stance is chosen as in the indicated field of study there are various existing theories concerning the nature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The existence of several approaches to the same phenomenon and their construction on the basis of human activities are distinctive for constructionism.

The constructionist view implicates that all meaningful reality depends on human practices. All knowledge is constructed “in and out of interaction between human beings and their world,” it is transmitted within a social context (Crotty, 1998, p. 53). According to this stance, meaning does not belong to the object waiting to be discovered, however, it is constructed. Constructionism states that people construct the meanings of objects when they interpret reality, and this interpretation is inextricably connected with consciousness (Crotty, 1998). Constructionists claim that meanings are neither purely objective nor subjective, they are constructed in regard to the existing world and its objects that should be taken seriously.

As human beings make sense of reality while interacting with it, they obviously interpret all objects in different ways. The world perception will be contingent upon human culture, social background, or family upbringing. People are born in an “already interpreted world” that is both social and natural (Crotty, 1998, p. 69). Social constructionism focuses on a “system of significant symbols” established by human cultures that determinates the way a person will view the world (Crotty, 1998, p. 66). According to the social approach, all meaningful reality is invariably socially constructed.

Conclusion

Theoretical perspectives and paradigmatic stances influence any person’s perception and the understanding of logic, methods, and components of any research. The study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder’s nature distinguishes two main approaches to this phenomenon. The first theory regards ADHD as a psychological disorder that may be corrected by behavioral therapy, while the second, dominant, approach relates ADHD to a neuropsychological disease caused by physical, brain anomalies that need an appropriate medicated treatment.

The paradigmatic stance for this study that characterizes qualitative research is constructionism. It regards reality as existing objects that should be taken into consideration, however, the meanings of these objects should be constructed by human beings through the lenses of their culture, family, social background, and interpersonal communication. The interpretation is socially contingent and inevitably connected with consciousness.

References

Barkley, R. A. (2003). Issues in the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Brain and Development, 25(2), 77-83. Web.

Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research. Meaning and perspective in the research process. London, England: SAGE Publications.

Maag, J. W., & Reid, R. (1994). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A functional approach to assessment and treatment. Behavioral Disorders, 20(1), 5-23.

Mahone, E. M., & Denckla, M. B. (2017). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A historical neuropsychological perspective. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 23(9-10), 916-929. Web.

If you ask any parent a question regarding their children, they will definitely tell you that we are raising a nation of baby Einstein (Khazan, 2013). Saif Saeed, who apparently is in a quagmire, gave birth to Mansour’s Abdulla. The whole family is troubled by the predicament of their only sibling and son. Therefore, it is a prerequisite for them to seek not only clinical and medical attention but also psychological attention. When Mansour’s was born, the family warmly received the new package that was sent from the creator. The parents were capable of raising the child without any calling for external assistance. The condition Mansour’s is suffering from requires more attention from those who are near him, especially the parents.

In essence, Mansour’s is having developmental issues. He is suffering from Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD). The child’s birth had been traumatizing. After more than 24 hours of labor, the medics managed to pull the child out, albeit forcefully, to the extent that he received a black eye. As an infant, he was extremely sensitive to light and sound. The condition was considered controversial when assessed by the doctors. His mother documented that he attained early development milestones, including crawling, pacing, and talking amongst other childhood developmental engagements earlier than was expected. Eventually, Mansour’s has developed learning disorders that were observed through slowed language and speech, regardless of having been observed to be a fast learner during the infant stage.

ADHD is often a troublesome developmental issue that affects not only the child but also the siblings, close relatives, and parents. Mansour’s parents have been significantly affected by his condition. They often switch roles between work and looking after their child. Mansour’s condition has improved the relationship between the parents, given that they have to be mutually and psychologically available for each other.

On the other hand, Mansour’s was observed to have difficulties in the simple tasks that he was requested to perform. These include scribbling or writing anything using his thumb. Mansour’s thumb always avoided whatever he was given to touch. Mansour’s would immediately avoid all he was doing, including shoving the writing material and the pencil away from him. This would be as soon as he completes what he was supposed to be doing. The idea behind it was to clear the space for his forelimbs to lean against whatever he could. Despite completing all the tasks that have been assigned to Mansour’s, the response time that he required was not equivalent to what other ‘normal’ children would require. Essentially, Mansour’s main challenge is the lack of concentration. He can neither balance the focus of his eyes nor get them concentrated.

Fundamentally, Mansour’s parents require seeking professional guidance from a physician. Additionally, they need to consult their current health giver to be advised accordingly. In most cases, when you are a parent, being the child’s custodian is critical. A parent is the child’s best support, advocate, and custodian. A parent plays the central role both emotionally and practically. A parent will take the emotional support for the child’s diagnostic process. They have the parental responsibility to choose the right specialist for the child. Mansour’s’ parents knowledge of the child’s health history is critical.

