Category: Addiction

Introduction

In the growing technological world, smartphone addiction has become a significant problem globally. Other people have a contrasting opinion that phone addiction is the way to find happiness; however, this is not true. Parents often feel worried because phone addiction negatively influences their child’s academic performance. The ethical principle that the paper will base on is the principle of nonmaleficence, which aims to weigh the benefits versus the harms of phone addiction. The paper aims to help learners realize the disadvantages of phone addiction in this technological advancement era. However, it is ethical to be addicted to smartphone usage to the improvement of the academic knowledge of the learner. Excessive phone use among the young generation is disastrous as it contributes to long-term effects such as drug abuse and financial stress. I believe and hold the position that adolescents’ phone addiction is ethically wrong as it negatively affects their mental health and academic performance; resolving the problem requires a collaborative effort between the teachers, parents, and learners.

Phone Addiction in Youth

The addictive use of smartphones deleteriously alters the mental health of many young people across the world. A broad assumption exists that the young generation continuously interacting with their mobile devices improves their mental health; this is not the reality. Addictive behavior of smartphone use is linked with the interference with the regular daily routine of the young generation. Kornberg shows that in an extensive population survey of American high school learners, the addictive behavior was linked to high depression levels (483). Through the interaction over the phone, the students receive depressive text messages from their peers, which interfere with their mental health. The learners are likely to interact with strangers who may easily lure them into adopting improper behavior within the community. Excessive phone usage paves an easy way for the learners to engage in an unwanted relationship through easy communication. These sexual relationships eventually culminate into unwanted teenage pregnancies and other sexually transmitted illnesses. The young people found in this menace are faced with depression, yet they should focus on their studies.

Higher suicide rates are correlated to the extensive addiction to smartphones. In the 2010s, researchers noted the suicide rate significantly rose; this was associated with smartphone use (Kornberg 483). Smartphones exploit the weakness in people’s minds, thus distracting them from what makes them happy in their daily life. Some students research the various methods they could use to harm themselves through the internet. Young people are exposed to harmful information over social media, which causes them to develop suicidal thoughts. The students assume to find the happiness they desire over the internet, but it aggravates their psychological problems. The learners waste their limited time on social media and thus fail to excel in their studies. It adversely affects their future career choices, and therefore they can quickly kill themselves because of their poor academic performance.

The irrational phone usage among young people for non-socializing aspects is correlated with high rates of depression. Non-socializing elements such as news and entertainment may depress adolescents (Kornberg 483). The increased occurrence of sad news, such as frequent accidents and political killings, may exacerbate personal life concerns. Watching the report of a known person’s death drains mental energy. These worries may affect the student’s concentration in class towards the attainment of success. The positive newscast correlates with the achievement of good mental health, while the devastating news affects the mind adversely. The reduced phone addiction can subsequently lead to a decreased exposure to the traumatizing news edition; this consequently improves the mental health of an individual.

The constant smartphone use has affected face-to-face conversation among people. Direct communications play a critical role in ensuring that people communicate with each other and thus share issues that could be affecting them (Kornberg 483). The constant phone addiction has made the younger people fail to develop face-to-face communication correctly; therefore, they fear sharing the problems affecting them with the relevant people. They end up with psychological stress instead of opening conversations with their peer counselors, teachers, and peers. The young generation spends most time researching how they can overcome some issues in their lives and ultimately fail to find the appropriate solution. Failing to find the proper solution predisposes them to engage in unacceptable behavior within the community, such as alcoholism, to improve their psychological health. These aggravate the problem by inclining them to consequences of alcoholism such as health, social and economic effects. Speaking their issues to another person, especially a counselor, would have helped prevent young people from engaging in drug abuse.

Smartphone addiction contributes to gambling disorders among the young generation. Smartphone addiction creates financial problems among the learners and new generation (Kornberg 484). There is a desire from a young age to acquire more money, and therefore they will do everything within their means to find the cash. Online betting and gambling are ways people think they can quickly achieve their desired wealth status without hard work. The contrary happens when they lose the little money they have through these undesired online activities. When young people continuously lose the little finances they have, they develop stress. Some students use fees given to them by their parents to engage in online betting and gambling. When they lose this cash through betting, an enormous mental health issue ensues, and they develop the fear of telling their parents the reality of what happened. Therefore, such learners think the best way to overcome the problem is to commit suicide because of the shame they have heaped on themselves through online gambling.

Smartphone addiction can cause lead to impulsive shopping among people without the appropriate budgeting because ordering items is through the click of a button. These create financial problems, and even teenagers can use online shopping as a way they can acquire illegal goods (Sahu et al. 263). Through online shopping, they can purchase illicit drugs and even firearms which they can use to harm other people. The teenagers are not seen going to the shops to buy these illegal products as they hide in anonymous online accounts; the products are delivered to them at the doorstep. These illegal products are expensive, and they financially strain those purchasing them. Therefore, impulsive buying behavior makes young people develop psychological stress due to the financial constraints versus their demands. These may culminate in undesired mental health status among young people, such as suicide.

Extreme smartphone usage may reduce phone lifetime, thereby increasing maintenance and purchasing costs. Parents may deny their children the privilege to own phones while still students. These learners may watch their colleagues with efficient smartphones, which psychologically affects their mental health. Financially stressed learners cannot efficiently concentrate on their studies and ultimately have poor academic performance (Kornberg 483). The desire to own good smartphones the teenagers may lead to them stealing money from their parents or even stealing the phones of their peers. Maintaining smartphones may be costly to some teenagers as they are unemployed, resulting in financial stress. Other learners may use the money given to them by their parents for fee payment. It may increase the parent-child conflict, adversely affecting the child’s psychological status. The child may physically get harmed because of the intense anger from the parent.

Smartphone addiction contributes to accidents that could have been avoided through safe driving. Impulsive phone use leads to operating the smartphone in dangerous circumstances such as driving. It leads to accidents that cause the loss of lives and lifetime disabilities. In Nigeria, it was estimated that about 90% of the drivers were prone to phone addiction, and approximately 65% reported having had an accident related to phone use while driving (Adeyemi 486). The study showed that the people addicted to mobile phones were 2.47 times more likely to be involved in a phone addiction-related accident (Adeyemi 486). The conclusion drawn from the study was that impulsive phone use was a significant factor contributing to road accidents. A child losing a parent through an accident leads to a disastrous mental health impact as they miss the tender lover parents accord to their children. The pain of losing a parent is intense, and an orphan child may face challenges such as support and properly acquiring the best education. Therefore, excessive smartphone usage has led to reckless driving among individuals, leaving many children as orphans.

The phone addiction curiosity may predispose young people to adult content on social media. Sharma et al., in their study, proved that phone addiction has a positive correlation with internet use and pornography addiction (25). The children exposed to this adult content cannot effectively concentrate in class to achieve optimal academic performance. Through their curiosity, these children attempt to imitate what they watch in the pornographic content. It ultimately leads to teenage pregnancies and an increased risk of exposure to sexually transmitted diseases. Pregnant teenagers face the risk of early discontinuation of their studies, consequently hampering their prosperity in the future. Young individuals may have the financial burden of raising children born through unplanned pregnancies. Other teenagers may be tempted to terminate the pregnancy before term. These abortion practices have life-threatening consequences for the mother’s life, and thus it may cause the teenage girl’s death. Sexually transmitted diseases may further culminate in the demise of the underage. Teenagers opt for abortion because of the financial constraints that accompany unplanned pregnancies. Therefore, it creates psychological trauma, which increases the risk of teenagers committing suicide.

The prolonged phone addiction leads to increased screentime which has harmful effects on an individual’s health. The children become addicted to video games on their phones, affecting their vision. Abed et al. argued that vision problem is the most common problem among the students, and it dominantly correlated with excessive phone usage (5). In the study in Alkut technical Institutes, approximately 82% of the students had vision problems because of phone addiction (Abed et al. 415). The health problems affect the comfort that the students should have to get the proper education. Some students may require the purchase of spectacles and contact to facilitate their learning; therefore, this increases the financial strain faced by the parent and student. The money used to purchase these visual aids could have been used elsewhere to help improve the child’s academics. Many students are aware of the health effects of phone addiction, but through their ignorance, they continue indulging in inappropriate behavior (Abed et al. 415). Parents who lack the necessary financial assistance fail to buy the contact lens or spectacles for their children, and the learner’s psychological and academic performance is impacted negatively.

Adolescents addicted to their phones have poor sleep patterns as they spend most of their time chatting and gaming. Scrolling on the phone overnight makes an individual experience restlessness. Ibrahim et al., in their study, showed that irrational smartphone usage leads to dependency problems categorized by the continued performance of an action ignoring its negative outcome (2). Therefore, the poor sleep pattern is implicated in class through the poor concentration and even sleeping during the class sessions. Poor academic performance is correlated with learners who have poor sleep problems. The students may develop nomophobia, which encompasses the fear when the mobile phone is not close to the learner. The poor sleep patterns characterized by deranged students’ academic performance predispose them to stress. These may contribute to the suicide experienced among school-going children. The children may develop sleep disorders such as nightmares because of the threatening material watched through social media. The learners may still sleep during the day more than the required time when they are at home with their parents. Insomnia due to phone usage, therefore, negatively affects the student’s quality of life.

Phone addiction among adolescents causes a disjointed relationship between the learners and their parents. Zhen et al. proved that during the COVID-19 lockdown, parent-child conflicts arose during house chore sharing and academic supervision (7). Parents may want their children’s assistance to help them perform some house chores, but youngsters may not want to be disrupted by their phones. There could be an emphasis on children concentrating on their studies and avoiding wasting their time on phones. The learners may not be happy with these parents’ decisions and may decide to revolt against them. It, in turn, aggravates the anger of the parents who feel despised by their children. It ultimately ensures a fight or conflict that affects the mental health of both the youth. Adolescents unwillingly persuaded to concentrate on their may likely have good performance in school. They are reluctant to learn because of their phone addiction and thus cannot perform optimally academically.

A parent addicted to their smartphone shows a bad example to the child. Parent-child communication is essential in a family as it dictates unity. When children seek help to communicate with their parents who are entirely focused on their phones, they may feel ignored. It leads to a disjointed family, and the young ones lose interest in sharing pivotal issues regarding their lives with their parents. It results in the children suffering loneliness and stress because of the lack of the parent’s support (Zhen et al. 7). These untold suffering easily provoke suicidal thoughts in these youngsters. The financial strain plays a vital role in determining students’ academic performance. Learners who effectively communicate with their parents are likely to perform better in their studies than those with disjointed relationships. A parent can listen to the adolescent through efficient communication and provide the essential tools to improve school performance. Proficient communication between the parent and the learner helps the latter learn to adapt to various psychological challenges through life effectively.

Excessive use of smartphones increases the risk of cyberbullying, which is all over internet. Gül et al. proved that the lack of awareness by the adolescents visiting social media makes them cyberbullying victims (550). Learners may get discriminated against online because of their race, affecting their psychological health. The harmful information the learners are exposed to over social media may affect their academic performance (Kornberg 483). The victims of cyberbullying are predisposed to emotional and mental effects. The children may feel embarrassed and overwhelmed by the insults they receive from social media. If the cyberbullying messages are shared with many people, it may intensify the feelings of humiliation faced by the adolescent. The victims may feel isolated and alone because of the insults. The cyberbullied learners may further get angered by what happened to them, and some opt to retaliate through online and physical means to the person doing the action. They develop low self-esteem as they feel that they are the most vulnerable members of society. Eventually, cyberbullied individuals lose interest in school, which negatively affects their academic performance.

