Category: Addiction

Introduction

Hallucinogens introduce a group of drugs that can change people’s awareness, perception, and cognitive function using provoking memory impairment. They cause hallucinations or images that seem to be real, but they are not. First effects are observed within 20-90 minutes and can last from 10 minutes to 12 hours. In this paper, the history, classes, and work of hallucinogens, as well as their use in treatment, addiction, differences, and future research opportunities, will be discussed to understand these substances’ medical and therapeutic worth.

History

The history of hallucinogens’ use began a thousand years ago when the representatives of old cultures created ceremonies and rituals. For example, a small pouch with three fox snouts was found during an archaeological dig in Cueva del Chileno, proving the use of ayahuasca by the Amazonian people. Ancient inhabitants found it necessary to use plant-made substances to provoke detachments and visions that were regarded as mystical or spiritual insights for the population to deal with their uncertainties, be guided by supreme powers, or control some unpredictable events.

Classes

There are several options to classify hallucinogens, and each of them has enough evidence for existence. For example, the National Institute on Drug Abuse introduces two major categories of hallucinogens: classic and dissociative. In other studies, four subclasses are identified, including psychedelics, entactogens, dissociatives, and atypical. Psychedelics, in their turn, may be divided into anticholinergic, catecholamine-like, serotonin-like, glutamatergic receptor antagonists, and opioid receptor agonists. All these classifications and divisions depend on pharmacological mechanisms of action and the chemical structures of hallucinogens.

Structure

In the majority of cases, the structure of hallucinogens is similar to serotonin, a well-known human neurotransmitter. These substances contain nitrogen and a list of chemicals, depending on the type. For example, D-lysergic acid diethylamide is a strong chemical that belongs to an indolamine group. It is characterized by active combinations of 5-hydroxytryptophan, N, N-dimethyltryptamine or B, N-dimethyltryptamine, 4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine, dextromethorphan, and Mu or Kappa opioid receptors. These combinations may not share the same mechanisms of action, but many hallucinogens are structurally related, which provoke similar effects on brain receptors at the molecular level.

Molecular Level

Each type of hallucinogen may have a specific impact on the work of the human brain depending on its compounds and the results of contemporary research. However, in general, at the molecular level, hallucinogens perform the function of an agonist at the serotonergic 5-HT2AR receptor. In the brain, molecules interact with a single brain receptor, serotonin, in their own specific ways. The receptor accommodates the shape of the molecule and activates along with the neuron. In some cases, receptors are cleared by hallucinogens’ molecules, and sometimes, the destruction of the receptor is observed blocking hallucinogen molecules and preventing them from clearing.

Addiction and Treatment

Today, many young people try hallucinogens at their school-age just for fun or the desire to experience something new and undiscovered. However, it is necessary to remember that the use of hallucinogens has a number of serious side effects, including addiction. At this moment, there are no specifically FDA-approved medications to treat this type of addiction, and scientists need more time and space to research this field. Increased heart rate, blood pressure, agitation, body temperature, and impulsive behaviors are the main signs of hallucinogen intoxication. The desire and a burning need to repeat the same actions are the characteristics of addiction. An individual has to be treated, and behavioral therapy is one of the options. It includes a safe environment, communication, and regular observations to identify and treat co-occurring disorders like depression, anxiety, or sleeping problems.

Hallucinogens vs. Psychogenic

In their intentions to understand better the peculiarities of hallucinogens, much attention is paid to such concepts as hallucinogenic and psychogenic. Compared to hallucinogens, the drugs that cause hallucinations and sensations of unreal images that seem to be real, psychogenic may have a number of additional effects on people, including depressant and stimulant properties. For example, marijuana or cannabis is a psychogenic drug but cannot be classified only as a hallucinogen due to its qualities and the possibility to impair the central nervous system.

Hallucination, Psycho and Schizophrenia

In some cases, people are confused with the presence of such terms as hallucinations and psychosis. It is recommended to understand the differences between the situations when people suffer from schizophrenia, psychosis, and hallucinations. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that influences the way how a person thinks, behaves, and thinks and provokes losing touch with reality because of the problems with neurotransmitters and other brain chemicals. Psychosis is one of the possible signs of schizophrenia, as well as a condition that has the same causes and characteristics. In both cases, hallucinations are the symptoms that can be visual, auditory, tactile, or olfactory.

Findings for Therapeutic and Medical Uses of Hallucinogens

Despite the intentions to find out some therapeutic benefits of hallucinogens, it is important to underline that the representatives of the FDA do not support the idea of using these substances in treatment. Recent findings show that LSD and serotonin hallucinogens could be proved safe in case they are used at low doses and controlled by high-quality experts in specific clinical settings. In some situations, LSD and ketamine (as a legal drug) result in considerable reductions of anxiety and depression in patients and improve the quality of life. However, it is still recommended to search for other options to treat mental health problems.

Psilocybin and Hallucinogens

Psilocybin is a well-known chemical compound that can be produced by fungi, also known as psilocybin mushrooms. It is illegal in almost all countries, including the United States, and it has a direct link to hallucinogens because one of the outcomes of these mushrooms, as well as other products that contain this compound, is a hallucination. However, in some civilizations, these magic mushrooms help to deal with the headache and many obsessive-compulsive disorders.

Future Research Opportunities

In the future, the use of hallucinogens is expected to be thoroughly studied. Despite the intentions to prohibit these substances, many civilizations continue using them in different forms in order to find answers, solve problems, and improve the quality of life. Further research opportunities should include a comparison between the benefits and threats of hallucinogens through the prism of the quality of life and its health-related outcomes.