Mansour’s has a family and social background that is supportive. Essentially, the parents are the core support for the child. In addition, they have readily accepted Mansour’s as their son, who cannot solely support himself. Therefore, they have shown parental care to their dear ones. The parents offer support for their children by ensuring that they articulate the well-being of Mansour’s to the rest of the family. By accepting to adjust their roles, the parents indicate that they are willing to sacrifice not only their careers but also are ready to accept the situation as it is for the sake of their relationship. Mansour’s does not interact well with other children.

He likes being let alone in an isolated area. When other children come close to him, he either runs away from them or confronts them. Nevertheless, he is very submissive to adults. He regards them with utmost humility and displays submission.

Mansour’s is emotionally subdued. He displays signs of being withdrawn.

In regard to the intellectual growth according to Piaget’s philosophy, Mansour’s is in the Real Functioning Phase. Mansour’s appears to be in the 3rd phase of growth. Although Mansour’s has not become fully rational with the ability logically, he thinks about the events that are occurring around. Mansour’s does not seem to shed the sense of egocentrism and animism. In fact, these have not declined. According to Piaget’s theory, a child in the Concrete Operational stage should have perspectives of different objects. A child should be able to be abstract. The stage is dominated by the appearance of the object they are looking at when awake.

Mansour’s, for example, at this stage, should be able to comprehend different mathematical arrangements. At this stage, a child should be able to ‘conserve’ numbers in the head. A child will see additional wedges provided they are spaciously placed compared to when they become piled up in a tiny room. Throughout this phase, a kid is expected to increase the aptitude to preserve and comprehend that the materials or the images are hardly arranged in the manner they normally seem placed. Typically, this happens when children have the aptitude for creating different images in their minds. Typically, at this stage, they will be able to look through things. The child has the capacity to start imagining diverse scenarios.

Regarding Mansour’s language development, it is expected that he is able to express himself articulately. When stuttering occurs in a child’s language development, it is expected that he is suffering from some kinds of disorders such as ADHD. A child is expected to articulate issues irrespective of how simple it is to his/her peers. Mansour’s has been observed to have a hoarse voice accompanied by stuttering. The illustration is that his development is not as would be expected of a normal child (Ware, 2012).

Mansour’s has been a client for the last five years. From the time he was presented to me as a client by his loving parents, I have observed him with keen interest to see how he eventually performs. When he was initially present as the unrecognized case by the parents, I took an interest in analyzing how he vies. In the beginning, Mansour’s would spend most of his time rolling or swiveling with the facility’s floor, or chair respectively provided space was available.

Typically, these amenities were meant for clients who required such radical movements so that the clinical personnel would observe certain distinct behaviors. For most of the time that I have observed Mansour’s, he demonstrates that his condition requires intense attention. By isolating himself from his peers, it is a clear indication that Mansour’s suffers from ADHD. The condition has been researched previously by scientists, clinicians, and academicians.

Mansour’s proprioception is unreliable. The situation means that the sense of his body in space is in oblivion. While he is wide-awake with his eyes closed, he still lacks the ability to assess his movements such as limbs cognitively. He is never sure of himself. In fact, at times, he falls out of bed according to reliable sources from his parents. Inherently, he demonstrates many signs of physical conditioning that are not normal of a ‘normal’ child. Mansour’s strengths include the love he has for his parents. He has been observed to admire his sibling. Despite displaying hostility to his peers, the same is not replicated with regard to his family and close family relations.

Mansour’s cannot be termed as those ADHD children that are considered irreparable. The support of the family is critical, despite the conditions that he is currently experiencing. The emergence of diseases such as dementia has been treated, albeit without an ultimate cure. However, researches currently being conducted in various facilities such as John Hopkins offer a new life to the desperate. Apparently, the trend that Mansour’s is being exposed to is not only propelled by the family, but also by those who are privy to his condition and those who promise that Mansour’s will be ‘normal’ in the projected five years. If the current therapy is sustained, Mansour’s will normally be acting despite his predicaments. Parental love and care that he receives ensure that he will live a normal life. Here are some of the pictures or artwork done by Mansour’s.

References

Ghanizadh, A. (2010). Predictors of different types of developmental coordination problems in ADHD: The effect of age, gender, ADHD symptom severity and comorbidities. Neuropediatrics, 41(4), 176-181. Web.

Khazan, O. (2013). Most common child descriptors. Web.

Ware, A. (2012). Executive function predicts adaptive behavior in children with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Cinic Exp Research, 36(8), 1431-1441. Web.

Introduction

This report section highlights the impacts, professional and personal development, logistical challenges, and recommendations derived from the field studies. The report highlights the activities conducted throughout 2021 based on the internal referrals’ interventions, the capacity-building programs, and the collaborations within various agencies. The qualitative nature of the report gives an in-depth analysis of the outcomes of the programs and how such results affect practice. Moreover, the understanding derived from the analysis provides more insights into what future professionals and relevant organizations can adopt to address the issues determined from the study period. Consequently, the corrective actions proposed from the outcomes should help address some of the challenges existing in society from both the professional and consumer perspectives.