The death threats and harmful messages that the learners get ultimately decrease the sense of safety that the learners yearn to have. Learners who are not assured of their safety will perform dismally in their studies (Kornberg 483). These children may skip school sessions because of the death threats they receive from online sources, as they believe they can meet the people threatening them in school. These behaviors may warrant the academic suspension of the individual skipping the class session. It negatively impacts the learner’s career future and their mental health. The death threats drive them to face difficulty efficiently concentrating in class to attain the desired academic performance. The learners who have been harassed online are likely to engage in alcohol intake to overcome the stress faced by the threats. The death threats make the individuals completely lose hope in their lives as they develop decreased desire to live.

Phone addiction issues became a significant concern after the invention of smartphones that had access to internet services. Before, the social conditions encouraged more face-to-face conversation while reduced phone addiction. The problem is of great concern because it reduces learners’ focus on their studies. I believe phone addiction negatively affects the mental health of the children, which aggravates suicide thoughts and undesirably impacts the learner’s academic performance. The learners are predisposed to harmful content such as pornography, threats, and cyberbullying, affecting their psychological health. The problem with my topic is that it may be ethically right to be addicted to a phone as a learner and extensively use it for research purposes. This will significantly widen the learner’s knowledge acquired in class and build on research techniques. My value systems dictate that I cannot support the aspect of phone addiction among students. Based on the principle of nonmaleficence, I regard that there are more harms than benefits of phone addiction among teenagers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, phone addiction in the young generation is a serious menace that requires global attention and combined efforts to attenuate the problems. Parents and teachers need to play a vital role in advising their children of the harmful consequences of irrational phone usage. On the other hand, the children should be willing to listen and adapt the advice they receive from their parents and teachers. Parents should act as role models by using their phones rationally. In this way, the learners will emulate the reasonable phone use and attain its desired meaningful use. The learners must realize that their current goal is to focus on education to achieve the desired career goals; therefore, they should avoid phone overdependence. Parents must show a willingness to listen to their children to reduce the latter from feeling lonely. They should be accountable and avoid developing problems such as stealing, betting addiction, and impulse online shopping.

Works Cited

Abed, Sameeha Naser, et al. “Health problems of mobile phone addiction for sample of students and their health awareness at Institute Technical of Kut.”Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, vol. 10, no. 2, 2018, pp. 412–15.

Adeyemi, Oluwaseun. “The association of mobile phone addiction proneness and self-reported road accident in Oyo State, Nigeria.”Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science, 2021, pp. 486–91.

Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis, et al. “Mobile phone addiction and its relationship to sleep quality and academic achievement of medical students at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.”Journal of Research in Health Sciences, vol. 18, no. 3, 2018, pp. 1–5.

Gül, Hesna, et al. “Cyberbullying among a clinical adolescent sample in Turkey: Effects of problematic smartphone use, psychiatric symptoms, and emotion regulation Difficulties.”Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, vol. 29, no. 4, 2018, pp. 547–57.

Kornberg, Joshua. “Left to our own devices: Smartphone use, mental health, and academic psychiatry.”Academic Psychiatry, vol. 44, no. 4, 2020, pp. 483–86.

Sahu, Maya, et al. “Mobile phone addiction among children and adolescents.”Journal of Addictions Nursing, vol. 30, no. 4, 2019, pp. 261–68.

Sharma, ManojKumar, et al. “Technology Addiction among treatment seekers for psychological problems: Implication for screening in mental health setting.”Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, vol. 39, no. 1, 2017, pp. 21–27.

Zhen, Rui, et al. “Social isolation, loneliness, and mobile phone dependence among adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: Roles of parent-child communication patterns.”International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 2021, pp. 1–15.

“Parents’ phubbing increases Adolescents’ Mobile phone addiction: Roles of parent-child attachment, deviant peers, and gender” by Xie et al.

The authors of the article, Xie, Wu, Xiaowei, and Dan, are all elites with adequate knowledge in psychology and matters pertaining to child development and pre-primary education. Their exposure and diverse understanding enable them to have effective insight into the issue concerning the relationship of parents with their young ones. In their work ‘Parents’ phubbing increases Adolescents’ Mobile phone addiction: Roles of parent-child attachment, deviant peers, and gender,’ Xie et al. focused on the contribution of parents to the smartphone addiction among young ones. The piece of work was published in 2019 when the causes and impacts of child phone usage raved around the globe, raising a number of questions to be answered. The writers touch on the parents’ phubbing as a key factor leading to the growing compulsive device usage amongst teenagers. The aspect of neglecting young ones to focus on the personal interest and satisfaction derived from using smartphones has become the point of argument on the issue of phone addiction. Social exclusion as parents’ behavior should be criticized for the overwhelming dependency on electronics among teenagers.

In modern society, children are blamed by their parents, relatives, and even teachers for being too attracted to social media, gaming, and other internet activities. However, the majority of the adults fail to comprehend and unveil the contributing factor that prompts the young ones into such destructive behaviors. Based on the article, Xie et al. intend to make the readers understand that parents’ conduct is a major factor influencing the behaviors which infants adopt during their development. In other words, the connection between the guardian and the teenagers is critical and should be maintained to allow children experience the love of their parents. When caregivers exclude themselves and give limited attention to the adolescents, the youths may opt to seek the care through other forms, including engaging in social networking with relatives and online friends.

Based on the article, the phubbing aspect lowers the time frame parents have with their young ones leaving children desperate for attention. In order to satisfy their needs, adolescents are then forced to interact with the devices hence leading to the development of deviant behaviors. The goal of Xie et al. is to make people, especially caregivers such as parents, understand the harmful effects that are focusing on their phones has on the growth of their children. Furthermore, the authors explain how the relationship guardians have with their young ones solved the negative consequences of phone addiction. When there is a strong attachment between a parent and a child, the likelihood of overcoming challenges associated with social exclusion due to smartphone usage is high. The point informs readers that roles played by parents in the life of an infant have a huge and fundamental impact during childhood transformation.

The authors claimed that parenting is critical in causing the rising rate of phone addiction. They provided sufficient research evidence supported by statistical analysis suggesting that there is a positive correlation between children’s compulsive behavior toward using handsets and caregivers’ social exclusion as a result of using the phone. Similarly, the study reinforced the significance of having social attachment as an essential measure to reduce excessive phone usage among teenagers.

The authors used simple terms and provided effective definitions for complex terminologies to make it easier for the audience to understand. Furthermore, they supported their findings with statistical analysis, which provides proper insight into how effective the risk and protective factors contribute to and regulate phone addiction respectively in children. The authors added some lists of references to aid people in gaining more insight into the growing influence of smartphone usage. However, despite the presentation of the ideas, strong evidence requires some opposing ideas to properly engage the reader, which was not included in the research work. Moreover, some of the test statistic abbreviations are not familiar; hence needed a thorough breakdown and effective explanation to increase understanding.

In summary, the piece of work provokes some thoughts towards understanding the influence of parents’ behavior in parenting. It provides answers to most queries and averts the blames directed on young ones following their deviant conduct. Furthermore, the article indicates the significance of social interaction in the early stages of development and how it can enable parents to reduce the negative impacts associated with excessive phone usage. The information is crucial because it educates the parents on the value of attention and parental attachment. Based on the findings of the work, it is necessary for caregivers to determine how their balance their time on the phone and interaction period with their young ones. In addition, several interactive approaches such as physical games, storytelling, and normal exercise should be adopted as a measure to engage parents and teenagers to minimize phone exposure.

“Risk factors for problematic smartphone use in children and adolescents: A review of existing literature,” by Fischer-Grote, Linda, Oswald D. Kothgassner, and Anna Felnhofer.

This article by Fischer-Grote et al. talks about the growing influence of phone usage amongst the young ones and adolescents in the modern day. The authors focused on evaluating and comprehending the significance of the relationship with peers, teachers, and parents on how it contributes to smartphone addiction. Fischer-Grote, Kothgassner, and Felnhofer are all experts in the field of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, which make them highly knowledgeable in matters that affect teenagers. The authors examine key contributors of phone addiction to the youths and how the parent neglection plays a significant role in enhancing the problematic usage of the device. The article was written in 2019 when the concern about phone use among children and its impact is an issue that draws attention, especially on matters of mental health of the children. Based on the authors’ arguments, the failure of parents to take responsibility in controlling how young ones access and use phones enhances smartphone addiction.

The authors’ aim in the text is to help parents and other individuals understand key risk factors that play a major role in promoting smartphone addiction amongst children. By indicating the causes, Fischer-Grote et al. will be able to help people to overcome the situations effectively. Based on the writers’ findings, social networking and gaming activities are critical contributors to the excessive usage of the devices. In other words, when parents install game applications on their phones, the likelihood of the young ones using the phone for playing purposes is high hence increasing their exposure to the phones. Similarly, allowing children to access and connect with their peers or relatives through online platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and WhatsApp make them attracted to smartphones. Such involvement enables adolescents and babies to find themselves using the devices repeatedly without any or with limited interventions by the parents. It is phone features and the availability of the internet that is promoting the urge of youths to use the phones in the current generation.

In addition, the article talks about the negative impacts of phone addiction that are detrimental to both parents and young ones in general. Fischer-Grote et al. suggested that there is an increase in uncontrollable behavior amongst phone users, such as constant checking of notifications and a high rate of anxiety and depression. Furthermore, the authors highlight other essential physical symptoms associated with excessive phone usage. For instance, they want the reader to understand that mood changes, withdrawal, and addiction to gaming are consequences of problematic use of devices. When such behaviors are adopted by an individual, especially children, their ability to concentrate on their school studies and other activities is paralyzed, making them less effective in life. Despite the advantages associated with smartphone usage, if adolescents are allowed to overuse them, then they are more likely to experience severe impacts that may affect their overall health and social lifestyle.

The article involved a deep search where the authors reviewed several articles to extrapolate the relationship between problematic phone usage and the level of addiction amongst teenagers. The thorough research made the piece of work to be effective and specific to the key points that facilitate the compulsive usage of the phone by adolescents. The study allows the reader to understand how the aspect of gaming and the amount of time spent using the device to play games directly correlates to the addiction.

Upon reading the article, the authors introduce the aspect of a good relationship as a protective factor against the growing menace of phone addiction among young ones. The connection children have with their parents is essential in determining how the usage of smartphones impacts young ones’ well-being. When guardians guide the young ones accordingly and monitor the time they spend using the devices, the chances of lowering the rate of addiction will be increased. However, despite the contribution and identification of risk and protective factors, the article fails to provide the link between school and phone addiction. The influence adolescent derives from peers and elements of online education are not covered in the text, yet they contribute massively to excessive phone use.

