Category: Addiction

Introduction

The etiology of addiction presupposes studying and understanding its roots and origins that tend to influence the course of its development (NIAAA, 2006). What is more, etiology studies determine the possible treatment strategy (DiClemente, 2006)? Throughout the history of addiction research, many various models and theories have been suggested, but there are general patterns to their development that are going to be demonstrated in the present paper.

Personal Responsibility Models

Personal responsibility models link the etiology of addiction to the addicted people and their flaws. This idea is among the oldest in the history of the scientific study of addiction etiology (Miller, 2013, p. 271). It appeared before the scientific study of the issue itself, which is reflected in the religious texts, for example, of Abrahamic religions. In the case of this model, the prevention is connected to the educative and legislative measures; treatment presupposes social sanctions and repentance. An example of such a model is the 12-step approach that appeared in 1935 and emphasized the necessity of the “spiritual awakening” of the addicts (Miller, Forcehimes, & Zweben, 2011, p. 24).

Agent Models

Agent models blame the addictive substance, and the various “dry laws” (for example, the US Prohibition) and prohibitions of drugs stem from this theory. In this case, to prevent addiction, society attempts to get rid of the drug, and the relevant measures are legislative.

Dispositional Models

Dispositional models claim that an addict has a predisposition to addiction, which they cannot control. As a result, unlike personal responsibility models, dispositional ones do not blame the addicted person. An example is the disease model, in which the addicts are considered to be “constitutionally different from others” (Miller et al., 2011, p. 25). Dispositional theories contributed to the scientific understanding of addiction etiology significantly. Namely, they emphasized the genetic risk factors and the changes that constant substance abuse cause for the brain. Most importantly, these models introduced a humane approach to treatment.

Sociocultural Models

With the accumulation of scientific evidence, a more comprehensive view on the etiology of addiction was being introduced (Miller et al., 2011, p. 26). The influence of society was admitted by social learning models that linked addiction to the experience of a person. It included the reaction to the social environment and the following of the observed models. For example, it has been proved that a higher level of family cohesion coupled with social control decreases the risks of developing an addiction while the lack of parental attention and negative models increase it (Jadidi & Nakhaee, 2014). The prevention and treatment suggestions, in this case, include social support with particular attention to high-risk cases, interacting with the family as well as cognitive-behavioral coping skills (Miller et al., 2011, p. 26).

A more comprehensive approach is termed the sociocultural model; it combines the previously mentioned social factors with cultural ones since the two tend to interact (Jadidi & Nakhaee, 2014, p. 4). The culture of substance use is considered to be a part of certain groups, for example, college fraternities. Apart from that, this culture can be supported, for instance, by the media (Miller et al., 2011). This model returns once again to the necessity of introducing substance use policies that are supported legally.

Public Health Perspective

Given the tendency to broaden the scope of the supposed etiological factors, it is not surprising that an all-encompassing model was proposed: the public health perspective. This approach presupposes the analysis of all the mentioned factors that were termed as the host, the agent, and the environment. Apart from that, the models take into account the interactions of the factors (Miller et al., 2011, p. 26). The various properties of drugs include, for example, addiction potential or toxic side effects. Host factors, such as family history or psychological self-regulation are similarly significant. The environment includes the legal, economic, and normative aspects, all of which can have various effects on addiction development as it has been demonstrated above.

Multiple combinations of the mentioned factors tend to produce varied effects; for example, a youngster in touch with drug abuse culture can be protected by sufficient parental control and understanding (Jadidi & Nakhaee, 2014, p. 5). Therefore, when relevant measures are aimed at any of the three aspects, the general public health is expected to improve. An example of such a model development is the harm reduction strategy that describes the elimination of addiction as something impossible and is aimed at mitigating its harmful consequences (Horvath, Misra, Epner, Cooper, & Zupanick, 2015, para. 3). The goal can be achieved, for instance, by prohibiting intoxicated drivers from driving.

The Role of Heredity

Pedigree, twin, and adoption studies have demonstrated the fact that heredity and genetics do play a role in the development of addiction, for example, to the alcohol (NIAAA, 2006). Apart from that, various aspects of the person’s temperament are also believed to be inherited and can affect the predisposition to addiction (Miller et al., 2011, p. 27). At the same time, the genetic predisposition does not guarantee the development of addiction; it is the interaction of host and environment factors that enable addiction heredity. In other words, the role of heredity is significant, but it is the interaction of the factors that leads to the development of addiction.

Personal View

In my personal opinion, the comprehensive model is the most attractive one since it does not disregard any of the mentioned factors. As the examples above demonstrate, it is not exactly the factors that enable addiction development, but their interaction. Factors can both enhance and mitigate the effects of each other, and this is the main reason for the necessity of a comprehensive approach.

References

DiClemente, C. (2006). Addiction and change. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Horvath, A. T., Misra, K., Epner, A. K., Cooper, G. M., & Zupanick, C. E. (2015). Public Health Model of Addiction and Recovery Implications. Web.

Jadidi, N., & Nakhaee, N. (2014). Etiology of Drug Abuse: A Narrative Analysis. Journal of Addiction, 2014, 1-6. Web.

Miller, P. (2013). Principles of addiction. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

Miller, W., Forcehimes, A., & Zweben, A. (2011). Treating addiction. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

NIAAA. (2006). Etiology and Natural History of Alcoholism. Web.

Introduction

The term addiction which is usually referred to alcohol, narcotics and tobacco can contain wider meanings in the medical world. Addiction could be reached by regular usage of any substance on a daily basis. The reasons for such usage could vary according to the substance used and to the life rhythm of the addicted person. This paper analyzes personal observation experience resulted of discontinuing the usage of a particular substance. The case chosen concerns the drop of usage of the “Red Bull” which is a very popular energy drink. This drink contains components, which facilitate physical and emotional lift. The paper will mainly discuss the personal thoughts, symptoms, behavior and conclusions resulted from discontinuing the usage of the “Red Bull” for the period between June 26th and July 20^th.