Conclusion

In total, much time and research efforts were spent to understand the therapeutic worth of hallucinogens. Their classification, work at the molecular level, and structure varies because of the chemical compounds discovered. However, many areas remain poorly investigated in the chosen field, and new opportunities have to be made to clarify the advantages and disadvantages of hallucinations caused by such substances as LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, or DMT.

One of the most tragic things about people, who are addicted to alcohol, is that they are rarely viewed as the victims of a disease. Moreover, the very phenomenon of alcoholism is practically never considered as a disease by most people, which is very wrong. Alcoholism is a malady, which eats at people, and denying the mere fact of its presence is most likely to lead to drastic effects.

Every single case of alcoholic dependence described in the lecture is perfectly consistent with the existing model, each piece of evidence falling into its place and, therefore, allowing the audience to have an entire picture of the problem that a drinking person is trapped in. For example, the narrator mentions the issues that a school student may have with drinking.

No matter how shocking such a discovery may seem to the society, people must acknowledge the fact that teenager drinking exists; the sooner parents realize the threat that their children may appear under, the more efficient the preventive measures will be. In the case described by Tack, a complete lack of motivation in studying and the following academic regression, which he was under, are quite characteristic of a typical alcoholic dependence.

The family issue, which Maria brought up, is also an essential aspect of alcoholic dependence analysis. While a range of researchers agree that family background does not define one’s addiction to alcohol, it will still be unreasonable to argue that a child, having their parents as the key role models, will assume that drinking is a natural and essential part of existence.

True, after growing old enough to be able to evaluate the actions of their parents critically, a child will be able to realize that drinking is, in fact, a very harmful habit and a part of self-destructive behavior.

However, it is still highly doubtful that, with a family record, which includes several years of having a consistent example of drinking as a natural habit to develop, a child will refuse from engaging in drinking. After all, teenage binge drinking (TBD), which often leads to further development of alcoholism in the future, is a notorious issue among present-day young people.

Ore to the point, one must also admit that addiction to alcohol may also emerge on a genetic level; in other words, with at least one family member having a drinking record, the possibility of the child to develop a similar problem in the future is dangerously high.

What is even more upsetting, the feeling of being trapped, which one of the participants of the conversation refers to in order to describe her teenager experience of addiction to alcohol, is devastating; with no outside help, a teenager may reach the level of being desperate, where they may think of suicide as the only possible way out.

Though a topic for a separate discussion, suicidal thoughts are very typical of the people, who suffer from alcoholism. The lack of motivation and the disbelief in one’s own ability to fight the malady lead to denying having a problem and, therefore, the further deterioration of health.

Alcoholism is one of the topics that need more discussion. Unfortunately, in modern society, addiction to alcohol remains among the subjects that people do not know how to tackle; as a result, the victims of the disease either remain helpless.

In the worst case scenario, an alcohol addict concludes that they are a burden on people. Also, it seems that awareness concerning the issue must be raised in contemporary society. Once the problem is recognized and the harmful stereotypes are defeated, better methods of both fighting and preventing alcoholism will be found.

The given case study is about an individual who has an alcohol addiction. The main cause of alcoholism is deeply rooted in dysfunctional mother and daughter relationship. Social damage from alcoholism is enormous because families break up, crime grows, life expectancy decreases, and the intellectual level of society declines. Jane’s alcoholism problem is directly caused by her family issues.

The referral should be made, where Jane could express her thought and understand the causes of her addiction. Jane’s primary problem is her alcohol addiction due to high levels of consumption (Perkinson 134). Children of alcoholics have reduced mental potential, suffer from various diseases of the central nervous system, which ultimately inhibits the normal development of society as a whole (Galanter et al. 298). Alcohol use is a mass phenomenon associated with such social categories as traditions and customs, on the one hand, and public opinion and fashion, on the other. Also, alcohol consumption is linked with the psychological characteristics of the individual.

The given case study is a typical occurrence when a person begins to overconsume alcoholic drinks as a solution for the underlying issues. Jane’s physical changes are minor, because her alcoholism lasts not long enough to cause a significant amount of damage. However, the behavioral shifts are present, such as social isolation and difficulty in communication. The issues are the result of depression, and alcoholism make the problem more severe. The main point is that personality disorders caused by alcohol addiction disrupt the socio-psychological patterns of adaptation (Galanter et al. 312). This leads to the fact that maladaptive personal properties are fixed, because of the specific social and socio-psychological conditions that provoke alcohol consumption.

The correct referral method for Jane Roberts is transferring her to Alcoholics Anonymous because it will allow her to open up and have social interaction. Currently, the problem of psychological assistance to people with substance dependence and their close ones retains its importance (Perkinson 142). The researchers note that mental health disorders and distortions in personal development are detected not only in individuals with manifestations of alcohol dependence but also in their family members, in particular, their marriage partners (Perkinson 121). A person dependent on psychoactive substances inevitably forms around him or her a complex of pathological, inadequate, painful relationships leading to various disturbances in the family environment at personal and social levels.

In conclusion, the case study of Jane Roberts is about her dysfunctional relationship with her mother, which led to alcoholism. Family codependency is defined as a violation of mental health and personal development, formed as a result of prolonged exposure to stress as well as a full concentration on the problems of another family member. The psychological content of codependency is evidence of the uniqueness of health disorders and personal functioning of a family member as compared with alcohol-related disorders.

Questions

1. Can you skip consuming alcohol or Valium for one day?
2. Have you ever experienced losses in memory and black outs?
3. How are your social interactions are influenced by Valium and alcohol?
4. Did you experience severe symptoms of withdrawal?
5. Have you ever risked your freedom and safety to acquire the substances?
6. Are you a social drinker or do you prefer loneliness?
7. Which one the substances do you prefer when you are depressed and angry?
8. Did your daily dose of alcohol increased since you started?
9. What part of a day do you consume the substances?
10. What attempts did you make to give up the substances?