In summary, the excessive use of phones for gaming and social networks is reducing the social growth and development among teenagers. Constant use of the device has made several youths withdraw and lack the ability to connect with relatives, peers, and educators. Addressing the concern of addiction is significant because it will enable parents to prevent physical, mental, and behavioral habits that can destroy the well-being of adolescents. Following the rapid increase in the level of addiction, teachers, parents, and relatives should establish an effective relationship with the young ones to form a protective factor that lowers the compulsive usage of smartphones by teenagers.

“The relationship between mother’s smartphone addiction and children’s smartphone usage,” by Kim, Bomi, et al.

Kim, Bomi, et al., the authors of ‘The relationship between mother’s smartphone addiction and children’s smartphone usage,’ have proper knowledge in areas of psychiatry and psychology, which is essential in understanding the mental health issues. The writers are experts on issues involving psychoanalysis and comprehend how they relate to the well-being of the young ones as well as the parents. The article ‘The relationship between mother’s smartphone addiction and children’s smartphone usage’ was published in the year 2021. The piece of work is aimed at finding the connection between the levels of a mother’s addiction to phones to the child’s compulsive usage. The article was printed during the period when the prevalence of smartphone use was common in most countries across the world. Similarly, emerging health concerns are recorded, making people question the possible cause of children’s problematic handset usage. The scholars link mothers’ dependence on phones to the riding rate of smartphone addiction amongst young ones.

The authors want the reader to understand the impacts of phone addiction on the well-being of children. They explored various pieces of evidence to prove that a mother’s dependence on the smartphone plays a critical role in determining the rate at which the babies use the devices. Generally, infants spend most of their time around their mother, which makes them adapt to the environment. If the mother is fond of using a smartphone when taking care of the baby, the young one’s attention will be drawn towards the device, making them love them too. Kim, Bomi, et al. used research questionnaires to diagnose the child’s phone usage where parents were the respondents. The study focused on areas such as internet addiction and the related psychological effects it causes on developing adolescents.

The article indicates that children whose mothers used smartphones frequently began using the handset at an early age than those whose mums did not use the phones most of the time. It is clear from this perspective that exposure and ease of access to smartphones determine their usage. In other words, when parents lower the chances of children reaching the devices, it becomes difficult for them to obtain and learn to use them. The addiction to phone usage amongst young ones is due to limited self-control on when and how to interact with the smartphone.

In addition, the authors mentioned maternal depression and low energy as a factor that may prompt mothers to use smartphones as a form of parenting tool to enable them to soothe their young ones when they are crying. Depression is capable of making parents form weak bonding with their babies hence making them less committed to managing the well-being of infants. The factors then function together and increase the likelihood of the child accessing and using a smartphone at an early age.

The authors used enough evidence to support their findings concerning the study. They included statistical analysis involving research data to provide proper insight into the cause of children’s smartphone addiction. Moreover, the scholars borrowed ideas from other sources to enrich their arguments making their claims to be strong. Despite the effort to make the work friendly to readers, some of the statistical terminologies were complex, making it difficult to understand how the investigators reached the outcome.

In conclusion, parents, especially mothers, contribute significantly to excessive child smartphone usage. Using phones as a parenting tool to soothe young ones exposes them to the devices. Continuous interactions with the handsets make babies grow immense interest in smartphones. Early usage of smartphones endangers the cognitive development of infants, which is harmful to their growth. Understanding the impacts of a mother’s addiction to the phone will enable parents to curb the increasing rate of problematic phone usage amongst children. It is necessary for parents to formulate effective ways of parenting infants to reduce their chances of accessing handsets at an early age.

Works Cited

Fischer-Grote, Linda, Oswald D. Kothgassner, and Anna Felnhofer. “Risk factors for problematic smartphone use in children and adolescents: A review of existing literature.”Neuropsychiatrie, vol. 33, no. 4, 2019, pp. 179-190.

Kim, Bomi, et al. “The relationship between mother’s smartphone addiction and children’s smartphone usage.”Psychiatry Investigation, vol. 18, no. 2, 2021, pp. 126-131.

Xie, Xiaochun, et al. “Parents’ phubbing increases Adolescents’ Mobile phone addiction: Roles of parent-child attachment, deviant peers, and gender.” Children and Youth Services Review, vol. 105, 2019.

Name: Rosa Lee Cunningham

DOB/Age: 1936/ 53

Dates of Interviews: 1990-1994

Evaluator: Leon Dash

Reason for Assessment

Rosa Lee Cunningham is a 53-year-old woman who constantly struggles with substance abuse and theft. She has served several prison terms for theft and drug dealing in the last four decades. She has eight children; five of them live with her and they also struggle with substance addiction. One of her children is serving a prison sentence for involvement in the theft and the other five that live with her have also been incarcerated on numerous occasions for committing various offenses. Therefore, Rosa Lee has faced numerous hurdles in her quest to make a better life for herself and her children. Poverty and lack of social support are some of the main factors that have made it difficult for Rosa Lee to overcome her drug addiction. She lives in a neighborhood where drug consumption is common, which reveals the high level of moral decay that exists in poor urban settlements (Dash, 1996, p. 22).

Rosa Lee and her children are forced to live with their addictions due to the socio-economic problems they experience. She is an embodiment of the urban struggle where some residents resort adopts negative habits to escape from their pain and suffering. Her heroin addiction forced her to share dirty needles with other users which made her acquire HIV. Her two children; Bobby and Patty have also contracted HIV because they share needles with their mother. Therefore, this shows the serious effects of substance abuse and addiction which threaten the wellbeing of all members of her family (Dash, 1996, p. 29). Moreover, her illiteracy hampers her from following medical instructions properly which diminishes her chances of recovery from crack cocaine and heroin addiction.

Rosa Lee dropped out of school at a very young age and later got pregnant with her first child at the age of thirteen. Therefore, her little education has made her ignorant about other important issues that are beneficial to her wellbeing. The situation is replicated in the lives of her children who faced numerous difficulties while they were growing up due to their mother’s constant problems with the law. As a result, Rosa Lee has had to depend on food stamps to feed her children and grandchildren, some of whom are not in a position to get gainful employment positions. Substance addiction, criminal tendencies, Illiteracy, constant arrests, and incarceration are the main problems Rosa Lee and her family deal with daily (Dash, 1996, p. 33). Also, inadequate social support systems, dysfunctional communal ties, and grinding poverty have denied Rosa Lee and her family members a chance to lead a happier life.

Sources of Information

The main source of information used in this case study is Leon Dash’s Book that documents the struggle Rosa Lee has faced breaking out of drug addiction and her impulsive stealing habits. Other additional publications will also be used to shed more light on the topic to find out appropriate remedies for drug addictions and other problems that are related to this destructive habit. The manual of therapeutics for addictions and other published sources that describe issues related to narcotic dependency will be used to shed more light on the matter. The study will mainly rely on peer-reviewed sources to come up with appropriate proposals that recommend suitable addiction therapy solutions that conform to Rosa Lee’s lifestyle and needs.

Psychosocial History

Rosa Lee Cunningham was born into a large family in Washington. She faced a lot of problems while growing up which made her drop out of school at an early age to get married. She got pregnant with her first child while still in her adolescence and this exposed her to various social evils that changed her life. She is addicted to heroin and crack cocaine and this has increased her dependency levels. The dirty needles she uses to inject heroin in her veins have made her get infected with HIV. Therefore, behavioral as well as social factors that influence Rosa Lee’s addictions need further inquiry (Dash, 1996, p. 55).

She served her first prison term in the 1950s for theft and since then, she has had constant brushes with the law. It is worth noting that in forty years, she has served more than eight prison sentences mainly due to stealing and drug selling. Significantly, her children have also picked up substance abuse habits from their mothers..Her daughters engage in prostitution and other crimes to obtain money to sustain their drug consumption habits. As a result, her habits have led to conflicts between Rosa Lee and other extended family members who are not pleased with her character. It is interesting to note that even after going through several rehabilitation programs in prison, she has never changed her negative habits (Dash, 1996, p. 61). She admits that she only went for the programs to improve her record in prison to increase her chances of getting parole.

She has a history of child abuse and neglect because she was born in a large family of more than ten children. Her parents struggled to raise her and her siblings in an upright manner. Moreover, they grew up at a time when racial segregation policies in Washington, D.C., and the rest of the country had taken root, which made it difficult for newly arrived African American immigrants from the south to get meaningful jobs. She is barely literate, due to the reading difficulties she faced in school while she was growing up. The case study is an accurate illustration of social inequalities that have existed in America for many generations and how they cause poor people to engage in substance abuse, prostitution, and crime (Dash, 1996, p. 67).

Therefore, high levels of deprivation create problems for Rosa Lee and other poor urban residents who are not able to access meaningful socio-economic opportunities. Rosa Lee’s father was an alcoholic, who passed away when she was still very little and routinely subjected his wife, Rosetta to frequent episodes of violence. Rosa Lee’s mother would take out her frustrations on her through constant beatings and she still bears a lot of bitterness towards her mother (Dash, 1996, p. 69).

Her turbulent family history left Rosa Lee with psychological and emotional scars that have not healed. Her failure to address these issues exposed her to a life of hopelessness characterized by substance abuse and stealing. However, some of Rosa Lee’s brothers and cousins have managed to make a better life for themselves and they are neither drug addicts nor poor like her. The negative effects of racial segregation and poverty did not deter them from improving their economic status (Dash, 1996, 71).

In the 1930s, economic effects caused by the Great Depression made it difficult for newly arrived black families from the South to get jobs. Rosa Lee’s parents had to do menial jobs to earn a living which was barely enough to satisfy the needs of the whole family. Since they were illiterate, they were not qualified for proper government jobs which would have enabled them to enjoy a more decent life. Rosa Lee’s current situation mirrors the one faced by her parents as she was growing up because she has many dependants who rely on her for food and shelter. She is a negative influence on her children and grandchildren who are constantly breaking the law by consuming drugs and engaging in illegal activities (Dash, 1996, p. 75).

Current Status

Rosa Lee’s typical day involves going to different governmental offices to obtain various services. For instance, occasionally she receives social welfare support from the government to help her take care of her domestic needs. She has a large family that depends on her and even though she battles with different problems she does her best to create a congenial atmosphere for all her family members that live in her house. Rosa Lee also admits that she shares drugs with her two children, who are also addicted to crack cocaine and heroin. She constantly checks with the authorities to find out if she is still eligible for food stamps and other welfare benefits because one of her daughters will soon be getting out of jail. Moreover, she admits that she occasionally relapses and finds herself consuming drugs. This is can be attributed to problems in the neighborhood she lives in where peddlers sell different types of narcotics to addicts (Dash, 1996, p. 77).

Her children also contribute to her household even though six of them are addicts. However, she still has criminal tendencies and she encourages her children and grandchildren to steal clothes and other items from nearby stores which they sell afterward. This shows that even though Rosa Lee insists that she wants to change, her craving for drugs and criminality has yet to subside (Dash, 1996, p. 79). It is evident that drug abuse and crime are part and parcel of her persona and she is not willing to give up these practices. Her thieving habits have alienated her from her two sons, Alvin and Eric; the only children of the household who do not have any criminal records. Shoplifting has always been a way for her to make easy money, to help her purchase drugs. On the day she was shoplifting with her grandson she was waiting for the court’s verdict on a previous crime of shoplifting which she had committed a few months earlier.