Background

The first step before starting this task was identifying the ingredients which are contained in this drink and taken from the website of the product. The main ingredients which were distinguishing the “Red Bull” from other energy drinks are:

• Taurine – a conditionally essential amino acid which is naturally occurring in the human body.
• Glucuronolactone – a carbohydrate.
• Caffeine – a substance known for its beneficial effects on mental and physical functions.
• B vitamins – shown to support mental and physical performance.

Other ingredients include sucrose, glucose, and Acesulfame K. (Red Bull)

Stages

In analyzing the stages resulted from stopping the usage of the “Red Bull” it is necessary to explain the reasons for using this drink at first place. The main characteristics promoted for this product were increasing the performance and providing energy. Thus, the regular usage was in cases when concentration was needed or when a feel of tiredness occurred while there were no chances or possibilities for rest.

The form of discontinuing the usage of the energy drink was immediate as there was no apparent reason for gradual withdrawal due to the short period of the observation.

Symptoms

There were expected stages or symptoms for the selected period, i.e. PAW – Post Acute withdrawal. Post acute withdrawal is an adjustment the brain has to make while in the process of returning to life without chemicals. It is the time period when neurotransmitters start acting again. (Post Acute Withdrawal Syndrome)

The first noticed stage was sleep disturbances as the sleep rhythm of the body was in disbalance condition. The reason for that might be explained in a case when the body gets accustomed to the condition when his natural needs for sleep were not fulfilled and could not yet return to the normal rhythm. In contrary to the previous condition the second apparent stage was the feel of tiredness and apathy which occurred when there was a need for a full concentration (e.g. reading or doing some writing job).

From thorough observations no other symptoms were recognized in the selected period. Other symptoms for Post Acute Withdrawal such as failure to think clearly, memory problems, or emotional stresses were not present. This could be explained by the low degree of addiction and the nature of the substance used. As these symptoms were not initial reasons for using the “Red Bull” at the first place, the possibility of occurring of intolerable symptoms was insignificant.

Relapse Prevention

Fortunately there was not case of relapse; although there were times that a need for freshening up was present. A relapse – a term that means “the act or an instance of backsliding, worsening, or subsiding” or “a recurrence of symptoms of a disease after a period of improvement” in case of the addiction means the return for the continuous usage of specific substance. (Merriam-Webster)

As the relapse is not an event, but rather a process it takes some effort to prevent this from happening.

It should be mentioned that although the substance mentioned is totally legal, and it cannot be said that its usage was considered a complete addiction, it needed some strategies to perform. As there was not a chance that I was going to use the drink during this period these strategies were merely to keep me from thinking or setting myself to the “wrong mood”.

The main strategy that was used is performing sport activities. Putting efforts in the gym was a natural way to avoid thinking of anything else; in addition it helped returning the body to the normal sleep condition. As I was totally aware of the relapse and the process that should occur, trying to avoid situations that could be described as “high risk” was a vital strategy too. The high risk situations in this case of study could be considered:

• Staying up late doing some physical or mental work whether at home or out.
• Proceeding with some work when feeling exhaustion.
• Being in a company of friends who use energy drinks.
• Using alternative stimulators such as coffee.

Due to the short period of the recovery there has not been a plan identified, so the only physical activity that has been conducted was going to the gym.

Observations

Giving something up usually is a hard progress which requires abandoning what you used to do on a regular basis. Definitely, the degree of someone’s addiction can vary depending on the state and the substance, but personally I think that the addiction to substances which could be categorized into low-risk groups is merely a matter of a habit.

This argument could be debatable concerning narcotics or alcohol, but at least for the initial stages of addiction it starts with a monotonous tradition of doing or using something over and over in a way that it becomes operating below the level of consciousness.

Therefore withdrawing of something can become the issue of breaking out the routine that has been established to perform during specific states of body and mind. If thinking about the continuous usage of something in the aforementioned manner it becomes easier to give something up or break this chain.

If speaking about addiction, there are limitations in which I can say that I have symptoms of it. If speaking about the addiction as a medical term that means relying on a substance for normally functioning, then I have not, since I can normally function without the “Red Bull”. However if taking this term as psychological dependence then in such context it is possible, as it could be noticed that some psychological states could be achieved without it.

It should be added that even applying this definition the change of state was easily achieved and the overall behavior did not change much. This was possibly happening because of the fact that the energy drink was not a real drug, but at the same time noticing minor difficulties it could be predicted what it will look like for people who are suffering hard forms of addiction.

It is necessary to distinguish physical dependence from the psychological. In both cases there is a need for a particular substance. When physical dependence occurs, the organism cannot more manage without narcotic. However, psychological dependence is expressed in the tendency to use a narcotic for the pleasure or feelings of satisfaction, which it delivers. Another factor that could be mentioned for drug addicted is that the use of some psychotropic substances leads to the development of some form of adaptations, the organism becomes ever more resistant to their action, and larger doses are required to achieve the same effect.

The initial idea of stopping the usage of any substances before the period of the analysis might have been connected to the willpower, but for now it is obvious that it should be taken in consideration only in the first periods of addiction. In case of long term addictions the case turns out to illness that should be healed and needs assistance in doing so. In other words, if following the previously mentioned distinction between the physical and psychological dependency, it could be said that, willpower can be effective in psychological dependency, whereas in the physical dependency it cannot be stopped without professional assistance. Furthermore it should be kept in mind that the prolonged psychological dependency can turnout into physical, and what starts as a habit or momentary weakness becomes long-term addictions.

Works Cited

Gorski, Terence T., and Merlene Miller. Counseling for Relapse Prevention. Herald Publishing House, 1982.

Ingredients. Red Bull. 2008. Web.

“Post Acute Withdrawal Syndrome.”Hopelinks.Net. 2007. Web.

“relapse.” Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2008. Merriam-Webster Online. Web.

There is a massive link between environment and addiction. Evidently, an environment where a person comes from can influence the aspects of drug abuse and the alleged addiction. The study undertaken with rats indicate that environment contribute considerably to the aspects of addiction due to numerous factors. Contextually, it is evident from the study that when rats are exposed to an addictive environment, they tend to develop addiction in various factors.

Biologically, their systems develop tolerance to the addictive factors in the concerned environment. Consequently, they cannot do without such stimuli. Environment is a critical contributor to the aspects of drug abuse and the alleged addiction. It is important to agree that its influence on rats is massive with regard to the study. Concurrently, the concerned environment can necessitate the use of a particular drug for survival.