The rationale for these questions is that they identify severity of an addiction, and gather information, which will be useful during the treatment procedures. Open-ended questions allow interviewees to have freedom of answers, whereas yes/no type of survey are limiting.

Works Cited

Galanter, Marc, et al. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of substance abuse treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Perkinson, Robert R. Chemical Dependency Counseling: A Practical Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Purpose

Illicit drug abuse is a condition that causes multiple adverse events among different populations. Early detection of the problem can support timely intervention and improve patient outcomes. The purpose of the present paper is to conduct a review of the 10-item yes/no Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10) to evaluate its benefits and limitations.

Reliability and Validity

DAST-10 is a questionnaire that is designed for the case detection of drug use disorders. The assessment tool is known for its high reliability and validity proven by multiple research. According to Villalobos-Gallegos et al., DAST-10 has been evaluated in various clinical and hospital environment with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from.86 to.94 (90). The test-retest reliability, as cited by Villalobos-Gallegos et al., is between.71 and.90 (90). Lam et al. also report high criterion, concurrent, and face validity of the test (3). Lam et al. suggest that high face validity may be a problem, since responders may give false answers about the history of drug use (Lam et al. 8). However, it can be stated that the addiction assessment tool is a reliable method to evaluate the addiction level.

Other Characteristics

DAST-10 is an easy-to-conduct test due to its time and cost efficiency and the lack of any special considerations. The questionnaire collects yes/no answers to 10 questions concerning the use of drugs. Every item can be accounted for a maximum of one point, and any score of 3 and above highly suggests an addiction problem. The test takes no longer than 5 minutes, and it is available for free for organizational or personal use. The test does not require the use of any special equipment, and assessors do not need to have any additional training for conducting or evaluating the test. In short, DAST-10 is a basic tool available for all addictions professionals to evaluate drug addiction.

Benefits and Limitations

The primary benefit of the tool is its simplicity and low cost. Since the items included in the questionnaire are yes/no questions with “yes” corresponding to one point and “no” standing for zero points, the results are easy to count and assess. The evaluation of the results takes less than two minutes. However, in most cases, they provide limited information about the problem. DAST-10 is very effective for primary diagnosis and cannot be used for an in-depth evaluation of a client’s condition (Villalobos-Gallegos et al. 93). Another limitation of the test is that it only allows evaluation of drug misuse. If a person needs to be tested for alcohol abuse, another screening, such as Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) should be used. Despite its drawbacks, DAST-10 is a useful instrument for detecting drug abuse.

Overall Utility of the Test in an Addictions Assessment

As stated above, DAST-10 is utilized as a basic screening tool for drug abuse detection. According to Villalobos-Gallegos, the test may be used in various settings, including inpatients substance abusers, psychiatric patients, and burnt patients (90). Since drug abuse is associated with numerous comorbid conditions and various adverse events, DAST-10 can be used to diagnose the problem and design timely interventions to improve patient outcomes. In addiction assessment practice, the tool may be used only to detect if a person demonstrates any signs of drug misuse. However, the test neither can be used for the evaluation of comorbid conditions, nor it provides significant evidence on the severity of the abuse. Therefore, the tool finds only limited use among addiction specialists.

Works Cited

Lam, Lap Po et al. “Validation of the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10): A Study on Illicit Drug Use among Chinese Pregnant Women.” Scientific Reports, vol. 5, no. 1, 2015, pp. 1-11. Web.

Villalobos-Gallegos, Lois et al. “Psychometric and Diagnostic Properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST): Comparing the DAST-20 vs. the DAST-10.” Salud Mental, vol. 38, no. 2, 2015, pp. 89-94.

The situation with Angela requires the use of addiction assessment tools. The client has several interlocking conditions, and a clinical assessment tool may lead to confusion since it is likely to accumulate much raw data that will need interpretation. Additionally, clinical assessment tools provide information with the focus on the physical condition of the patient, which seem irrelevant in the situation. While such tools are appropriate for the diagnosis of comorbid conditions, the primary goal in the described scenario is to confirm or disprove Terrance’s supposition about Angela’s substance abuse (Samet et al. 20). Therefore, the use of addiction assessment tools is imperative in this situation.

Terrance is to use two assessment tools: the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10) and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). DAST-10 is a ten-item yes/no questionnaire that evaluates a client’s involvement with drugs, not including alcoholic beverages (“Drug Use Questionnaire” 4). Since the screening tool does not provide any insight on alcohol misuse, it is to be complemented with an additional source of information. AUDIT is a simple way to screen and identify people at risk of alcohol problems (“Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test” 1). It includes ten multiple choice questions and a score over eight signal about harmful drinking behavior. The two tools described above are optimal to help Terrance in the scenario.

Even though SAMSHA offers numerous substance abuse screening tests, the combination of these tools seems to be the most effective due to their simplicity, cost efficiency, and the amount of time they take to complete and evaluate. According to Rockne et al., the combination of these two tools allows to identify substance abuse disorder and provide timely intervention for at-risk patients (1187). Additionally, DAST-10 and AUDIT utilization “may reduce future medical disorders and hospitalizations associated with problematic substance use” (Rockne et al. 1188). In short, Terrance is recommended to use these two tools for a quick and low-cost assessment of Angela’s possible drug abuse problem.

Works Cited

“Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test.” SAMHSA-HRSA Center of Integrated Health Solutions, Web.

“Drug Use Questionnaire.” SAMHSA-HRSA Center of Integrated Health Solutions, Web.