Even though she takes methadone, to help her fight her addictions, she has not been able to turn her life around positively. On the day of her sentencing, she admits all charges leveled against her by the prosecution and claims that she is working hard to turn her life around (Dash, 1996, p. 81).

The judge gives her two months to stop using drugs after which she should return to the court to explain why she should not be taken to prison. After two months, the judge hands a suspended sentence and she is required to undergo a drug counseling program to help her overcome her drug habit. She always had a knack for stealing since when she was a child, according to her brother Ben. Her behavior can be partly explained by the harsh poverty she and her siblings had to contend with as they were growing up.

She admits that she has to hide money away so that her five substance-addicted children do not get a chance to steal it. However, the little money she makes from shoplifting and monthly social welfare cheques is wasted on drugs. It seems shoplifting has become a permanent feature of her life and she knows how to hide her real character to gain favors from different people. She has even influenced her children and grandchildren to take part in the habit and they are growing up thinking that it is a normal way of life. She justifies her stealing habits by claiming that the business owners she steals from exploiting their customers by selling them goods at exorbitant prices (Dash, 1996, p. 84).

Indicators of Use/Abuse/Dependency

Attitude and Behaviour of Rosa Lee

Rosa Lee uses poverty and social inequalities to justify her stealing tendencies. Her illiteracy compounds her problems because this has made her ignorant about other opportunities that may be beneficial to her wellbeing. This makes her grumpy and she assigns responsibility for her failures and mistakes to other people.

Social Functioning of Rosa Lee

She has poor relations with her brothers and other extended family members due to her negative lifestyle habits. However, she cares deeply for her children and grandchildren and she manages to live with them in her apartment even though the poverty they find it difficult to survive. She relies on their love and support to get through the various difficulties she faces in her life.

Occupational Functioning of Rosa Lee

She does not have a steady job and she colludes with her children and grandchildren to steal items from shops in the city which are later sold on the black market. Occasionally, some of her children offer financial support but most of the money earned by the household is wasted on drugs. She also gets social welfare money from the government which is barely enough to satisfy her children’s and grandchildren’s needs.

Financial Aspects of Rosa Lee

Since she is illiterate, she does not know the importance of budgeting and good financial management skills. The little money she makes is spent on things that are not important in her life and this exposes her to an unending cycle of poverty. Consequently, this is one of the major problems that have made it difficult for her to stop stealing and consuming drugs.

Familial Relationships of Rosa Lee

Rosa Lee is not on good terms with her brother and two sons who view her as an embarrassment and a bad influence. The rest of her children live with her and they face similar substance addiction problems. Moreover, six of her children were fathered by different men when she was actively involved in prostitution.

Legal History of Rosa Lee

She has served eight prison terms in about forty years. Her stealing habits have been the main reason she has found herself in and out of prison on numerous occasions. More often, she excuses her stealing behavior by claiming that the country’s economic and social system is unfair and it makes it difficult for the poor to survive.

Health History of Rosa Lee

Most of the problems that Rosa Lee has faced in her life are directly related to the psychological makeup of her mind, the most notable of which is drug addiction. During her childhood, she had reading difficulties which slowed down her learning progress till when she dropped out of school. She also suffers from HIV because she uses shared needles to inject heroin into her blood vessels.

Spiritual History of Rosa Lee

Her parents were Christians and as she was growing up, she attended church service every Sunday, where she served as an usher. However, even though she believes in God her lifestyle does not reflect the main Christian teachings. She encourages her grandchildren to go to church only on a few occasions despite her belief in God.

Diagnostic Impression

Rosa Lee’s constant lies about her willingness to stop consuming drugs show that she has adopted a disguise that she relies on to hide her true character. She suffers from panic disorders which expose her to high levels of stress when she thinks about her failures as a parent. She gets a false sense of security from her relationship with her children and grandchildren. Therefore, she is not willing to distance herself from the harmful environment that is responsible for her relapses. Moreover, there are no incentives that encourage her to drop the drug habit and this compounds the situation she is facing. These depressive episodes trigger negative memories about the past. Consequently, Rosa Lee constantly reflects on her inability to act as a good role model for her children and grandchildren (Miller, Gold & Smith, 1997, p. 49).

Crack cocaine increases dopamine levels in the brain and this makes users experience psychotic effects such as delusions and hallucinations. Also, Rosa Lee’s crack cocaine consumption has affected her brain transmitters and this has affected her brain functions. As a result, whenever she consumes the drug, she becomes aroused for short periods and afterward, she starts experiencing anxiety attacks. The dependence on cocaine for dopamine stimulation makes Rosa Lee experience uncontrollable cravings for the drug to satisfy her urge. Therefore, she risks taking an overdose which may have adverse effects on her long-term wellbeing. Consequently, her behavioral and cognitive functions depend heavily on cocaine and heroine consumption and this situation makes it difficult for her to think logically. (Miller, Gold & Smith, 1997, p. 53).

Rosa Lee has a high dependence level on cocaine and becomes excited after consuming the drug. She has bouts of paranoia which are not very frequent because she has developed her mechanisms of dealing with effects that arise after consumption. However, she has to contend with other effects such as mood swings and loss of appetite which make her irritable. Also, because of staying in a crowded environment, she rarely has time for herself and this has affected her sleeping patterns. She has drooping eyelids which indicate that she does not get enough sleep at night. Her inability to read affects her judgment and this makes it difficult for her to understand written medical instructions clearly (Miller, Gold & Smith, 1997, p. 56).

The patient suffers from HIV Aids due to injecting heroin using dirty needles and her previous involvement in prostitution. Therefore, continued substance abuse is likely to affect her CD4 cell count and this will eventually weaken her immunity. The patient needs a lot of support to help her overcome the social problems she is facing. Several symptoms in her body reveal that she now has AIDS. Her body is frail and she cannot walk alone without external support (Miller, Gold & Smith, 1997, p. 63). Erratic patterns of substance abuse, poor eating habits, and the inability to adhere to prescription medicine dosages have weakened the patient. She is breathing heavily and additional tests that were conducted reveal that her internal respiratory organs are severely damaged. The patient has a persistent dry cough and this shows that she may be suffering from tuberculosis.

• Axis I: 290.31 Hallucinations, Manic Disorders, Stress, paranoia. Main Cause: Drug Addiction.
• Axis II: C67.12. Poor diet, lack of sleep, Inability to rest
• Axis III: 643. 24. HIV Aids, Tuberculosis
• Axis IV: 56. 33 Impulse to steal, Family problems, Illiteracy, Lack of social support

Recommendations

Rosa Lee needs to go through group therapy to allow her to interact with other substance abuse addicts who are facing similar problems. This is a behavioral intervention that will allow her to focus on factors that encourage her to relapse whenever she tries to stop (Spitz, 2001, p. 27). Also, group learning will improve her attitude towards what life has to offer. She will be in a better position to participate in different activities that are beneficial to her healing. More importantly, she will learn about the relationships she has with her close family members and how they encourage or discourage her to consume narcotics. She needs to find out more about specific environmental factors that are responsible for her relapses to help her to overcome substance abuse.

She also needs medication to help her cope with her addictions. Even though she has been taking methadone, she needs other medications to detoxify her body due to the long term effects of drug consumption. She needs to take naltrexone, to help her overcome her cravings for both heroin and crack cocaine because it has fewer side effects on the body (Brick, 2008, p. 78). This drug acts as an antagonist and she can be given an injection once a month. Naltrexone is the best option for her at the moment because she faces difficulties following doctors’ prescriptions given that she is unable to read and write. However, if she needs a more cost-effective option, she can opt for an oral dose of Suboxone. This drug is also appropriate for her because it does not induce severe withdrawal symptoms in a user’s body (Margolis & Zweben, 1998, p. 91).

A combination of behavioral and medical interventions will enable the patient to overcome her cravings for drugs. However, additional social remedies should be used to help their children overcome their drug habits. If possible, she should be encouraged to move from her current residence to another area where the external environment will not encourage her to engage in substance abuse. All family members need to be offered moral support to encourage them to overcome their destructive habits. This will protect them from different risk factors that are caused by drug addiction.

References

Brick, J. (2008). Handbook of the medical consequences of alcohol and drug abuse. New York, NY: Haworth Press.

Dash, L. (1996). Rosa Lee: A mother and her family in urban America. New York, NY: Harper Collins.

Margolis, R.D., & Zweben, J.E (1998). Treating Patients with Alcohol and Other Drug Problems: An Integrated Approach. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Miller, S. Gold, M., & Smith, E. (1997). Manual of therapeutics for addictions. New York, NY: Wiley.

Spitz, H.I. (2001). Group psychotherapy of substance abuse in the era of managed mental healthcare. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 51(1), 21–41.

Introduction

Nowadays, it became a commonplace practice among many people to refer to the problem of drug-addiction, as one of the most pressing social issues in today’s America. This state of affairs appears thoroughly justified. After all, it does not represent much of a secret that, as of today, just about every large American city features the so-called ‘bad areas’ (believed to be swarmed with drug-addicts), where socially upstanding residents try not to venture, unless absolutely necessary – just as it is being shown in the HBO miniseries The Corner (2000).

What adds to the sheer acuteness of the issue in question is that the currently deployed anti-drug policies, mostly concerned with the functioning of America’s justice system, can hardly be deemed very effective. One the reasons for this is that most of these policies do not take into account the provisions of the Ecological Systems Theory EST (developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner), which stresses out the importance of environmental factors of influence, within the context of how people go about constructing their sense of self-identity and choosing in favor one or another behavioral pattern.

As Duerden and Witt defined it: “EST proposes that individuals exist within a variety of settings, starting at the individual level and extending outward (e.g., family, work, society, etc.)… (deems) development as a process that involves interactions both within and across contexts” (2010, p. 109). In my paper, I will explore the validity of this suggestion at length, in regards to the themes and motifs, contained in The Corner, while promoting the idea that the realities of a post-industrial living in America call for the reassessment of the very methodological approach to conducting the ‘war on drugs’.

Body of the Paper

Probably the main reason why The Corner does deserve to be considered utterly insightful, in the sense of how it treats the theme of drug-addiction, is that it exposes the fallaciousness of the assumption that one’s addiction is best discussed within the context of what happened to be the addicted person’s ethno-cultural/racial affiliation. After all, even though most of African-American characters, featured the miniseries, are indeed shown struggling with their drug-addictions, there appears to have been nothing biologically deterministic about how these individuals ended up being ‘hooked on drugs’.

The character of Gary McCullough comes in as a good example, in this respect. Despite the fact that Gary’s addiction seems to have been embedded into his personality from the very beginning, in the Episode 3 we learn that this character was once a bright college student, who wanted to become a stock-market broker. The fact that, throughout the series’ entirety, Gary never ceases to exhibit his talent in carpentry, also suggests that, if anything, he is the least deserves to be referred to as a ‘natural born’ drug-addict.