Evidently, the body systems of addicts require drugs in order to operate normally (Peele, 1998). Concurrently, withdrawal symptoms indicated earlier can actually enhance the need to continue using drugs. The study indicated how test animals (rats) required particular drugs to operate normally. Their immediate environment necessitated the continuity of using such drugs. This indicates the link between environment and addiction and how the two can influence the continuity of drug abuse despite the challenges.

Implications on Addiction

Some studies front numerous implications on addiction theories. For example, studies showing that human beings and rats are not ‘prone’ to take drugs based (solely) on the effects fronted by the concerned drugs is important in this context. This indicates that the ultimate effect of a given drug is not the only contributor to drug abuse and addiction.

It indicates varying implications on the aspects of drug abuse and addiction as indicated earlier. This thwarts the aspects of biological theory, which indicates that drugs are taken to counter the withdrawal symptoms experienced when one tries to quite drug abuse and addiction. Since the body develops some tolerance to any abused drug, the mechanisms developed to respond to such drug effects must also be countered by the effects of the concerned drug.

This shows why drug addicts continue to abuse drugs despite the lethal effects (of such drugs) and condemnations drawn globally. It is crucial to understand various aspects of drug abuse in the realms of their effects and other characterizing features. This is a considerable provision in the context of drug abuse and addiction. Additionally, humans and rats (according to the study) might abuse drugs in order to satisfy their psychological needs.

This reason contrast the ultimate effects presented by the concerned drugs. One’s desires to take a drug can be driven by psychological and environmental factors, a fact that contrasts the ultimate effects of the concerned drug. This indicates disparities and implications noticeable in the context of addiction indicated earlier.

Research on Overpopulated Human Areas

Contextually, the study undertaken on overpopulated areas regarding the incidences of drug abuse and addiction reveals pertinent issues. It is evident that drug abuse is higher in the crowded inner cities than in overpopulated countries. This is due to the exposure and accessibility to illicit drugs among people in the crowded towns.

Globally, drug abuse is extensively common in the crowded cities where the rates of unemployment and other related factors are higher (Peele, 1998). Conversely, it is improper to claim that overpopulation in a particular country can contribute to the aspects of drug abuse and addiction.

Reference

Peele, S. (1998). The meaning of addiction: An unconventional view. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Gambling became one of the main problems of the modern society. Old people and adolescents, rich and poor, all of them may become the prisoners of this addiction and the only way out may be the treatment, serious psychological treatment, as gambling addiction is the disease and disaster of the modern society. I strongly believe that addiction to gambling is difficult to avoid and more and more people become the prisoners of this habit because of different reasons.

There are a lot of definitions of gambling, and it is difficult to find one which cover all aspects and explain the whole specifics of the notion. Peter Collins (2003) gives three aspects according to which the notion of ‘gambling’ was covered from different sides. First of all, gambling is and activity, where ‘two or more parties place at risk something of value (the stakes) in hope of winning something of greater value (the prize), where who wins and who loses depends on the outcome of events that are known to the participants at the time of the bet (the result)’ (p. 15).

Legalization is the main reason why people become gambling addicted, as a trick on people’s subconsciousness is played, especially on those who cannot control themselves. Turning to psychological factor in the gambling legalization, people think that if the activities are allowed, it is not harmful, and it may bring some profit. This is mostly self-deception, and the owners of the gambling business became to use it to make up profit, as the legal gambling has really increased lately. Lottery and casinos are legal in most of the states, except Hawaii and Utah (Vatz & Weinberg, 2003).

Another argument in favor of quick addiction to the gambling are the emotions, which people imagine for themselves and follow it. It is not a secret that different generations have absolutely different psychological vision of different things and they influenced absolutely differently, but gambling may become the addiction in spite of person’s age. Talking about gambling participants of older age, the 66 – 87 ages are taken into consideration. The main motives for the playing gambling were boredom and escape from routine everyday life (Clarke & Clarkson, 2008), while young people are interested in gambling because of sensory acuity and the adrenaline which is felt while waiting for the victory in the game.

One of the strongest arguments to support the idea of easy addiction is money. The problem of people who take part in gambling and want to win is that it is impossible to win more that the person has already lost, but this desire makes people addicted. This addiction is like the drug addiction, as people cannot imagine their life without games, they hope for easy money which they would win and for the life full of impressions.

These addicted people do not understand that it is the addiction and insist that they can quite every minute, but they do not want to. In realty, they have just used to play and they are unable to stop. Despite the fact that gambling is the addiction which easy to get but difficult to release from, it should be mentioned that people are different and all arguments cannot be applied on all people.

Some people claim that legalization of the gambling is one of the reasons why people become addicted. However, this view is mistaken, as gambling is legalized in almost all countries but it depends on the government and its laws the level of people’s possible addiction. British culture secretary Tessa Jowell said that British laws about gambling are the most protective in the world and that the British government makes all possible in order to make the gambling a special type of entertainment but not the addiction, which is very difficult to get rid of (Britain’s Gambling Laws, 2006).

Opponents of the claim that emotions are the moving power of addiction are also not so right. Taking into consideration fruit machine, and adolescents are interested in it more that other games as there is no need to think, you just have to wait for a chance to win. Emotions are not the reason here as people are interested in the process, than in the win itself (GAMBLING WITH A GENERATION, 2006).

The assurance that money is the main motivation is also wrong, as people in the modern world of computerization know that it is possible to program the machine in such a way that it will be impossible to win a huge sum of money.

In sum, playing gambling, person should be asked, ‘Have you more than once tried to quit or cut down on your gambling WITHOUT (sic) being able to?’ (Vatz & Weinberg, 2003). The positive answer is one of the first preconditions for the gambling addiction. British investigations show that gambling addiction in the British society is much higher than heroine addiction (Hickley, 2007), and such problem frightens. It becomes visible that psychological addiction is one of the most serious problems of the modern world and this is a disease which should be treated like alcoholism or drug addiction.

References

“Britain’s Gambling Laws ‘Most Protective in the World’” 2006, The Birmingham Post (England), p. 4.