Samet, Sharon, et al. “Assessing Addiction: Concepts and Instruments.”Addiction Science & Clinical Practice, vol. 4, no. 1, 2007, pp. 19-31, Web.

Rockne, Wendy Y. et al. “Identification of Substance Use Disorders in Burn Patients Using Simple Diagnostic Screening Tools (AUDIT/DAST-10).” Burns, vol. 45, no. 5, 2019, pp. 1182-1188. Web.

Steps of Addictions Assessment

Even though ideally, information about the client is to be continuously collected and revised, there are twelve traditional addictions assessment processes. These twelve steps are suggested by Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2013) and should be used by all addictions professionals in the US as guidelines. The first step is engaging the client, which is crucial for establishing contact. The second stage is identifying and contacting friends and family members to gather additional information. After that therapists are to start screening to detect co-occurring disorders (COD), such as mental problems or traumas. The fourth step is determining the quadrant and locus of responsibility by identifying the severity of psychiatric and substance use disorders. The fifth stage is evaluating the level of required care by considering six dimensions of assessment. This endeavor is crucial for using adequate resources for the best patient outcome. The sixth step is making a diagnosis, which is essential for elaborating a treatment plan. The first four stages are designed to assist in making the correct diagnosis and determining the level of care to ensure further rehabilitation of the client.

The following five steps lead to the final phase of planning treatment. The seventh step is determining disabilities and functional impairment, which “contributes to the identification of the need for case management and/or higher levels of support” (SAMHSA, 2013, p. 89). During the eighth stage, addictions professionals should identify strengths and supports of their patient since it provides a positive approach to treatment. The ninth step allows therapists to assess any particular cultural or linguistic needs to overcome cultural or language barriers if there are any. The tenth step is identifying problem domains, such as legal, vocational, or social issues. This stage helps to appreciate how COD affects a patient’s life. The eleventh step is evaluating the stage of change by reviewing all the disorders separately. This endeavor helps to understand the focus of future treatment. The final step is elaborating an optimal treatment plan to ensure a patient’s rehabilitation. Even though the twelve steps described above take much time to go through, they are crucial to improving patient outcomes.

Multidisciplinary Assessment Teams

Addictions are often accompanied by other issues, such as physical traumas and mental problems. Therefore, a multidisciplinary team is suggested to be used for assessing and treating addictions (SAMHSA, 2013). Goodman, Milliken, Theiler, Nordstrom, and Akerman (2015) describe a case of a pregnant woman suffering from opioid withdrawal and the consequences of an abusive relationship. Apart from addiction problems, she had a history of pregnancy loss, childhood sexual trauma, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A multidisciplinary team, consisting of addiction specialists, a psychiatrist, a social worker, a physician, and an obstetrician, was involved to ensure the best patient outcome.

All the members of the team made their contribution to the assessment of the patient’s condition. The physician evaluated her physical state and made sure there were no traumas from being hit by the patient’s significant other. The psychiatrist attended to the PTSD and mental issues of the patient and elaborated a treatment plan for this aspect. The obstetrician evaluated the baby’s condition and made suggestions on how to minimize harm to the fetus. The social worker assessed the implications of the patient’s homelessness and assisted in finding a place to stay. Finally, the addictions professional determined the change stage and proposed a treatment plan for opioid dependency. In short, the multidisciplinary team was effectively coordinated to help the patient recover from a complex condition.

References

Goodman, D., Milliken, C., Theiler, R., Nordstrom, B., & Akerman, S. (2015). A multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of co-occurring opioid use disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in pregnancy: A case report. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 11(3-4), 248-257. Web.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2013). Substance abuse treatment for persons with co-occurring disorders. Web.

Introduction

Addiction to opium is a problem in the modern society despite all attempts to legalize the use of this drug in some countries. It is a problem because the use of this narcotic means not only the pure addiction, it results in various diseases ranging from problems with berthing and disfunction of lungs work up to heart attacks. There is evidence given by some scholars that the use of opium leads to the cases of oesophagus and bladder cancer.

Description of opium-addict

Opium itself is a narcotic substance produced from the seed of opiate poppies. It is used in medicine due to its analgetic properties and this is the only sphere of the legal use of this drug. Another way of its usage is the production of heroine which is unlawful throughout the world. The use of opium leads to strong addiction, causes withdrawal pains and often becomes the reason of serious diseases. The traffic of opium became unlawful only at the beginning of the 20^th century when the scientists discovered the real properties of this drug and found out that it causes addiction. Till that time opium brought serious profit to the budgets of many countries, especially Great Britain, because opium trade was one of the leading branches of the economy.

It was at that time when Thomas De Quincey wrote his famous book “Confessions of an English Opium Eater” (1822). The book, which is autobiographical, reveals in detail the experiences of the author after using opium. It describes vividly uncontrollable urges and withdrawal-caused nightmares, ranging from the euphoric to the disturbing.

Finishing the book De Quincey can not control his visions, they become realer and realer. The author himself was an opium-addict who tried opium for the first time at the age of nineteen while studying in Worcester College in Oxford (De Quincey, 1985). Since that time he never gave up the addiction and consumed opium till the end of his life. In this essay we are going to examine the causes and effects of opium, and the book by Thomas De Quincey will provide us with a plenty of examples of the states the opium use can lead to.

In most cases people start taking opium in order to get rid of this or that kind of pain which can not be overcome or treated by any other means. De Quincey’s experience started as an attempt to eliminate the pain he could not stand any more. “…I awoke with excruciating rheumatic pains of the head and face, from which I had hardly any respite for about twenty days… By accident I met a college acquaintance who recommended opium.” (De Quincey, 1985).