Essentially same can be said about every other character in The Corner – despite being used to drugs and to the drug-related street violence, they nevertheless continue to exhibit their full awareness that leading the lifestyle of a drug-addict is utterly inappropriate. Moreover, many of them make a deliberate point in pledging to raise their children in the drug-free environment. To exemplify the validity of this suggestion, we can refer to the characters of DeAndre (Gary’s son) and Tyreeka (DeAndre’s girlfriend).

After having found out that Tyreeka was pregnant with his baby, DeAndre declares that he will do just about all it takes, in order to make sure that his child would be spared from having to learn the ways of the street (Episode 5). In her turn, Tyreeka proves herself thoroughly aware that the notion of parenthood is synonymous with the notion of responsibility: “I do feel like I’m ready to be a mother, because I will give my baby lots of love and my baby is going to love me back” (00.56.03).

When assessed through the conceptual lenses of EST, the above-mentioned observations can be interpreted as the indication that, contrary to what it is being commonly assumed, the identity of being African-Americans did not have any direct link to these characters’ affiliation with drug/gangsta culture. The reason for this is that, as it can be seen in the series, the micro-systemic (family-related) aspects of one’s upbringing in the drug-infested ethnic ‘ghetto’, do not necessarily presuppose that the concerned individual would be naturally inclined to experiment with drugs. Quite on the contrary – due to having been exposed to the effects of a drug-abuse, ever since its early childhood-years, he or she should be innately resentful of the idea.

What it means is that the actual answer, as to why African-American culture continues to be considered ‘drug-infested’, should be sought at the higher levels of what EST conceptualizes as the process of a socially integrated individual striving to attain self-actualization. According to the theory, the process’s sub-sequential phase is concerned with the influence, exerted upon a person, by the peculiarities of how he or she goes about trying to socialize with others, within the same socio-environmental niche, which EST refers to in terms of ‘mesosystem’.

As Bronfenbrenner described it: “Mesosystem is… a place where people can readily engage in face-to-face interaction” (197, p. 22). As it can be seen in The Corner, it is specifically while being the part of the ‘Crenshaw mafia’ (consisting of his closest friends), that DeAndre became perceptually and cognitively tolerant towards the idea that there is nothing wrong about peddling drugs out on the street. The reason for this is that, while being a young male, DeAndre naturally strived to attain a dominant status among its peers, which in turn could be accomplished by the mean of positioning himself as a ‘tough’ but thoroughly rational individual, who addresses life-challenges in the most energetically sound manner.

For example, upon having been asked (Episode 2) whether he experiences any remorse for the fact that, while peddling drugs, he in fact helps his ‘clients’ to destroy their lives, DeAndre replies: “People who use, they go use. They go buy it from somebody somewhere. Might as well be me” (00.02.27). This DeAndre’s statement provides us with the insight into the workings of his psyche, as such that have been shaped by the realities of living in one of West Baltimore’s ‘hoods’ – the place where, due to being concerned with trying to survive, people could not care less about acting morally. What this means is that DeAndre’s stance in life can be discussed as having been partially reflective of what were the specifics of the peer-pressure in the neighborhood, which he never ceased experiencing.

Essentially the same can be said about many of the series’ other prominent characters, such Gary. The reason for this is that many of this character’s relapses back to using drugs, can be explained by the fact that, throughout the course of all six episodes, he never declines to offer a helping hand to those of his drug-addicted friends that happened to be in need. Unfortunately, most of the time this ‘help’ was concerned with Gary giving his friends money to buy heroin. It is understood, of course, that this could not result in anything else but in keeping Gary in a ‘drug-tolerant’ mood – hence, weakening his desire to put away with the addiction.

Nevertheless, even though that, when assessed from the methodological perspective of EST, many of the series’ themes and motifs do appear to be rather ‘mesosystemic’, there can be only a few doubts as to the overall ‘marcrosystemic’ sounding of The Corner. The reason for this is that, as the series imply, the fact that many African-Americans are indeed addicted to drugs, cannot be discussed outside of the discourse of ‘euro-centrism’, which continues to define the qualitative subtleties of how this country actually operates.

This implicit message, conveyed by the series, fully correlates with the theory’s outlook on ‘macrosystem’ as: “the set of social patterns that govern the formation and dissolution of social interactions between individuals, and thus the relationship among ecological systems” (Neal & Neal, 2013, p. 729). In other words, the actual reason why many African-Americans cannot help becoming drug-addicts, is that they continue being explicitly and implicitly discriminated against, in the social sense of this word. In its turn, this situation appears to have been predetermined by the essence of the U.S. economy’s operational principles, on one hand, and by the fact that many American Whites continue to hold prejudices against their African-American co-citizens, on the other.

In The Corner, there are a number of scenes that illustrate the validity of this suggestion. For example, at the beginning of the Episode 2, DeAndre comes up with the statement: “It’s a hard work selling drugs in Baltimore ghetto. It’s a hard work being a Black man in America’ (00.01.58). As this statement implies, it was not that DeAndre chose to become a drug-dealer, because the dubious ‘career’ in question really did appeal to him, but that he was simply trying to survive within the hostile social environment. After all, throughout the series, he never ceases to act as a ‘hunter-gatherer’ for his mother Fran and later for Tyreeka.

This, of course, can be interpreted as yet another proof that EST is indeed legitimate, because many of its conceptual provisions do appear thoroughly consistent with the realities of one’s ‘ghetto-living’, as seen in The Corner. For example, the fact that, despite understanding the dangers of drugs, DeAndre continues to sell them, does support the theory’s convention that the manner in which people tend to act, is being reflective of what happened to be the affiliated social circumstances. In DeAndre’s case, the main of these circumstances was his (and his mother’s) condition of poverty.

However, the clearest indication that the issue of drug-addiction in African-American communities is macro-dimensional, appears to be the scene (Episode 4), in which Gary goes to watch Schindler’s List in the movie-theatre and consequently elaborates on what he considers the actual meaning of what he saw. While talking to his friends (drug-addicts), Gary says: “Germans said to Jews you ain’t humans… In the end, the Germans decided to kill all the Jews, because they couldn’t seem them being any better than bugs or rats…

I and sit there watching this movie, while realizing that this is happening again” (00.47.20). Apparently, in the aftermath of having watched this film, Gary realized that it was not that much of his own fault for having failed repeatedly, while trying to become ‘clean’, than that of the society. The reason for this is that, throughout the series, most of the featured characters suffer from being dehumanized by the authorities. There is another memorable scene in the same Episode, where a White police officer refers to Scalio (one of Gary’s drug-addicted friends) in such a way, as if the latter were not a human being, but some soulless commodity (00.11.36).

One may wonder about how it can be explained that, while proclaiming its intention to defend ‘human rights’ around the world, America could not come up with any better idea, as to how its own growing population of drug-addicts should be dealt with, then treating them as a ‘social burden’? The logic behind this can be outlined as follows:

As The Corner series imply, the truly effective solution to the problem of drug-addiction/trafficking would have to be concerned with overhauling the country’s systems of justice and education – a clearly macroeconomic undertaking. However, the implementation of this undertaking would cost billions of dollars. The anticipated positive effects would only become apparent in the long-term perspective. What is even more – there is no economically justified motive for the Government to be actually trying to win in the ‘war on drugs’.

The reason for this is that, due to the Globalization-induced ‘outsourcing’, concerned with the process of more and more American companies deciding to move their production lines to the Third and Second World countries, America grows progressively incapable of generating any de facto wealth, and not merely ‘wealth-indicating’ liabilities (in the form of stock-market derivatives, bonds, treasuries, securities, etc.). What it means is that, as time goes on, the employed status of many Americans will be increasingly referred to as a mere formality – especially if they happened to specialize in such clearly post-industrial professional pursuits, as management or public relations.

In other words, there is no any objective need in trying to rehabilitate as many drug-addicts, as possible, so that they would be able to become the society’s productive members. After all, the American society itself had ceased being productive, while growing increasingly consumerist. This is exactly the reason why, while trying to become employed, DeAndre could not secure any other, but the so-called ‘dead end’ jobs, concerned with the economy’s servicing sector, such as mopping floors and flipping burgers at Wendy’s.

In other words, had American drug-addicts been helped to put an end to their addiction, they would begin representing even more acute of a ‘social burden’, because once ‘clean’, these people would begin demanding to be allowed to pursue the so-called ‘American dream’ (making good money), just like the rest. In its turn, this would add to the intensity of social tensions in the U.S. Therefore, it makes much more sense for the Government to simply provide drug-addicted citizens with monthly welfare-checks (large enough for the recipients to afford buying drugs), while expecting that these individuals will simply die off quietly in their ‘ghettos’.

Thus, it will only be logical to suggest that, as of today, the U.S. Government does not seem to have any plan, whatsoever, as to how address the problem of drug-addiction of America on any of the mentioned ecological levels. The best proof to the validity of this suggestion can serve the scene (Episode 1), from which we learn about the actual ‘progress’, achieved on the way of America conducting the ‘war on drugs’: “Thirty years ago, Maryland had only five penal institutions. Today, there are twenty eight” (00.01.03). In another memorable scene (Episode 3), upon having been asked the question “are we going to win this war on drugs?”, the Police Officer Robert Brown replies “no comment” (00.55.41).

Therefore, the problem in question is now being primarily tackled at the micro-level. Even though that the deployment this particular strategy by non-governmental organizations/volunteers is often being hampered by the lack of funds, it nevertheless cannot be referred to as anything but thoroughly justified. The fact that this indeed happened to be the case, can be exemplified, in regards to the character of Ella Thompson, who succeeded rather splendidly in endowing many children in West Baltimore with the aversion towards the very idea of trying drugs – doing this was her own initiative.

In my opinion, in order for the problem of drug-addiction in the U.S. to begin becoming progressively less acute, this country’s policy-makers should first familiarize themselves with the macro-systemic magnitude of the concerned subject matter. Then, it should become clear to them that the first thing that would have to be done, in this respect, would be legitimizing the idea that one’s addiction to drugs is more of an illness than of a criminal offense.

This, however, would prove being easier said than done. After all, there can be no doubt that the representatives of the so-called ‘moral majority’ in this country would strongly oppose the suggested initiative. As Yates and Fording pointed out: “State punitiveness does not appear to be driven by governmental responsiveness to mass ideology… the use of imprisonment is tied to the ideological tenor of the elite political environment and politicians’ electoral incentives” (2005, p. 1118).

Yet, it is only after the Government adopts an intellectually flexible approach towards addressing the issue in question, that it may begin becoming progressively more manageable. For those familiar with the main discursive conventions of EST, this suggestion will appear thoroughly reasonable, because it emphasizes the sheer inappropriateness of applying the solely euro-centric standards for assessing the measure of one’s behavioral adequateness, especially if the concerned individual happened to be ethnically visible.

Conclusion

I believe that the deployed line of argumentation, in regards to the discussed subject matter, is fully consistent with the paper’s initial thesis. Apparently, there are indeed a number of reasons to recommend The Corner for watching by those who are interested in learning about what account for the qualitative aspects of how the problem of drug-addiction undermines the integrity of American society, in general, and the people’s hope that it can be successfully dealt with, in particular. The watching of these series will also come in handy for those, who strive to gain a better understanding of how EST can be deployed, when it comes to defining the discursive significance of a particular socially interactive phenomenon.