Clarke, D, & Clarkson, 2008, “Gambling Behavior and Motivation in an Urban Sample of Older Adult Gamblers”, New Zealand Journal of Psychology, vol. 37, no.1.

Collins, P 2003, Gambling and the Public Interest, Praeger, Westport, CT.

“GAMBLING WITH A GENERATION; Children Will Be Turned into Addicts, Warns Professor the Government Employs to Advise on Casino Plan” 2006, The Daily Mail (London, England), p. 1.

Hickley, 2007, “284, 000 Are Gambling Addicts – ‘And It’ll Get Worse’”, The Daily Mail, vol. 20, pp 24.

Vatz, RE, & Weinberg, LS 2003, “Gambling, Psychology and State Politics”, USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education), vol. 131.

Abstract

In the following work the social aspect of the problem of alcoholism is discussed. The fact of its great importance and influence on society is stated. The study of some academical sources connected with this issue is given. Their main ideas serve to prove the fact of the pernicious influence of this addiction. The risk groups are also outlined. The data and methods of the researches are studied. The results of the discussion coincide with the given statement and in conclusion the necessity of the further investigation of this issue is given.

Main Body

Great tension of modern world, its great speed and rivalry often have bad influence on people. Living under constant pressure they begin to feel overwhelming tiredness which is very uneasy to overcome. Some people try to struggle with it. However, there is the category of people which give up and try to hide from the world and problems using all remedies which are at their disposal. Alcohol is one of them. Giving a slight feeling of relief it however does not help and just make people addictive to it. It became the great social problem as our society consists of personalities and when someone is addictive he cannot be the representative of it. Moreover it threatens the further development of society as “alcohol use is associated with the leading causes of death among youth” (Herciu, Laxer, Cole, & Leatherdale, 2014, p. 172). Sociology as the since of social behavior and its development cannot ignore this problem. Sociological imagination, the term which means the ability to see things socially and their interaction, suggests the understanding of alcoholism as the great social problem. Society loses its future and alcoholism becomes the great sociological problem of modern age which is narrowly studied, however a possible way out has not been found.

There is a great number of works devoted to this issue. They try to study it from different points if view using different methods and collecting data. For example in the article A Cross-sectional Study Examining Factors Associated with Youth Binge Drinking in the COMPASS Study: Year 1 Data the authors suggest deep research of the problem of alcoholism among the youth basing on “data from 17,497 grade 9 to 12 students participating in the COMPASS Study (Year 1)” (Herciu, Laxer, Cole, & Leatherdale, 2014, p. 173). The authors show statistics of using alcohol by students. The conclusion of the work is not satisfying. The authors admit the great disposition of the youth to alcoholism.

Another work Addiction and Autism: A Remarkable Comorbidity? reveals the idea of interdependence of being alcohol addict and some distortions in the work of brain and how environment can influence the development of these factors. The authors use the study of the state of 118 patients in order to prove their point. In conclusion the article says that “Autism spectrum disorders and addiction can both be perceived as developmental disorders” (Wijngaarden-Cremers, Brink, & Gaag, 2014, p. 170) and that there are some men that have aptitude to alcohol addiction and this category of people should be especially careful.

One more article Risky Drinking Women: Contrasting Therapeutic Approaches researches the same problem. However it touches another important side of this addiction. It describes the problem of women alcoholism and some possible ways of its treatment. The article states that “The importance of early identification and effective treatment for risky drinking grows with the increasing rate of alcohol use by women” (Birath, Klinteberg, DeMarinis, Hauke, Smallwood, & Chang, 2014, p.160). The problem obtains more and more actuality and women become the risk group. It is also mentioned that this addiction is very difficult to cure especially talking about female addiction. Having analyzed two different possible therapies the authors state that they result in significant reducing of drinking however women which had taken these therapies remained in the risk group.

The article The Alcoholic Habitus: A Socio-Anthropological Eye on Alcoholism discusses the phenomena of alcoholism among military personnel and it is concentrated on “its socio-anthropological perspective, considering it as phenomenon, which is individually and collectively managed” (Halpern & Leite,. 2014, p. 190). We have already said that alcoholism became social problem as it influences all important aspects of society and this article illustrates it. The authors give conclusion that availability of alcohol on military bases influences greatly on the development of alcoholic habitus. They also underline that some protective measures can prevent great destructions of material base and the personalities of military personnel.

One more article which centers around this issue is Men’s Heavy Alcohol Use and Risk of HIV Acquisition and Transmission to Sexual Partners within Marriage in India. It discusses the problem of sexual behavior in the state of alcohol intoxication. It states that “heavy episodic drinking by men in India and elsewhere is associated with their sexual risk behaviors, thereby increasing the risk for HIV” (Saggurti, Sabarwal & Mahapatra, 2014, p. 147) that is why it becomes very destructive and dangerous addiction. The authors suggest the idea of interdependence of sexual violence and alcoholism. The decrease of usage of drinks will lead to the reducing of HIV transmission.

The Data and Methods of the following researches perfectly illustrate the actuality of the problem of alcoholism. According to the statistics which was obtained due to sociological quiz among the purposeful auditory 38.4% of students drink alcohol (Herciu et al., 2014). This is rather disturbing. There is also a great number of HIV positive people among alcohol addicted. Especially dangerous is the data about female alcoholism and the methods of its treatment as it is very destructive for society. This problem touches all fields of it which makes it even more important.

The problem of alcoholism can be considered form the point of view of social conflict as it is connected with relations of personalities. Functionalism cannot be applied here as the problem is connected with the relations between people and not between the parts of society. It is not also connected with the symbolic meaning of peoples social interaction which is described by symbolic ineractionism. The problem occurs when the person faces some problems connected with the interaction with another person or group of persons. That is why it is better to analyze it in the terms of social conflict theory.

Society loses it future and alcoholism has become the great sociological problem of modern age which is narrowly studied however no possible way out has been found. Having analyzed the sources connected with this issue it is possible to make the conclusion that this statement reflects the current state of the question. Though the great number of remedies are concentrated in order to end with this problem it still threatens society striking its such vital parts as youth, women, military personnel and promoting development of different diseases.