Measuring Impact

Psychological measurement mainly intends to validly determine the differences between individuals and communities regarding psychological qualities, including personality and attitudes. It focuses on designing, developing, and testing various tools, ensuring that the qualities measured are valid and valuable for psychological determinations. Some of the specific attributes measured include cognitive abilities, emotions, knowledge, opinions, and personality. It uses scales to measure these variables, making it easier to determine where each quality measured falls. The assessments are conducted in different situations and at other times, such as during interviews for job positions, post-traumatic events, or pre-ceremonial occasions. The type of examination used may largely depend on the psychologist testing the variables or the exact outcome intended for the study. According to Ando et al. (2019), observational techniques and behavior coding are among the most valuable techniques used in psychological measurement. Consequently, tests conducted in line with the proposed methods lead to valid psychological tests.

In this study, observational methods were utilized to understand each aspect under investigation. The adopted technique enabled the ease of comparing different monitoring outcomes regarding how each participant responded to the intervention given. This helped in understanding crucial information about the participants, making it possible to know their behavior in a particular situation. The main disadvantage of the method adopted in this study was that it was not straightforward to measure how the interventions offered had a significant impact on the children’s behavior on a long-term basis since the institutions did not provide an extended period for the examination (Ando et al., 2019). Moreover, the data collected were not sufficient and consistent throughout the investigation. On the contrary, the study was able to understand significant changes in the emotional states and mood of the children when the observations and the tests ended. The collaboration between various agencies involved in childcare resulted in a positive influence on the behavior of the children as the children observed indicated changed attitudes and became more disciplined at the end of the assessment, compared to the start of the tests.

Professional/ Personal Development

The observation of the children and the interventions given have significantly impacted my personal and professional development. The children under my observation possess certain traits, which made them unpredictable to their parents and teachers. This revealed that the children were experiencing different kinds of emotionally disturbing issues they were facing in society. I was expected to assess how the surrounding of the children works, identify what could be resulting in their behaviors, and offer possible solutions that could help them change. These set goals were crucial for me because they compelled me to find the root causes for the various problems the children experienced, which made them react the way they did. I was also expected to understand the best psychological assessments to give the best outcome to the children’s parents.

My observations revealed that some children suffer from direct attacks from their parents and guardians. Parents should show care and support to their children, but this was not the case among the children under my observation. I found out that most children do not believe in themselves because they have been told so by their fathers, mothers, and siblings. Since the parents wanted solutions for their children’s behavior, it reveals that the parents were unaware of how their words or behavior observable by the children could affect their minors’ conduct. This further revealed that the parents did not fully report what happened before the children developed the undesirable behavior or responded to it.

Children are beings with emotions and desires, which require progressive interventions. Most parents deny their children the fundamental rights to experience some of their desires, such as playing with their peers, watching some content, or getting specific goods they need. Failing to fulfill these desires among children makes them feel neglected or unloved by their parents and guardians. Consequently, they begin developing behaviors that tend to rebel against their seniors or become violent. Moreover, some children suffered physical harm from their guardians or parents or were harmed due to their parental neglect. For example, some children reported they were raped, had low self-esteem, and hated others because of their experience. Since the children fear sharing such horrible acts against them, they express their frustrations in other ways that parents do not understand. This makes parents begin being on the defensive side and becomes victims of their children’s behavior, further revealing that the parents did not wish to acknowledge their significant contribution to their children’s conduct.

Dealing With Logistical Challenges

The observation over the 2021 period mainly assessed every referral regarding the psychological issues the children faced. One of the main challenges in giving appropriate interventions among the children was that most parents did not provide accurate information regarding how they influenced their children’s behavior or responded to the conduct. Some children also reserved their sentiments or were too secretive, making it more challenging to understand their issues in society. The necessary interventions were given based on the information collected from the interviewees and observations made within the study period.

Recommendations

The findings above reveal that psychological problems affecting children result from parents, peers, and the system. Therefore, the best methods to address the challenges affecting children’s behavior should anchor on giving appropriate information to the children, the parents, teachers, and any other person interacting with children in any other way. The parents should be taught the psychological interventions they need when their children express themselves in specific ways. Children should be counseled on how to express themselves and understand why certain restrictions can be imposed, primarily because of their safety. There is a need for policy formulation so that everyone handling the children, apart from the parents, should have some training on child psychology and related information.

Conclusion

The study period reveals that children are experiencing emotional distress from some inhumane acts against them in the past. The children who are victims of rape find it difficult to share what they experienced and mostly tend to reserve themselves and be quiet. Other observations include neglect faced by the children, which led to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) personality among the children. All these are not clinical issues; hence they require behavioral interventions from the children’s office and the parents.

Reference

Ando, A., Pignolo, C., Viglione, D. J., Zennaro, A., Cristofanelli, S., & Ferro, L. (2019). Assessing the personality profile with ADHD characteristics using the Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS). Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(5), 1196-1206.