References

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Duerden, M. D., & Witt, P. A. (2010). An Ecological systems theory perspective on youth programming. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 28(2), 108-120.

McVries, P. (2014). The Corner Episode 1 VOSTFR_ Gary’s blues [Video file]. Web.

McVries, P. (2015). The Corner Episode 2 VOSTFR_ DeAndre’s blues [Video file]. Web.

McVries, P. (2014). The Corner Episode 3 VOSTFR_ Fran’s blues [Video file]. Web.

McVries, P. (2014). The Corner episode 5 VOSTFR_Corner boy blues [Video file]. Web.

Neal, J. W., & Neal, Z. P. (2013). Nested or networked? Future directions for Ecological Systems Theory. Social Development, 22(4), 722-737.

Yates, J. & Fording, R. (2005). Politics and state punitiveness in black and white. The Journal of Politics, 67(4), 1099-1121.

Abstract

Alcohol addiction is a disease that affects the biochemistry and function of the brain adversely due to its depressant effects. Impaired judgment, memory, and eventual dependence and addiction are some of the severe effects. This addiction is learned through a behaviorism paradigm where alcohol acts as external stimuli. The brain responds in a neuroadaptation response, and the individual gets into chronic alcohol use as a means of satisfying the stimulated urge and alcohol withdrawal symptoms. At this level, the individual is best termed as an alcohol addict.

Alcohol Addiction as a Learned Behavior

Alcohol addiction is generally considered a disease of the brain since alcohol addiction alters the biochemistry and physiology of the brain. The damage that is inflicted on the brain leads to continual alcohol use as the individual’s judgment is impaired; thus, the actions are also impaired.

Alcohol is classified as a “central nervous system depressant” (Maurer & Smith, 2005, p. 557), hence a slowdown in brain activity results. The effects of alcohol are more pronounced in the brain since the brain receives a lot of blood, which carries the dissolved alcohol. Dunlap (n.d.) mentions that alcohol causes intoxication and impairment in the functions of the central nervous system (CNS). Sensory, memory, and judgment abilities are therefore greatly impaired by alcohol. Consuming alcohol over a long time leads to alcohol dependency and CNS tolerance as well as augmentation. Alcohol also causes the problem of learned behavior syndrome, ‘wet brain’ as well as addiction.

Behaviorism in Alcohol Addiction

Alcohol addiction can be explained using the behaviorism paradigm of learning. The behaviorism paradigm posits that for every behavior that is exhibited, there must be environmental stimuli that triggered it. In this regard, the internal state of mind is deemed irrelevant in explaining behavior. The learner of the behavior is considered to take a passive role in learning the behavior in that he/she acts in response to external stimuli. Once the behavior has been instituted, the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring is usually high.

Looking into alcohol addiction, an individual starts with initiating alcohol intake where the GABA receptors are activated, and glutamate receptors are inhibited (Boggan, 2010). Upon stopping alcohol intake, the part of the brain that had been triggered feels inefficient, and there is a strong craving to satisfy the trigger (a form of neuroadaptation). With the first intake of alcohol acting as the external stimuli, the brain is made to respond to the stimuli by wanting to stay in the triggered state. Withdrawal from alcohol intake, therefore, creates a greater urge to respond to the activated state.

This makes the individual take more and more alcohol to satisfy chronic craving. Since the behavior of alcohol dependence is already instituted as a means of satisfying specific cravings in the brain, the individual can do nothing much in preventing alcohol intake in the future. This recurrence in alcohol intake to the level where the individual cannot bear the absence of alcohol and alcohol puts the individual into an addiction state.

It is observed that since alcohol is a sedative-hypnotic drug, withdrawing from alcohol addiction leads to severe withdrawal symptoms such as seizures, anxiety, hallucinations (visual/auditory), confusion, and irritability. In addition, there is physical dependence where the individual continues to consume alcohol, although its harmful effects are experienced in alcohol abuse. The behaviorism learning paradigm can explain the continued consumption of alcohol in that once the brain is stimulated to depend on alcohol, withdrawing alcohol leads to severe alcohol withdrawal symptoms.

Sedative-hypnotic drugs seem to relieve the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal and dependence (Behavioral Medicine Associates, 2009). As such, this leads to more alcohol intake to achieve the beneficial effects of sedative-hypnotics; thus, breaking the addiction becomes almost impossible. The initial stimuli of the brain by alcohol can therefore be said to evoke a continual response on the brain, which is best described as alcohol addiction.

References

Behavioral Medicine Associates. (2009). Alcohol addiction. Web.

Boggan, B. (2010). Alcohol, chemistry and you: alcohol addiction. Web.

Dunlap, M. P. (n.d). Biological impacts of alcohol use: an overview. Web.

Maurer, F. A. and Smith, C. M. (2005). Community/public health nursing practice: health for families and populations, 3^rd edition. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 0721603548, 9780721603544.

The process of adolescents’ personal development is characterized by a psychological tendency to be independent, make their own decisions, and free choices. However, the character of an adolescent is not formed yet and tends to be easily exposed to harmful influences leading to addictions of different types, including drug, tobacco, alcohol, or Internet addictions. The choice of the topic is dictated by the fact that adolescent addiction remains one of the most serious problems within this age group.

The disorder leads to adverse outcomes, such as insufficient school performance or failure, deviant criminal behavior, health issues leading to more severe problems in adulthood. The point is relevant in the modern world reality due to the variety of freedoms and easy access to information and products young people can get today. The scope of scientific literature on the topic is available now. However, most of the researches concentrates on one particular type of addiction without a general overview of the disorder as a whole. It is crucial to study dependence in adolescences in a variety of its forms to identify the decisive tools and methods of influence to provide treatment interventions.

Addiction as a Disorder

Adolescence is a period in human life that is marked by the need to behave independently. However, such willingness might lead to socially harmful activities and predetermine addictions. Addiction is a kind of disorder that involves an individual’s constant need to use some substance (drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and others), resulting in a set of “behavioral responses characterized by problematic self-control” (Adiele & Olatokun, 2014, p. 100).

This disorder becomes the most obvious in adolescence but has relations to the character of upbringing in childhood, psychological family atmosphere, and environmental factors that might have their effect on the earlier stages of development. According to recent studies, drug addiction, “cannabis and alcohol use …, along with tobacco, are the drugs most often used by adolescents” (Moshki, Hassanzade, & Taymoori, 2014; Kelly et al., 2015, p. 627). The abuse of these substances might lead to health issues, academic failure, and more psychological severe disorders in adult life.

Influential Factors Contributing to Addiction in Adolescences

Any disorder has its reasons to appear, which are based on some influential factors. It is relevant to indicate two main groups of aspects that predetermine addiction in adolescences: social and psychological ones. The social element includes external and internal factors. The external determinants of dependence might be the general availability of drugs, alcohol, or other substances and the unfortunate socioeconomic environment (Kelly et al., 2015).

For example, a teenager from an unprivileged neighborhood will be more exposed to drug abuse than a young person from a fortunate environment. The internal ones reflect the influence of family and friends (Kelly et al., 2015). For example, a young person spending time in a group of peers who use drugs is likely to end up using them too.

The group of psychological factors includes the individual personal qualities of a person, such as vulnerability to adverse external influences and difficulty in overcoming problems. An adolescent living through a critical phase of personal development struggles to evaluate positive and negative impacts. According to Adiele & Olatokun (2014), Internet addiction is linked to other forms of addiction and is a manifestation of a person’s desire to escape from the negative realities of everyday life. From this point of view, the Internet becomes only a medium helping to access other forms of addiction. Alcohol and drug abuse are also addressed as ways of escape from problems that an adolescent is incapable of overcoming.

However, not all cases of substance abuse result in addiction. According to research, there exists a biological factor that contributes to an individual’s overall tendency to develop an addictive behavior (Cassidy et al., 2018). The parallels might be provided with drug addiction, including cannabis abuse, which is also marked by the genetic particularities of a young individual. Thus, the complexity of social, psychological, and biological factors influence a vulnerable personality of a teenager and increases their exposure to harmful, addictive behaviors leading to failure in adult life. To minimize the adverse effect of these aspects, it is essential to address the issue seriously, attracting the acute attention of parents and implementing treatment implementation.

Prevalence and Parental Involvement

A widely-spread problem of adolescent addictions is addressed by the majority of scholars as to the issue that leads to significant complications in adulthood. According to Cassidy et al. (2018), the majority of “adult cigarette smokers begin smoking in adolescence” and tend to suffer from smoking-related diseases or even die at a young age (p. 153). As for drug addiction, there has been a rise in drug abuse among school students within recent years that implies severe outcomes for the future of these people (Moshki et al., 2014). Also, Internet dependence is regarded as one of the prevailing issues linked to other addictions of young people.

The importance of parental involvement in the problem of addiction in adolescences flows out of the internal social factors that include family. Parents should be acutely attentive to their children’s behavior once they reach adolescence. Any deviation in their demeanor, a tendency to isolation, decreasing level of academic performance, or other indicators of the unstable condition should be analyzed and discussed (Kelly et al., 2015). It is important to raise awareness among parents about the complications in teenage upbringing to help them contribute to the future in earlier stages of childhood. Setting a positive example, surrounding a child with proper influences, and conducting some preventive procedures might decrease an individual’s exposure to addiction in adolescence.

Possible Treatment and Ideal Intervention

Operating with scientific data on the issue, it is vital to incorporate it into a series of preventive and treatment interventions. Addiction is a disorder that should be addressed for its reasons and harmful outcomes. The most effective way to eliminate the problem is to remove the cause of its appearance. Drug addiction is one of the most severe issues capable of ruining adolescents’ lives (Moshki et al., 2014).

Similar to other types of addiction, it originates from the inability to solve problems. Such life skills are necessary to be taught to young individuals so they would be able to withstand harmful influences independently (Moshki et al., 2014). Thus, to achieve an ideal result, it is essential to implement government programs concentrating on the needs of teenagers as the most addiction-vulnerable age group. It is critical to improving the social and economic determinants of the environment in which children grow up. A variety of discussions, preventive procedures, and health promotion interventions introduced at both national and local levels would decrease the addiction rates among young people and contribute to the overall well-being of the nation.

Conclusion

To summarize the discussion, addiction in adolescences is an acute problem that has been addressed by many types of research. It remains relevant in the modern world due to the variety of social and economic factors influencing the availability of addictive substances and the overall acceleration of individuals’ development. It was found out that the majority of adulthood failures, including unemployment, inability to get an education, inability to establish strong social relationships, might be linked to addictive behavior in adolescence. Therefore, it is essential to find ways of resolution of the problem at both national and local levels to eliminate adverse social-economic and psychological factors of addiction development.

References

Adiele, I., & Olatokun, W. (2014). Prevalence and determinants of Internet addiction among adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 100-110. Web.

Cassidy, R. N., Colby, S. M., Tidey, J. W., Jackson, K. M., Cioe, P. A., Krishnan-Sarin, S., & Hatsukamic, D. (2018). Adolescent smokers’ response to reducing the nicotine content of cigarettes: Acute effects on withdrawal symptoms and subjective evaluations. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 188, 153-160. Web.