At first people do not notice any harmful effect of “the celestial drug” (De Quincey, 1985) as it brings them relief and they forget about everything: “…oh! Heavens! What a revulsion! What an upheaving, from its lowest depths, of the inner spirit! What an apocalypse of the world within me! That my pains had vanished, was now a trifle in my eyes…” (De Quincey, 1985). From here derives another cause why people start taking opium with no fear – they either do not know about its harmful effects or ignore the accessible warning information. Asking themselves how the substance bringing such pleasure can be harmful these people do not pay attention to the scientific researches which prove that opium really destructs the organism.

The author of the above mentioned “Confessions of an English Opium Eater” also denies any negative sides of opium influence saying “that no quantity of opium ever did, or could intoxicate” (De Quincey, 1985). The effect of this wrong belief is that people can not understand why they get this or that disease and think that it is something that ca not be explained. But the people who understand the situation realize quickly that all serious illnesses of opium-addicts are caused by the use of this drug.

Effect from opium

One more effect the opium use usually has upon the addicts consists in permanent terrible visions which follow each taking of the narcotic. With the flow of time and with the gradual increase of the dose the visions become realer and more and more horrible giving the addicts no chances to get rid of them. De Quincey describes one of the visions in the following words: “Some of them… represented vast Gothic halls: on the floor of which stood all sorts of engines and machinery… expressive of enormous power put forth, and resistance overcome.

Creeping along the sides of the walls, you perceived a staircase; and upon it, groping his way upwards, was Piranesi himself: follow the stairs a little further, and you perceive it come to a sudden abrupt termination, without any balustrade, and allowing no step onwards to him who had reached the extremity, except into the depths below.” (De Quincey, 1985).

Conclusion

All this causes and effects of opium-addiction could not be understood by Thomas De Quincey and the people of his epoch because the science was on a lower stage of its development and did not allow people to know the real state of things. Nowadays the situation is different – everything is known about opium and its effects but the problem of addiction still exists despite all the grievous examples that the history of the mankind constantly gives since the time when opium was discovered by the man.

Today’s world tends to legalize the use of opium which is not a wise step, I believe. Opium has dual effect – it brings pleasure and temporary relief from pain but at the same time causes illnesses and destroys the organism, and it is this side of its influence that stays permanently. The lines by Thomas De Quincey illustrate perfectly the essence of opium use: “Opium! Dread agent of unimaginable pleasure and pain!” (De Quincey, 1985). But let us not try to find out their truthfulness, because there are a lot of other things to be tested in this life.

Works Cited

De Quincey, Thomas. Confessions of an English Opium-Eater and Other Writings. Ed. Grevel Lindop. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.

Alcoholics Anonymous is an organization based on mutual help that has around 1 million members not just in the United States, but in other countries. This organization claims that it has great effect in terms of fostering and maintaining recovery in alcoholics. It is known, that the general population is skeptical towards understanding this organization’s nature and how it can have any effect on the problem. The main principle of the psychological treatment is the 12-step program, which has also been adapted for treating various other addictions: smoking, gambling, eating, and sex.

Mankind possesses a huge experience of alcohol abuse. For many centuries, even when people drank only wine, the detrimental influence of alcohol on the individual psyche, as well as on the morally ethical condition of the society was noted. In the past and present artistic and medical literature, and also in today’s movies the condition of alcoholic intoxication was made equivalent to madness.

Concerning alcoholic addicts, different measures were taken. They were sometimes pretty cruel: the drinkers were expatriated from communities, and subjected to various bodily punishments, or even death. These harsh measures were used by the society in order to protect itself from dissemination of alcoholism that had a tendency to disrupt all rational interpersonal relations. Emphatically, such cruel measures were given up for much more humane methods of battling alcoholism, as approximately in the middle of the 19^th century it was for the first time addressed as a medical condition, which implied that different medical treatment methods were needed in order to fight this disease. However the implemented measures did not bring to desired results yet, as the dissemination of alcoholism is not decreasing, but has a tendency to rise. This can be observed from the number of alcoholic patients who have appealed to substance abuse professionals and psychiatrists in order to seek medical assistance. Besides, the majority of alcoholics do not turn for professional help. This fact is associated with high permissiveness of society towards this problem, as well as negative attitude of the population towards alcoholic therapists. Nevertheless it is quite difficult to distinguish alcoholism as a disease from ordinary inebriety.

Alcohol is an easily acquired by almost anybody. It is used by two out of three Americans over 18 year of age. This number adds up to about 120 million, and most of them believe that their right to drinking is as inherent as the right to life, pursuit of happiness, and liberty. Many Americans are being encouraged to drink, as a lot of business depends on selling of alcohol. It is estimated by the National Institute of Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, that 7 million of Americans abuse alcohol regularly, and 11 million have a physical dependence. Generally, most alcoholics who participate in Alcoholics Anonymous have had plenty of experience with the use of alcohol that negatively impacted their ability to maintain adequate relations with families, employers, and the legal system. It is largely true that most of these people thought that loss of control was one of their primary problems. Loss of control and the unmanageability of their lives caused a great deal of suffering. Another thing is that they continued to deny that they were alcoholics in the face of massive evidence to the contrary.

During the Alcoholics Anonymous meeting that I have attended I understood that this treatment approach is appealing only to those individuals, who are very concerned by their relationship with alcohol. According to the words of the instructor, for each person who has recovered, 19 other alcoholics have not considered or simply rejected participating in the program, despite their problematic drinking. During and after the meeting it became clear that this organization views alcohol dependence and recovery from it as a cultural, rather than solely individualized personal phenomenon.