Reference List

Birath, S., Klinteberg, B., DeMarinis, V., Hauke, S., Smallwood, A., Grace Chang. (2014). Risky drinking women: contrasting therapeutic approaches. Alcohol Drug Depend, 2(3),160 – 167. Web.

Halpern, E. & Leite, L. (2014). The alcoholic habitus: a socio-anthropological eye on alcoholism. Addict Res Ther, 5(3),190 – 197. Web.

Herciu, C., Laxer, E., Cole, A,, Leatherdale, T. (2014). A Cross-sectional study examining factors associated with youth binge drinking in the COMPASS study: Year 1 Data. Alcohol Drug Depend, 2(4),172 – 176. Web.

Saggurti, N., Sabarwal, S., & Mahapatra, B. (2014). Men’s heavy alcohol use and risk of HIV acquisition and transmission to sexual partners within marriage in India. Alcohol Drug Depend, 2(2),147 – 151. Web.

Wijngaarden-Cremers, P., Brink, W., Gaag, R. (2014). Addiction and autism: a remarkable comorbidity?. J Alcohol Drug Depend, 2(4),170 – 175. Web.

It is doubtful that caffeine is among the most popular stimulant drugs in the world. Uddin et al. (2017) state that “caffeine is a CNS and metabolic stimulant and is utilized both recreationally and medically to diminish physical exhaustion and reestablish mental alertness.” (p. 1). Nowadays, the rates of caffeine consumption rise at the fastest recorded levels (Jain et al., 2017). Coffee, amongst other products, contains one of the highest doses of caffeine per ml (Uddin et al., 2017). The thesis of this paper is that scientists need to reclassify caffeine as a potentially addictive stimulant drug.

I believe that it is vital to reclassify this drug due to the recent discoveries from multiple sources. As the popularity of this drug is on the rise While it does bring several positives to a human organism when consumed in small or medium doses, it also bears a moderate potential to cause addictive behavior in some people (Jain et al., 2017). Since the caffeine is not anyhow regulated and legal for consumption at any age, it is possible to misjudge the dosage and take an inappropriate amount, causing prominent side effects (Uddin et al., 2017). These effects include insomnia, high blood pressure, and illnesses related to the central nervous system (Uddin et al., 2017). Prolonged abuse of caffeine can cause severe mental disorders, such as anxiety and manic disorders (Uddin et al., 2017).

In conclusion, the recent discoveries on the addictive qualities of caffeine call for its reclassification. In addition to the potential to cause addictive behavior, caffeine can have an adverse effect on the central nervous system, cause mental disorders, and is not recommended to use for people with coronary diseases. Therefore, it is vital to provide consumers with a thorough description of adverse effects and put a limit on selling products that contain high doses of caffeine.

References

Jain, S., Srivastava, A. S., Verma, R. P., & Maggu, G. (2017). Caffeine addiction: Need for awareness and research and regulatory measures. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 73-75. Web.

Uddin, M. S., Abu Sufian, M., Hossain, M. F., Kabir, M. T., Islam, M. T., Rahman, M. M., & Rafe, M. R. (2017). Neuropsychological effects of caffeine: Is caffeine addictive?Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy, 7(2). Web.

According to the journal article of clinical and research news (2004), a disease can be defined as a complicated relationship existing between the environment of an individual and the general genetic makeup that combines together resulting in an abnormal state of physiology that is reflected in signs and symptoms (Pg 15). The article further defines addiction as a complex societal and health problem which has the potential of destroying peoples’ lives and communities (Pg 19). Studies on brain have shown that addiction can have a great influence on the brain areas and especially when it comes to decision making, memory, learning and behavior control. In order to overcome this situation the addiction problem should be addressed since the issue of whether addiction is disease or not has raised many concerns with many people arguing that addiction is not a disease rather a moral failing or negative behavior (Pg 30). My point of view in this essay is that addiction is disease not moral failing.

According to the journal article of Psychiatric News (2004), addiction is a disease (Pg 32).The journal describes addiction as a illness by using the disease representation model which describes addiction as a difficult disease like other diseases (Pg 33). It further states that addiction is associated with physiological, genetic, nutritional and environmental factors which are key factors that need to be addressed for the situation to be corrected (Pg 40).Like other diseases addiction causes a person to act in unhealthy way and adapt a compulsive behavior that they carry out uncontrollably around with chronic use of a certain substance or stimulus such as alcohol, drugs, sex, gambling or cigarettes (Pg 50). On the other hand studies in this journal shows that some other people argue that addiction is not a disease rather a moral failing or character problem caused by degeneracy or lack of will power (Pg 51).

In the journal article of Psychiatric News (2004), drug addiction is also seen as major disease of addiction that affects the brain (Pg 60).The article defines drug addiction as a persistent brain damage which causes a person to heavily use drugs and despite destructive penalties associated with it (Pg 65).Drug addiction has been known to have undesirable results which may include escalating communal stigma and individual shame which contributes to an individual not seeking treatment in time. It is a brain disease that results in the change of the overall structure of the mind and how it functions (Pg 68). These changes do not easily end and can make people to behave in a manner that is not desirable especially by people who consume the drugs. The addiction disease has a long lasting effect on the brain and can have harmful effect on a person’s brain and conduct which has been proved by research done by scientists who prove that natural and ecological factors add to the growth and evolution of the disease (Pg 78). On the other hand studies in this journal shows that other people argue that addiction is not a disease rather a negative bad behavior which people often experience as a compelling motivation (Pg 79).

According to the journal of Psychiatric News people view it as just a bad behavior like other behaviors that include nail biting, overeating, wife beating etc. They argue that it is a self-defeating and anti-social behavior which people engage in because they feel degraded and disapproved of which motivates them to continue the negative behavior since they feel that the balance of their internal desires and rewards is not to act that way (Pg 80). Furthermore they argue that since it is just a negative behavior it can be corrected whenever the person is given an opportunity and support to makes positive choices (Pg 81).