Kelly, A. B., Evans-Whipp, T. J., Smith, R., Chan, G. C. K., Toumbourou, J. W., Patton, G. C., & Catalano, R. F. (2015). A longitudinal study of the association of adolescent polydrug use, alcohol use, and high school non-completion. Addiction, 110(4), 627-635. Web.

Moshki, M., Hassanzade, T., & Taymoori, P. (2014). Effect of life skills training on drug abuse preventive behaviors among university students. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(5), 577-583.

Introduction

The problem of illegal substances being consumed by an increasingly large number of Australian young people has gained substantial weight in Australian society. According to recent statistics, as there are factors evidencing that a certain percentage of residents might have addictive behaviors (Addiction Center, 2018, para. 2). Therefore, rethinking the current approach toward the promotion of a healthy lifestyle and the prevention of drug misuse should become the priority of the Australian authorities (Coyne, 2019; Spoth, Trudeau, Redmond, & Shin, 2016). It becomes a critical task of the healthcare sector as the reconsideration of the attitude to addictive substances is one of the factors needed to improve the quality of people’s lives and guarantee their well-being. For this purpose, one will have to use an all-embracive approach, changing attitudes within the society, altering the existing legal standards, and encouraging health literacy.

Thesis Statement

By focusing on the creation of drug rehabilitation facilities, introducing harm minimization approaches, promoting active awareness and health literacy, and shaping the current policy toward rehabilitation of drug addicts rather than their punishment, Australian authorities will be able to mitigate the drug issue and create a safer space for citizens.

Situation

The problem of drug addiction and the spread of various substances which have a negative impact on the state of people’s health is not new, and there are many regions in the world that experience this problem. As for Australia, there is a negative tendency towards the increase in the number of people who uses drugs. Reports show that about 43% of the whole population have tried using these substances at least once in their lives (“Drug trends and statistics,” n.d.). Herein lies one of the main reasons for the issue to have made such a strong and persistent impact on the Australian population. The lack of preparedness and, therefore, the absence of the approach that could potentially prevent the drug crisis from taking place was missed dramatically (Anderson, Geyer, Cailor, & Chen, 2019; Gryczynski, O’Grady, Mitchell, Ondersma, & Schwartz, 2016). As a result, a substantial number of Australian citizens have been affected by the drug issue. If to compare with other states, the situation might seem not so threatening, as numbers remain lower than in the most problematic areas. However, there are still some sophisticated aspects that affect populations and that should be considered to ensure that the situation will improve.

Problem

At the moment, cannabis remains the most commonly used drug in Australia. Statistics state that about 16% of all students from 12 to 17 years have tried it, and 7% continue using it every month (“Drug trends and statistics,” n.d.). It becomes a significant challenge to both educational and healthcare sectors as there is a need for effective intervention and improvement of the situation. Additionally, surveys show that the use of ecstasy or similar illicit substances remains low, as about 3% of respondents reported such experience; however, it still becomes higher if to compare with previous years (Drug trends and statistics,” n.d.). As it comes from the given information, predominantly young people become affected by drugs and face the high risk of acquiring the addiction. It means that there is a set of some common reasons that make people use these substances.

The improved understanding of the factors that cause growth in the number of addicted people is also important for the introduction of an effective solution. Thus, one of the primary perquisites for the evolution of drug abuse in Australia is the low level of health literacy and poor understanding of the real consequences that might be associated with illicit substances and their use. The majority of young people state that they associate cannabis or ecstasy with fun, relaxation, and other positive emotions (Coyne, 2019). However, few of them realize the negative effects that these substances have on them.

Another idea that impacts citizens’ attitudes to drugs and their inability to stop using them is the poor understanding of the rehabilitation process, its peculiarities, and the fear of punishment that might be provided to them. The bigger part of the population affected by drugs is sure that rehabilitation practices remain expansive, ineffective, stressful, and painful for them (Coyne, 2019). That is why they might prefer to avoid consulting with specialists because of the given fear or multiple misconceptions that are related to rehabilitation practices.

Finally, problems with local authorities that might be caused by the use of drugs also remain a factor that distracts people from the employment of existing approaches to rehabilitation and engagement in healthy lifestyles. For this reason, there is a critical need for the consideration of these factors, as one of the most important issues shaping the given problem in Australia. At the same time, while the issue of drug abuse is currently recognized as a nationwide concern, the lack of a cohesive program that could help eradicate the problem from Australian society is glaring. Despite several attempts at establishing new policies toward the management of needs of people with drug misuse health issue, the recent advances in handling the situation have not been stellar (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2019). Dissecting the problem, one may realize that the lack of efficacy in the proposed solutions lies primarily in their one-sidedness and the lack of perspective. Instead of embracing the concern as a health issue, a social problem, and the product of loopholes in the existing legislation, recent measures have been restricted solely to the health domain.

Solution

As explained above, in order to manage the threat to which the Australian youth is exposed presently, one will need to adopt a multidimensional perspective. The reasons mentioned above should also be taken into account as they impact the current situation with drugs in Australia and directly affect the effectiveness of the proposed solution. Because the majority of individuals do not correctly realize all consequences associated with illicit substances’ use, the proposed solution should be flexible and broad enough to include all aspects that are needed to provide assistance to influenced populations and achieve significant improvement.

Apart from the health management framework, the legal concerns have to be handled at the respective level. The affordability of drugs and the lack of control over the issue are truly devastating, which means that the legal standards for its purchase will have to be reinforced. Accepting the fact that the spread of drugs is hard to control because of the existence of the developed scheme of distribution that provides people with demanded substances, the given task might be extremely complex and require significant resources to establish a new environment characterized by the improved monitoring of drug market and the ability to respond to the emerging threats effectively. Finally, drug misuse and the resulting crisis in Australia have to be managed on a legislative level (Sobesky & Gorgens, 2016). Specifically, the policies toward addressing the cases of drug possession and illegal use should be shaped to be more lenient toward people that are victims of substance misuse. For people with substance misuse issues and addiction to drugs, the emphasis should be placed on rehabilitation rather than their punishment (Rome, McCartney, Best, & Rush, 2017).

Moreover, as it has already been stated, the solution should also presuppose some education to eliminate existing gaps in knowledge peculiar to people using drugs. The fact is that the low level of health literacy among populations is one of the primary causes for the appearance of serious health problems, including drug addiction. The incorrect understanding of all possible impacts, along with the fear of rehabilitation, might precondition the appearance of unwillingness to engage in practices that will help to stop using illicit substances. For this reason, the offered solution also focuses on the provision of desired information to residents with the primary goal to eliminate existing gaps or misconceptions that promote the further spread of drugs and their massive usage. In such a way, the combination of these aspects is expected to become a basis for the introduction of a flexible, relevant, and comprehensive solution. As a result, the current concern associated with the management of the Australian drug crisis will most likely be addressed successfully.

Evaluation

Assessing the effects of the proposed management technique, one will have to acknowledge some of its problematic aspects. The most evident and concerning one is linked to one of its strengths, which is the focus on the multifaceted nature of the problem. While it is important to provide a full view of the issue and introduce the authorities to the entire spectrum of the concerns associated with drug misuse.

The legal and health-related perspectives from which the concern regarding drug misuse is going to be addressed are, perhaps, the main strengths of the proposed comprehensive approach. Apart from creating premises for better treatment of the people that are, in all actuality, not criminals but mostly victims of this horrible affliction, one will launch the process of making the Australian community healthier. With a new perspective on the problem of drugs, Australian citizens will attain the levels of health literacy that will be required for further self-directed education (Khusid & Vythilingam, 2016). The enhanced awareness related to the use of drugs is one of the critical factors that might precondition the success of offered strategies and ensure that people will reconsider their attitudes to illicit substances. As a result, the problem of the stigma that people with substance misuse have in most cases will be removed from the context of managing the problem of drug misuse. In addition, the social support that patients with drug misuse issues will receive will create the atmosphere in which faster recovery and rehabilitation will be possible.

Moreover, the change in the legal perspective will help to focus on the cause of the problem, specifically, drug peddlers. By drawing a line between the people that are addicted to drugs and those that work in this illegal industry, one will attack the core of the problem and create rigid laws for selling substances illegally. It is also crucial that the proposed changes to the current legislation should not complicate the access to opioids for people who actually need them but, instead, make it more difficult for people to access illegal drugs to use them as recreational ones (Strand, Eukel, & Burck, 2019). The given incentive might have a positive impact on the whole market of drugs in Australia as, at the moment, there is non-complicated access to opioids and other illicit substances that might undermine the health of people and precondition the development of undesired circumstances.

Additionally, there are multiple pieces of evidence proving that reconsideration of the current legal framework is critical for the achievement of positive outcomes and a decrease in the number of addicted people. For instance, reports show that in states where more effective legislation related to the field is accepted, the percentage of people who have a problem with illicit substances decreases significantly (Sobesky & Gorgens, 2016). It means that the proposed solution might be effective enough in the establishment of a new paradigm in relations with this cohort of citizens by providing them with particular protection and defending from negative the consequences of drugs’ use.

The problem with a substantial number of people using cannabis can also be solved with the help of the proposed solution. The fact is that one of the main causes for its popularity among students is the belief that marijuana has no negative impacts on the body and can be used as a natural relaxant to cope with the high level of stress all students might face during their studying (Anderson et al., 2018). Statistics show that 74% of this drug’s users are sure that it will not damage their health (Coyne, 2019). Additionally, its legalization in other states, such as the Netherlands, or Canada, also contributes to the creation of the misconception that the abuse of cannabis is a non-dangerous behavior that should not be avoided.

The given attitude can be considered as the undesired one as in combination with poor health literacy and awareness about the use of drugs, it preconditions the further spread of substances and their abuse. The strong aspect of the proposed solution is the focus on the reconsideration of the attitude to cannabis, as it should not be taken as one of the ways to relax. On the contrary, there is the need for a shift in mentalities to demonstrate the existing threat associated with marijuana smoking.

The focus on building awareness is, perhaps, the weakest aspect of the proposed measure since it does not suggest any innovative methods of conveying the essential information to young people yet. While a new approach can be developed to encourage Australian youth to abstain from taking drugs, the general message of drugs having a dire effect on one’s health is quite downtrodden and is unlikely to attract much attention. For this purpose, an innovative framework for communicating with young people should be developed to prompt a change in the current attitudes toward substances.

Conclusion

By shaping the current approaches toward managing the Australian drug crisis toward multidimensional frameworks, one will be able to resolve the existing concern. Specifically, people with a drug addiction have to be seen as victims and treated as patients with substance misuse issues as opposed to dangerous criminals. Moreover, a program aimed at educating Australian citizens and especially young people will need to be launched to build awareness about the seriousness of the issue and the severity of its outcomes. Keeping people informed is currently the top priority for Australian authorities since the lack of awareness and the persistence of prejudices that define young people’s choices is what constitutes the root cause of the problem.

Moreover, the effective solution to the outlined problem should consider the factors that affect people who use illicit substances and their fears associated with rehabilitation. For this reason, the introduction of a flexible and comprehensive approach that takes into account the existing background is the key to the successful alteration of the current situation in Australia. The offered statistics evidence the fact that the residents might have a wrong understanding of the nature of their problem, its impact on their health, and the possibility to get assistance. For this reason, the need for the proposed measures becomes apparent as it aims at the reconsideration of this negative situation.