I believe that in order to turn to Alcoholics Anonymous for help, and succeed in fighting ones dependence, one has to be interested in what is happening around oneself. As most alcoholics are having negative influence primarily on the people who are close to them – members of the family and friends some of them might feel concerned about their adverse effect and turn for assistance to such organization. In order to do well in the group of Alcoholics Anonymous, it is better if the individual is talkative and open to conversations, as the main way of psychological therapy is telling stories about their alcohol abuse, discussing situations and factors that might induce their alcoholism, and finding ways of avoiding these situations in order to stop drinking. Very important quality required for succeeding in this group is comparing own experiences and opinions with others, as this is the main concept of group therapy. Action and initiative is required in order to bring the tendency to abuse alcohol to a stop, therefore the successful participants must be active. Making new friends is also essential to adapting to a new group, just as freely stating what one thinks. Interest in new people plays a vital role of motivating alcoholics to participate in Alcoholics Anonymous as it will increase the mutual enthusiasm and help quit drinking.

In view of the above it is clear, that extrovert types of individuals are more likely to seek help from this organization, as the above qualities characterize this type of personality. After they acknowledge their problem and find its roots, their ability to easily break relations that are unwanted might help them in breaking up with old friends that might have been persuading them to drink. On the other hand, if extroverts are directed towards the world that is objective, introverts are much more inclined to the subjective one. They are have no interest in what is happening around them and what trouble thy might be causing. In fact, they are more interested in own feelings and thoughts. Instead of being open and talkative like the extraverts, these individuals need to have their own territory. Their tendency to always be quiet, thoughtful, and reserved is an obstacle in the way of admitting their problem to the other group participants, and attempt solving the issue of alcohol abuse together. These qualities result in introverts not having many friends, and having difficulties with creating new ones. Thus, they will have difficulties adapting to the new group, and the group therapy might not have much effect on them due to their closedness and communications gap. Their preference of concentration and quiet, as well as working alone shall not make the group of various individuals, each suffering with own problems a very pleasant environment. A psychological population-based study was carried out, examining tendencies of adolescent affiliation to Alcoholics Anonymous, and it concluded that among adolescents, extroverts were most likely to turn for help to this organization (Hohman & Lecroy, 1996).

The meeting of Alcoholics Anonymous appeared to be making an emphasis on alcoholism’s spiritual dimensions, which at first made an off-putting impression. I believe that this fact can make many cases unsuccessful in their recovery from alcoholic dependence, as for many people cannot tolerate believing in some “higher power” or importance of “total psychic change”. There are many more alcoholic dependant individuals who are living in constant emotional pain and who disagree to participate in this program due to their religious orientation. These people require some solution to their issue, and this rejection of the offered assistance is a very tragic occurrence. However I believe that these people are misunderstanding the main concept of the program, which as I later on understood was the most attractive to me. The instructor had pointed out that Alcoholics Anonymous is not a religious program. This fact is clear, according to its traditions, as it dos not want to be associated with any type of sect, institution, organization, or politics. The aforementioned is one of strong sides of Alcoholics Anonymous and can be considered one of the reasons of this program’s success. The newcomers to this organization do not know what they should believe in. The members insist that they find something outside themselves in which to believe, the emphasis is being made on “God, as we understand him.” These people must find something that will be a symbol of higher power. To many it turns out that their higher power is the group dynamic. Newcomers to this organization are told by its other members that agnostics and atheists also have to live by faith. The faith or “the higher power” does not necessarily have to be in one single God, but it can also be faith in such things as love, acceptance, tolerance, grace, or truth. It is important that those people believe in something abstract, besides their own gratification and will power.

It seemed very attractive to me that in Alcoholics Anonymous great value was put on the concept of non-interference. Spiritual values and way of life was not an exception to this concept. This organization fosters love, duty, responsibility, patience, kindness, hope, charity, and generosity, and at the same time does not give these values any religious requirements. I really liked the fact, that it was exclusively up to the individual to develop own concept of higher power, and use it to fight alcohol dependence during his daily life. Most references in Alcoholics Anonymous connected literature make an emphasis on the nature and love of a God which is personal to each member. It is vey important that the rules of this organization refer to some kind of spiritual existence, although do not suggest this existence to any specific type of religion. This serves the organization in three essential ways.

At the meeting I have understood that most alcoholics who are members of Alcoholics Anonymous have in the past had amble experiences of alcohol use that negatively influenced their relations within the family, at work, and within the legal system. It became clear that the majority of these people thought that their primary problem was loosing control of their alcohol consumption, which caused suffering, as they were unable to efficiently manage their lives. Based on the experience that I have obtained during this meeting, I would recommend this group therapy to others however I believe that in the majority of cases affiliating to Alcoholics Anonymous would be ineffective. This is evident, as treating alcoholic dependency is a complex therapeutic task, and some severe alcohol abuse cases require other interventions, such as sensibilizing therapy, or conditioned reflex therapy. It is more likely for Alcoholics Anonymous group therapy to succeed, if it is combined with other types of treatment.

References

1. Hohman, M., & Lecroy, C. W. (1996). Predictors of Adolescent A.A. Affiliation. Adolescence, 31(122), 339+.
2. Ksir, C., Hart, C. L., & Ray, O. (2007). Drugs, society and human behavior. McGraw-Hill, 12th ed.

Introduction

The concept of social cognitive theory (SCT) is known to start as the social learning theory (SLT), which was introduced by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1960s. In 1986 it developed into SCT stating that learning occurred in a social context where reciprocal and dynamic interaction of a person, environment, and behavior took place. The theory includes six major concepts: reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, expectations, and self-efficacy.