According the generic model explained in the journal article of Volkow May Have Uncovered Answer to Addiction Riddle (2004), addiction is seen a disease which is caused by susceptibility genes that someone has in his/her body which indicates a propensity for certain behaviors (Pg 20). Evidence from the development studies of twins illustrate that addiction is a disease that is categorized like other heritable diseases since genes play a role since they influence a person to develop a drug addiction character (Pg 26) Genes can play a great role to protect an individual from using drugs or becoming an addict as the genes relate with ecological risk and defensive factors genetically to determine the way and effect of the disease (Pg 28).The model gives an example of AI allele of the dopamine receptors DRD2 gene that is shared with people who are likely to have problems with addiction to alcohol, cocaine or gambling compulsive(Pg 33).The theory argues that this causes opioid cravings for an individual hence influencing the individual to start using drugs and making it difficult to withdrawal from drugs which in the end becomes a disease that can treated (Pg 35).

Studies in the journal article of Jim Rosack shows that not all people believe the genetic model, other people argue that the genes are not solely responsible for drug abuse and addiction since there are no mechanisms that can make a person to become completely unable to control substance abuse nor go on tremendous binges or live without connection to the environments in order to consume a substance (Pg 35). They wrap up a conclusion that hereditary theories do not clarify the knowledge on the loss of control since they reveal fundamentally anti scientific attitudes that lack understanding of the power of human motivation to react to response, experience, environmental science and external stimuli (Pg 38).

According to the journal article of Psychiatric News (2004),dependency on alcohol and other drugs was termed by people as a moral problem since the person addicted to it was seen as weak-willed and an individual who do not care about his/her life and other individuals (Pg 82).Studies in book shows that the situation has been corrected by medical doctors, clergy and other medical professionals after the realization that chemical consumption is a disease which responds to treatment (Pg 83).Studies further in this journal point out that addiction as a disease has many features that are related to other kinds of diseases which are also influenced by ecological conditions and activities that have the ability to respond to correct treatment which may include long-term lifestyle and adjustment.(Pg 85).

On the other hand, studies in this journal article of Psychiatric (2004), shows that not all people agree with this idea others argue that no one chooses to be a drug addict or to develop heart disease (Pg 87).This implies that the people may choose behaviors that have undesirable effects unknowingly due to lack of personal responsibility and good character. They therefore argue that addiction is not like other composite diseases which requires a lot if attention from medical practitioners (Pg 90).

In the journal article of Volkow May Have Uncovered Answer to Addiction Riddle (2004), studies shows that people oppose the disease model and prefer life process model of addiction as they argue that labeling people as addicts make them not to develop self control but rather stigmatizes them (Pg 28).They further argue that the disease approach has not discovered any natural mechanisms that can be identified with the addiction behavior nor justify addiction as disease which is a great implication that addiction cannot be termed as a disease rather a habitual response that can be corrected by building social relationships(Pg 50). However the medical practitioners in this journal article argue that such definition is wrong since not all diseases require a mechanism to be identified which implies that addiction is a disease (Pg 52). In conclusion, addiction is a complex chronic disease like other diseases which can be treated hence should be seen as neither a moral failing nor a negative behavior.

Works cited

Psychiatric News: American Psychiatric Association; Volume 39, Number 11; Pg 32-90, (2004).

Clinical and Research News; Pg 15-30, (2004). Volkow May Have Uncovered Answer to Addiction Riddle; Pg 20-66.

Jim Rosack; Pg 22-28, (2004).

I am writing to you to express my concern about alcohol and drug addiction among adults and the unfortunate state of affairs in Baltimore. I look forward to your action to make a difference as soon as possible.

Let me remind you that when the state released its 2019 report on the amount of people who died from drug and alcohol addiction between January and June, the attention was on the fact that, after years of growing difficulties, the state is experiencing another reduction in drug overdoses. But while the state claims an 11 percent drop in opioid overdose deaths from the same period last year, a deeper look at the numbers reveals that the recovery is mainly in the Maryland suburbs, not in Baltimore, where authorities say most drugs are coming from in the region (Chen et.al.,2019). The use of such drugs as fentanyl, cocaine, and alcohol is one of Baltimore’s leading causes of death.

The number of deaths from these drugs can even be compared to the homicide rate in the region. Baltimore accounts for just under half of all fentanyl overdose deaths in the state, as the city accounted for 44 percent of all fentanyl deaths in Maryland from January to June 2019. While a lot of the violence in Baltimore is related to the drug trade, the drugs themselves killed at least 180 more people than homicides in the city as of 2019.

There is no secret that much of the drug trade in the region comes from Baltimore. Federal agents have arrested several alleged drug dealers in the past year, and an FBI special agent told an audience in Anne Arundel in 2017 that “99 percent of the heroin here comes from Baltimore” (Chen et.al.,2019). Drug and alcohol problems seem to have a significant impact on the city’s fire department. The Baltimore Behavioral Health System wrote in a grant application to expand crisis response services that “approximately 77% of ambulance calls are at least somewhat related to alcohol or drug use.”

The Baltimore City Health Department and government officials and the Center for Disease Control must work closely together to create and implement an action plan to combat the problem. Baltimore’s response to opioid addiction and overdose must rely on three key pillars: overdose prevention, access to treatment, and anti-stigma education.

Expanding access to naloxone, a life-saving opioid overdose reversal medicine that can prevent deaths from opioid drug poisoning, should be a significant priority of the opioid overdose prevention effort. On-demand treatment and long-term recovery services must be made more widely available. To integrate referral services with this gap in mind, the Department of Health and local partners in Baltimore should streamline existing resources and open a 24-hour phone line for patients, family members, and providers (Wen & Rawlings-Blake, 2016). The city should also be given capital funds to construct a “stabilization” facility.

From the following, the first step toward establishing a complete 24-hour community-based ambulance service for those with substance abuse and mental health issues. According to the health department and local partners, residents should be educated about addiction as a chronic condition and encouraged to seek treatment (Wen & Rawlings-Blake, 2016). The campaign could include establishing a website, using social and traditional media, and billboards throughout the city (Baltimore City Health Department, 2016). The city should put drug collection boxes at every police station to eliminate prescription drugs from homes and communities.

State and federal assistance are still required. Although more work, remains to be done, state and federal legislation have aided and strengthened several projects in Baltimore City, including the permanent ordering of naloxone. For example, the cost of various naloxone medications has climbed from 95% to >500% in recent years, limiting local governments ability to purchase the antidote for usage by paramedics and police officers (Gupta et al., 2016). Buprenorphine prescriptions could be made more accessible if the federal government takes action. At all levels of government, a concerted, multilateral effort will be required to implement these reforms.