When two or more concepts become related or joined together they transform into a proposition. Such propositions are called relational statements; they are usually helpful in understanding various theory assumptions. These assumptions are normally divided into the following: observing others, viewing learning as a behavior, goal setting, self-regulated learning, reinforcement, and punishment.

Method

The literature was selected using the Google Scholar database. All the sources are closely related to the problem of alcohol addiction and, therefore, are included in the research. The years of publishing were set from 2013 to 2017. As to the choice of the keywords, those were selected by the topic requirements. The search results were received using the ‘social cognitive theory alcohol’ word combination. Journal articles were given priority in the matters of reference list formation.

Review of the Literature Table

Practical Implementation of the Social Cognitive Theory

In their article, Heydari, Dashtgard, and Moghadam, (2014) pay attention to the fact that addiction quitting has turned into a global issue, with the addiction reoccurrence rates reaching out 80%. The study aimed to investigate the effect of the social cognitive theory implementation on people willing to quit drug or alcohol addiction with the main focus on the recovery model (Best et al., 2016). All the examinees were tested at Imam Reza Hospital.

All in all, 60 clients participated in the experiment. A sufficient number of participants can be viewed as a strong side of the study. The lack of data collection tools, however, might be regarded as the main weakness of the research (data were measured using questionnaire only). An interventional procedure lasted for one month; data were analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Sciences using a specialized test.

The clients were randomly assigned to two groups (30 individuals in each). After the demographic data were gathered, all examinees completed the self-efficacy questionnaire. The test group was subject to the intervention based on the constructs of Bandura’s cognitive social theory, while the control group only received conventional treatment. After a while, the members of the test group admitted: “a change in their addiction-related attitudes and behaviors” (Galanter, 2014, p. 300).

The behavior change intervention was carried out during eight 60-90 minutes’ sessions according to the model steps. The first step involved an education need assessment and presenting the treatment content. The second step presupposed dividing clients into smaller groups from six to eight and engaging them in a group discussion, during which the knowledge about risk behaviors was shared. On the third stage, examinees were taught some of the problem-solving, decision-making, and self-projection skills that were meant to improve their motivational background (Wiers, Gladwin, Hofmann, Salemink, & Ridderinkhof, 2013). Finally, the fourth stage unveiled the key principles of family support. Family members were invited and thoroughly instructed as to how to arrange effective rehabilitation at home.

The research conducted by Champion, Newton, Barrett, and Teesson (2013) also focuses on the problem of addiction stating that “the use of alcohol and drugs amongst young people is a serious concern and the need for effective prevention is clear” (p. 115). The strong point of the research is that the authors use PsycInfo, Cochrane Library, PubMed, and other databases to develop a social cognitive model that is best suited for fighting the issue. 10 programs were chosen for task fulfillment and involved such activities as internet-based and CD-ROM behavior interventions. All of them were targeted at Australian teenagers between 14 and 19 years of age. Study quality was assessed using a validated tool for quality assessment of randomized controlled trials (Des Rosiers, Schwartz, Zamboanga, Ham, & Huang, 2013).

Regarding the findings, of the 10 programs “six achieved reductions in alcohol, cannabis, or tobacco use” (Champion et al., 2013). Two interventions showed a decrease in intention to use alcohol and the remaining two helped to significantly increase knowledge about drugs and alcohol. Deficient self-regulation played a central role in students’ intentions to quit their addictions (Gámez-Guadix, Calvete, Orue, & Las Hayas, 2015). Despite the fact the researchers used a small number of intervention programs, the model proved to be effective in fighting addiction problems.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the two scholarly articles, one can conclude that the impact of SCT on one’s behavior is always tangible since the outcomes demonstrate a positive tendency to change the established situation. It is known that both models intervened at a psychological level to develop a negative attitude towards addiction. Regarding the limitations of using SCT, human factors such as the unwillingness to change habits and the absence of motivation to improve a situation might play a huge disservice in the matters of model implementation.

Nevertheless, medical establishments and rehabilitation centers should continue using social cognitive theory concepts for the problem of addiction to be eliminated. It is also recommended that these establishments cooperate directly with the scholars developing behavior change models. Cooperation of this kind would allow for fresh ideas to be implemented immediately.

References

Best, D., Beckwith, M., Haslam, C., Alexander Haslam, S., Jetten, J., Mawson, E., & Lubman, D. I. (2016). Overcoming alcohol and other drug addiction as a process of social identity transition: The Social Identity Model of Recovery (SIMOR). Addiction Research & Theory, 24(2), 111-123.

Champion, K. E., Newton, N. C., Barrett, E. L., & Teesson, M. (2013). A systematic review of school‐based alcohol and other drug prevention programs facilitated by computers or the Internet. Drug and Alcohol Review, 32(2), 115-123.

Des Rosiers, S. E., Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Ham, L. S., & Huang, S. (2013). A cultural and social cognitive model of differences in acculturation orientations, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol‐related risk behaviors among Hispanic college students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(4), 319-340.

Galanter, M. (2014). Alcoholics anonymous and twelve‐step recovery: A model based on social and cognitive neuroscience. The American Journal on Addictions, 23(3), 300-307.

Gámez-Guadix, M., Calvete, E., Orue, I., & Las Hayas, C. (2015). Problematic Internet use and problematic alcohol use from the cognitive-behavioral model: A longitudinal study among adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 40, 109-114.

Heydari, A., Dashtgard, A., & Moghadam, Z. E. (2014). The effect of Bandura’s social cognitive theory implementation on addiction quitting of clients referred to addiction quitting clinics. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 19(1), 19-23.