The Baltimore City Health Department’s motto is that every resident can save a life and that we must save lives today to assure a brighter tomorrow. It is not only a moral argument; every dollar invested in addiction treatment programs saves an additional $4-7 in reduced criminal justice and community expenditures (Wen & Warren, 2018). Baltimore now aspires to be the nation’s recovery capital and a hub for cutting-edge opioid addiction treatment and overdose prevention. This would necessitate increased efforts to prevent inappropriate opioid prescribing in the acute and subacute settings and more comprehensive and prompter treatment of drug and alcohol addiction.

References

Wen L.S., Rawlings-Blake S. (2016) Baltimore Mayor’s Heroin Treatment & Prevention Task Force Report. Baltimore City Health Department. Web.

Q. Chen, M. R. Larochelle, D. T. Weaver, A. P. Lietz, P. P. Mueller, S. Mercaldo, S. E. Wakeman, K. A. Freedberg, T. J. Raphel, A. B. Knudsen, P. V. Pandharipande, and J. Chhatwal. (2019). Prevention of prescription opioid misuse and projected overdose deaths in the United States. JAMA network open, 2(2), e187621-e187621.

Baltimore City Health Department Public Health Officials Urge FDA to Issue Warnings for Dangerous Combination of Medications Amid Prescription Drug Overdose Crisis. (2016). Baltimore City Health Department. Web.

Gupta R, Shah ND, Ross JS. The Rising Price of Naloxone—Risks to Efforts to Stem Overdose Deaths. (2016). N Engl J Med, 375(23):2213–5

Wen, L. S., & Warren, K. E. (2018). Combatting the opioid epidemic: Baltimore’s experience and lessons learned. Journal of public health (Oxford, England), 40(2), pp.107–111. Web.

The problem of chemical dependency is one of the most severe threats to personal and public health. The uncontrollable urge to use endless doses of nicotine, opioids, or alcohol causes critical damage to physical health and adversely affects the psychological well-being of the individual. Among the factors listed, alcohol addiction is subject to special consideration, being one of the most dangerous types of disorders. To be more precise, by 2018, alcohol took the lives of more than 5,698 people, an increase of 7 percent over the exact figure in 2008 (NHS). At the same time, the UK is one of the most drinking countries, as the average number of liters of alcohol per person there was 11.45 in 2018, higher than in other developed countries (Ritchie and Roser, 2018). As a consequence, alcohol addiction is a significant national problem that causes severe health damage. This essay seeks to discuss this problem from a biological and social perspective.

In Jack’s proposed case, alcohol addiction is an obvious problem that threatens the man’s physical and mental health. According to the DSM-5, Jack already exhibits two patterns related to craving and tolerance. Tolerance expresses in ever-increasing amounts of intoxicating drinks, while craving describes a man’s inner desire to participate in parties and fights. Several unrelated factors may be predictors of Jack’s chronic alcoholism. First, although there is no reliable evidence, genetic heredity with a drinking father carries weight. Either epigenetic constructs or an upbringing with a constantly drinking father, or a combination of both, could have caused Jack to develop an alcohol disorder. Second, the man is under constant work stress, and alcohol has been known to allow people to forget and abstract from their problems. In addition, Jack has a rambunctious lifestyle and goes to wild parties, which in itself can become predictors of alcohol use. Finally, the ever-increasing quantity of drinks he ingests causes Jack to develop alcoholism, in which it takes more alcohol to achieve the euphoria of intoxication. Consequently, Jack finds himself in a vicious cycle in which he constantly has to drink more to get drunk. All of these factors can work together, which further aggravates Jack’s situation.

Behind the development of Jack’s alcohol addiction are not only social factors but also biological ones. Ethanol molecules block the ability of glutamate to conduct nerve impulses in the cerebral cortex. It should be said that glutamate, as a salt of glutamic acid, is one of the most important excitatory neurotransmitters. On the postsynaptic neuron, glutamate released from vesicles binds to NMDA receptors and activates them. This, in turn, leads to learning and memory activities. In addition, glutamate has synaptic plasticity, accelerating the transmission of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. As a result of prolonged alcohol consumption, the sensitivity of NMDA receptors is corrected by their increase: the cortex now needs more glutamate molecules. As a result of the receptors’ adaptation to alcohol, a man needs to consume more alcohol, which creates a cycle of alcohol dependence.

Alcohol dependence develops against this background, but this process is much more complex than decreased glutamine activity. The reinforcement system in the brain is linked to dopamine, one of the mediators. It is believed that increased activity of this substance is associated with states of satisfaction and anticipation. Prolonged ingestion of alcohol disrupts the reward system, causing dopaminergic neurons to produce dopamine regardless of the outcome of the procedure.

The consequences of this pathogenesis are not difficult to trace: they add up to physical and social problems. Biologically, as a result of impaired glutamine neurotransmitter activity, the patient has frequent memory lapses and learning problems. Hyperactivity of NMDA receptors during a hangover explains the patient’s irritability and the high risk of stroke. Continuous consumption of the toxin leads to damage of the walls of blood vessels and rapid deterioration of the heart muscle and the blood-filtering liver. As a result, cirrhosis, heart attack, stroke, and cancer are common among alcoholics, as shown in Section 4 in Week 6. Problems also affect the family: The drunken aggressor damages the emotional well-being of loved ones, commits domestic violence and suppresses the harmonious development of relatives. Alcohol also increases the crime rate in the country (AC, 2021). As a consequence, this addiction has a spectrum of detrimental effects on the patient, family, and community.

In conclusion, alcohol addiction is an extreme irritant that exacerbates health and psychological well-being problems. There is no one-size-fits-all treatment for alcoholism: some patients seek mental support while others use medication. Working in anonymous groups, mentoring, and working through trauma with a psychologist can help. In addition, taking acetaldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitors allows to break the cycle of alcohol addiction and eventually cure the patient completely.

Reference List

AC (2020) Alcohol, crime and disorder.

NHS (2020) Statistics on alcohol, England 2020.

Ritchie, H. and Roser, M. (2018) Alcohol consumption.