Wiers, R. W., Gladwin, T. E., Hofmann, W., Salemink, E., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2013). Cognitive bias modification and cognitive control training in addiction and related psychopathology: Mechanisms, clinical perspectives, and ways forward. Clinical Psychological Science, 1(2), 192-212.

Introduction

Substance abuse is presently one of the matters affecting the world. The use of illegitimate drugs that cause cognitive and physiological consequences is a behavior that has affected the lives of many youths by damaging property, causing physical incapacity as well as school dropouts. There is a need to analyze different environments and conditions under which addiction occurs and do research on ways of reducing drug addiction in adolescence, including spiritual interventions.

Relationship between abuse and addiction in adolescence

Abuse is the misuse of something that results in bad effects, while addiction is the persistent replication of a behavior notwithstanding its adverse effects. Drug use is particularly common during the adolescent stage and increases emotional and mental disorders to those who were already exposed (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Risky substance use by adolescents can cause addiction, which may result in deadly accidents, sexually transmitted diseases, undesired pregnancies, psychological and medical illness.

Various studies have shown that there is a relationship between those who start using drugs early and drug addiction later in life. This implies that the earlier the start of the use of drugs, the higher the chances of the risk of becoming addicted. During the adolescent stage, there is a probability of the use of drugs and getting addicted since the comprehension and decision-making part of the brain has not completely matured.

One of the physical developments during the adolescent stage is brain maturity. When adolescents use risky and addictive substances, they are prone to brain alterations and inefficiencies. The frequent use of alcohol and marijuana relates to the low response by the brain, according to studies. The adolescent brain is, in most cases, vulnerable to damages by alcohol exposure as it lessens memory development than in adults (Feldman, 2014). Substance users, especially adolescents,, are at risk of mental deterioration and permanent damage to the brain as they are likely to drink for a long period as opposed to adults.

Alcohol abuse is a way of alcoholism that harms an individual’s health, relationships, or ability to his duties. The short-term risk may include violence or unprotected sex, while long-term abuse may include drunk driving. Alcohol abuse may result in neglect of responsibilities. This may occur at home or in school, whereby an individual skips out commitments. There is also the danger of causing accidents when one drives under the influence of alcohol that may cause even deaths.

Effects of healthy Spiritual Development on addiction by adolescents

Spiritual development plays a big role in preventing or reducing the use of dangerous substances as well as an addiction by adolescents. Religious institutions and churches necessitate spiritual development. Religion protects adolescents from occupying their minds with health-harming behaviors and encourages engagement in behaviors that nurture health. Religious institutions protect adolescents by ensuring they have information and help that boost positive and worthwhile life, morality, and opportunities that foster skills.

It makes adolescents have thoughts of reconciliation, peace and belonging. Attending religious institutions and churches positively affects the activities related to health, psychological distress and wellbeing, risk-taking behaviors, and positive development and thriving (Roehlkepartian et al., 2005).

Health

The attendance of religious institutions and churches for religious teachings and values improves healthy lifestyles that include getting enough sleep and living positive lifestyles.

Psychological distress and wellbeing

Religious affiliation and teachings reduce loneliness, depression, and hopelessness as most of the teachings focus on hope. There is also self-esteem and life satisfaction as adolescents meets people who have positively accomplished so much through spiritual development.

Risk-taking behaviors

There is a considerable reduction in the involvement in dangerous activities like smoking and drinking by religiosity. Religiosity also affects sexual activities in adolescents as, in most cases, partners believe in abstinence until marriage, and this reduces the risks of early pregnancies and disease infections. Attending religious meetings and teachings also reduces crime rates among adolescents.

Positive development

The adolescents that frequently attend religious institutions or teachings tend to posses strong religious identity and commitment to a purpose in life. They also tend to participate more often in community service thus identifying themselves more with the community at large.

Alcohol Abuse in Atlanta

Alcohol use in Atlanta is primary considering the number of deaths, treatment admissions, and arrests as compared to other drugs that are rampant in the area (Margolis, 1995). The most affected is the adolescent stage, which is a critical period in the development of adolescents, and the youth. Most adolescents are using the substance as a stimulant. Cases of cynical behavior have also risen in recent years in Atlanta according to research.

Alcohol abuse according to research has caused negative academic, social, psychological, economical, and psychological development among the abusers. There is damage of the brain by alcohol exposure and this eventually causes brain deterioration. Alcohol abuse causes break ups and family disintegrations according to research. Individuals who drink too much end up not being able to control their urge to consume more ending up becoming addicted. Research has also shown that sex workers in Atlanta consume alcohol as a way of rendering them insensitive.

The consequences of the use of these substances by the youth are serious health conditions, dropping out from schools by the youth, setback in mental advancement and violence. Most of the drug abuse and addictions in Atlanta are cause by disintegrated homes, disgruntlement, and emotive

Conclusion

Drug addiction prevalence is mostly rampant amongst the young people especially those in adolescent stage. It is also clear that early involvement of individuals in illicit drugs have an impact of causing addiction in future. Drug use, brings about alteration of the brain, which adversely affect the abilities of an individual including learning incapability and may cause violence and fatal circumstances like accidents. This frequently results to school dropouts. The use of illicit drugs and substances seems to be growing and may escalate to alarming levels and hence there is an urgent need to get more information about drug addiction to use in promoting prevention programs as well as the best ways to use in rehabilitating the already affected groups.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4^th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

Feldman, R. S. (2014). Development across the life span (7^th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. ISBN: 126962198X.

Roehlkepartian, E., King, P., Wagener, L., & Benson, P. (2005). The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence. CA: Sage Publishing. ISBN: 9780761930785.

Margolis, R. D. (1995). Adolescent chemical dependence: Assessment, treatment and management. New York:Guilford.