To begin with, substance addiction is not a specific disease that might be cured either medically or therapeutically. On the contrary, a sophisticated holistic approach should be provided, depending not only on the type of substance but also on personal characteristics. In this case, both biology and sociology play a significant role in affecting the person to start or quit substance addiction.

One of the most influential sides of drug addiction is social characteristics that affect drugs’ personal relations. This is because people are supposed to live in society, and the intimate communication environment usually influences our behavioral type, which is the most important, set the fundamentals of our values. Consequently, when investigating drug addiction causes and outcomes, it is crucial to start with the determination of the type of individual’s society and the values that its representatives settle. More specifically, this process might be done by defining the characteristics of dangerous society, determining the policies that engage such process or prevents it, and approaches that neutralize the negative social influence on the individual. As a result, three steps should be provided to analyze the social facet of drug addiction fully. More specifically, it is critical to determine the society, its interaction process with the individual, what factors or policies influenced them to engage in the society, and how to neutralize its impact on the person.

Defining the “Hazardous” Society

While some individuals consider the social side of being drug-addicted, they do not fully understand the significance of avoiding a dangerous circle of communication. This is due to the fact that a person cannot fully understand the self-influence of those who give them, mostly unintentionally, set the example of drug relations. However, many scientists attributed to institutional theory state that society has the most significant impact on personal success and failure, directly related to the observed subject. When it comes to drug addiction, most drug addicts do not start taking substances alone. On the contrary, the drug-taking process is usually involved in youth gatherings, where the risk of being involved in substance abuse is enormously high owing to the absence of “stop” signals: adults, relatives, or authorized representatives. As a result, the individual might become a drug addict depending on the type of substance and the amount consumed.

To determine the dangerous type of society, it is critical to emphasize certain characteristics that, in most cases, remain the same. For instance, the group’s prevalence of people with no life objective might be the first sign of danger. Secondly, gatherings in private places (apartments or city outskirts), instead of public ones, such as cinema or city center, can also indicate the possible danger of the group (Hasam et al., 2017). Last but not least, some clear signs of the hazardous group, such as criminal reputation or social inadequacy, should not be neglected to help in detecting the society with a high risk of drug addiction.

How Does the Society Influence Drug Abuse and Addiction? What Should We Consider When Analyzing the Drug Addicts?

Even though the determination of the hazardous society is important for analyzing the social facet of drug addiction, it is crucial to fundamentally understand the society’s influential factors of engaging a person in drug addiction. On the one hand, society’s “standards” and values determine personal recognition in certain groups. More specifically, if substance abuse is highly valued in society, those who take the biggest number of drugs have a strong reputation in the group. As a result, when the person does not share and appreciate common values, they become ostracized by the circle of communication, and this risk creates an incentive to adjust the personal valuation system to the group’s one. On the other hand, it is crucial to assess the individual’s portrait characteristics since some personalities are strong enough to resist society’s pressure and implement another system of values. When the person is psychologically healthy and does not experience social pressure from relatives, they might easily neutralize the dangerous influence of a certain group. On the contrary, if the individual cannot resist the group’s force due to psychological or family issues, society will have a “carte blanche” seduce the individual to take drugs.

Institutional Policies that Prevent or Encourage Drug Addiction

Local and government authorities who establish the rules of behavior in society play a pivotal role in preventing drug addiction in case of efficient institutional functioning or engaging people, especially young adults, to be influenced by substances. One of the most important notions is that the poverty level does not directly affect the presence of a drug-addiction society (Hasam et al., 2017). However, the interaction of different social classes determines the attractiveness of substance-addicted companies’ expansion (Taylor et al., 2016). When the city is not socially divided into other parts, especially in “poverty quarters,” then the public schools and higher education institutions are normally distributed between people in need of money and “middle” or “high” social classes (Contreras et al., 2019). On the contrary, if the poverty neighborhood is consistently neglected, this provides strong incentives to engage family representatives in the drug distribution process, which might create not only the drug-addiction expanding tendency but also form the dangerous society of drug addicts that might influence other individuals, especially in educational institutions.

Secondly, local authorities should consider the amount of money spent on the patrol police and the efficiency of their observes and investigations. Even though the presence of the police does not eliminate the drug distribution, when the patrolling is insufficient, the expanding tendency of drug-addict groups cannot be stopped by other measures, such as education and social work. On the other hand, while those related to drugs consider the higher benefit to risk ratio, the drug distribution becomes a complicated process that increases the cost of substance selling. As a result, implementing effective police work in the society combined with supporting poverty households will lead to higher pressure on drug distributors and their agents so that drug-addicted societies’ expansion will slow to the normal or even inferior level. In this case, the social impact on drug addiction will be decreased, significantly influencing the prevention of substance addiction.

How a Person Can Quit the “Wrong” Society

When the person did not succeed in defining the hazardous society or not entering in it, there are still some possible approaches to decrease the dangerous influence or even quit a certain group. For instance, the individual should start the process by sharing the issue with the family relatives. They might resolve the problem in different ways, such as changing the place of living or providing the therapy course from professional medicines depending on the seriousness of the addiction level. Thereafter, the person should realize the problem for themselves since “telling the truth” to oneself is easier when the closest people know about the issue. By doing this, the individual neutralizes society’s negative influence on drug addiction development. Finally, some special work should be done to prepare the person to quit the group since it is impossible to leave the drug addiction group by cutting the communication process. The individual should have the determined wish of quitting the group and a sufficient amount of patience to transmit this opinion to the group to decrease the risk of further social influence that will negatively impact personal well-being.

References

Contreras, C., & Hipp, J. R. (2019). Drugs, Crime, Space, and Time: A Spatiotemporal Examination of Drug Activity and Crime Rates.Justice Quarterly, 37(2), 187–209.

Hasam, A., & Mushahid, M. (2017). Drug Addiction in Urban Life of Bangladesh: A Sociological Study for Exploring theCauses.Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 5(2), 1–11.

Taylor, S., Buchanan, J., & Ayres, T. (2016). Prohibition, privilege and the drug apartheid: The failure of drug policy reform to address the underlying fallacies of drug prohibition.Criminology & Criminal Justice, 16(4), 452–469.