Therefore, the multifaceted nature of the changes that will have to be made to the Australian community in order to handle the current concern will allow managing the drug issue. The fact that the program will be aimed at challenging social stereotypes and especially the image of a person with drug misuse issues makes the suggested change particularly compelling. By placing emphasis on the strategies for rehabilitation and assistance for individuals that have developed a drug misuse problem, one will create the basis for a healthier attitude toward the idea of taking drugs. As a result, drug misuse will no longer be seen by young people as an attribute of a particular culture or an act of rebellion but, instead, as a malady that affects their health drastically. Consequently, the levels of drug misuse and the instances of more people developing the described problem will be addressed respectively.

References

Addiction Center. (2018).The tragedy of addiction in Australia. Web.

Anderson, S. M., Geyer, S., Cailor, S. M., & Chen, A. M. (2019). Impact of a team-based learning drug misuse education training program on student pharmacists’ confidence. Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning, 11(1), 58-65. Web.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2019). Alcohol, tobacco & other drugs in Australia. Web.

Coyne, J. (2019). Australia has a drug problem. Policy Forum. Web.

Drug trends and statistics. (n.d.). Web.

Gryczynski, J., O’Grady, K. E., Mitchell, S. G., Ondersma, S. J., & Schwartz, R. P. (2016). Immediate vs. delayed computerized brief intervention for illicit drug misuse. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 10(5), 344-351. Web.

Khusid, M. A., & Vythilingam, M. (2016). The emerging role of mindfulness meditation as effective self-management strategy, part 2: Clinical implications for chronic pain, substance misuse, and insomnia. Military Medicine, 181(9), 969-975. Web.

Rome, A. M., McCartney, D., Best, D., & Rush, R. (2017). Changes in substance use and risk behaviors one year after treatment: Outcomes associated with a quasi-residential rehabilitation service for alcohol and drug users in Edinburgh. Journal of Groups in Addiction & Recovery, 12(2-3), 86-98. Web.

Sobesky, M., & Gorgens, K. (2016). Cannabis and adolescents: Exploring the substance misuse treatment provider experience in a climate of legalization. International Journal of Drug Policy, 33, 66-74. Web.

Spoth, R., Trudeau, L., Redmond, C., & Shin, C. (2016). Replicating and extending a model of effects of universal preventive intervention during early adolescence on young adult substance misuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(10), 913-921. Web.

Strand, M. A., Eukel, H., & Burck, S. (2019). Moving opioid misuse prevention upstream: A pilot study of community pharmacists screening for opioid misuse risk. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 15(8), 1032-1036. Web.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the opiate addiction problem, describe the contributing factors, and suggest ways of resolving the issue. This report also covers the possible changes in the perception of law enforcement and justice systems by the population. Most importantly, it explores the seemingly innocent ways medical professionals introduce people to addictive drugs, and in doing so, contribute to this substance abuse emergency.

The opiate addiction problem is part of the opioid crisis, a countywide epidemic killing over a hundred Americans every day. First, it is essential to state the subtle yet significant difference between opiates and opioids. The term opiate refers only to naturally derived drugs, such as heroin, codeine, or morphine, while opioids include any narcotics, natural and synthetic, that affect the opioid receptors in the brain (Martin et al., 2019).

Since many opioids are prescription medication, for example, hydrocodone and oxycodone, people with pain issues may be introduced to them by their doctors. The false sense of security given by this, combined with the fact that every dose increases the chance of addiction, and dependency is developed in just a few days, puts many patients at risk.

While the probability of developing an addiction is relatively slim and difficult to calculate, almost every opioid user becomes dependent. That means they will experience withdrawal symptoms if they stop taking the drug (Martin et al., 2019). It is because of these symptoms that they may turn to illegal opiates when their prescribed course ends (Waljee, Li, Brummett, & Englesbe, 2019). Newborn children can also experience withdrawal symptoms if their parents used opioids. Another contributing factor is medicine sharing, a dangerous practice conducted by people wanting to save time and money on doctor visits. Due to the fact that every prescription is made for a specific patient, taking another person’s pills has an unsurprisingly high likelihood of adverse effects.

Since chemical dependency is an illness, it should primarily be viewed as a healthcare issue. The proposed recommendations aim to address the root of the problem as well as help rehabilitate the thousands of people already affected. Firstly, medical personnel should not prescribe opioids for long-term issues, such as chronic pain, and use non-addictive drugs instead (Waljee et al., 2017). Secondly, schools are advised to conduct seminars promoting order and discipline in relation to using medicine.

Finally, it is suggested that more law enforcement officers treat addicts as people in need of help and not criminals who have to be punished. Instead of sending drug abusers to prison, where they might still be exposed to narcotics, the court could give them a chance to recover in the form of free consultations with a medical professional.

As a result of the policy revisions mentioned above, the community’s perception of the criminal justice system is likely to change as well. A larger part of the society may start seeing this institution as something that works to help people lead a safer life. In general, the reaction to the new strategy is expected to be positive, as the public seems to be calling for it.

In conclusion, while at the moment opioid addiction has the possibility to affect many people, it can be significantly reduced by using a more cautious approach to prescription drugs. With the knowledge of the dangers of addictive substances, people will be less likely to agree to take them for a prolonged period. No matter how desperate the opioid crisis may seem now, it has a realistic solution.

References

Martin, J. A., Werner, C. T., Mitra, S., Zhong, P., Wang, Z. J., Gobira, P. H.,… & Hagarty, D. (2019). A novel role for the actin-binding protein drebrin in regulating opiate addiction. Nature communications, 10(1), 1-11.

Waljee, J. F., Li, L., Brummett, C. M., & Englesbe, M. J. (2017). Iatrogenic opioid dependence in the United States: Are surgeons the gatekeepers? Annals of surgery, 265(4), 728-730.

Abstract

Modern society suffers from diverse problems deteriorating the health of the nation, and heroin addiction are one of them. In this regard, the given paper delves into the biological aspects of this problem. The central points of addiction, the ways it appears, how it impacts peoples behaviors, factors that increase vulnerability to drugs, some tendencies in its treatment, and the unsatisfying statistics related to the rise of the problem are revealed in the paper. It consists of the introductory section creating the background for the investigation; a body in which the above-mentioned aspects are discussed; and a conclusion summarizing key findings.

Introduction

Regarding the shift of priorities towards the cultivation of the improved quality of peoples lives and promotion of the appropriate lifestyle, the health of the nation becomes the central concern for the government and diverse institutions regulating the functioning of society and its evolution. Much effort is devoted to the elimination of social stigmas that might result in the emergence of significant problems in different spheres of human activity. Unfortunately, despite all these attempts, there are still multiple problematic issues that should be solved to ensure that people will enjoy the high quality of their lives. Drug addiction is one of these concerns. The fact is that today a significant part of the population globally suffers from this health issue. Moreover, the rapid rise of technologies stipulated the appearance of new drugs that might have adverse effects on individuals. That is why the topicality of the problem becomes apparent. The given paper is devoted to the investigation of heroin as one of the most widespread drugs, biological aspects of its addiction, and how it impacts individuals, their personality, brain, and behavior.

Statistics

Starting investigation of the outlined issue, it is critical to determine the scope of the problem and tendencies related to it. Thus, in accordance with the latest statistical data, 21,5 million American citizens experienced substance use disorder (CDC, 2018). Additionally, data related to drug overdose shows that the situation is critical as 63,632 people died in 2016 because of the use of heroin and other drugs (CDC, 2018). In such a way, the epidemic spreads across the state and affects different population groups (CDC, 2018). Specialists investigating the given problematic issue admit the fact that a significant deterioration of the situation in the future will be observed (CDC, 2018). What is even worse, more and more young people become addicted. For instance, about 55% of all adolescents have tried substances at least once in their lives; 15% of them have acquired addiction (CDC, 2018). The scale of the problem proves the necessity of its investigation to improve the comprehension of the concern and its main aspects.

The Way Heroin Affects Individuals

Nevertheless, the high speed of the development of addiction and drug spread is explained by the way it affects individuals and what alterations in moods, behaviors, and functioning of the body it triggers. The fact is that heroin activates specific receptors in the brain (mu-opioid receptors (MORs) (Horvath, Misra, Epner, & Cooper, 2016). Therefore, these are connected with neurotransmitters responsible for pain regulation and hormone release (Horvath et al., 2016). In such a way, using heroin, an individual activates MORs in the reward center of the brain which results in the stimulation of the neurotransmitter of dopamine associated with the feeling of satisfaction and pleasure (Horvath et al., 2016). That is why the consequences of activating these opioid receptors due to the use of externally administered substances such as heroin might be pleasant to an abuser (Horvath et al., 2016). At the same time, the drug triggers unusual behaviors emerging under the impact of dopamine and neurotransmitters. Unfortunately, heroins effect on the brain results in the development of physical and psychological dependence, and in the course of time, the brain signals that it cannot function without the constant income of heroin (Horvath et al., 2016). It means that a person becomes addicted because of the appearance of associations between the use of this substance and feelings that appear, and the physical need for this substance.

Pharmacodynamics

As for the pharmacodynamics of the given drug, it also has its unique features. First, heroin might be administered in different ways. One of the most common ways among abusers is an intravenous one. Therefore, heroin quickly affects the body by interacting with blood. At this stage, it becomes rapidly cleared from plasma and continues to interact with the body causing diverse alterations (Gottås, Arnestad, Halvorsen, Bachs, & Høiseth, 2016). Thus, cardiovascular changes are not significant at the first stages (Gottås et al., 2016). Then, individuals using the substance demonstrate altered behaviors under the impact of dopamine that starts to promote its effect on the functioning of a body. The given mechanism is observed in the majority of patients using heroin. Additionally, researchers who delve into the issuing state that increments of 50% in the regular heroin dose do not cause significant harm to a patient and do not trigger the development of side effects (Gottås et al., 2016). At the same time, it remains dangerous because of the high risk of the development of addiction and undesired changes in the body of an individual.

Alterations in Behavior

Another aspect associated with the use of heroin and the development of addiction is a radical alteration in the behaviors of individuals who use this substance. For instance, according to the biological model of the development of addiction and changes associated with it, every person has unique psychology and genetics that might cause the development of dependence and alterations in behaviors (Horvath et al., 2016). Thus, there are several behavioral patterns peculiar to abusers. First, they might feel euphoria and an energy surge soon after the drug intake (Hart & Ksir, 2017). However, these stages are replaced by depressive, and helpless behaviors (Horvath et al., 2016). These differences are explained by the inappropriate functioning of neurotransmitters and their dependence on the admission of heroin. Additionally, an individual might become aggressive because of the lack of the needed dose and signals sent by his/her brain indicating the need for the drug. These alterations are typical for the majority of abusers as the functioning of their nervous system is corrupted and depends on the substance consumed by a person.

Differences in Effects

At the same time, speaking about the biological aspects of addiction, we also admit the fact that heroin might affect individuals in different ways. To a greater extent, it depends on the peculiarities of the body and the genetic aspects of an individual. Despite numerous attempts to understand how heroin impacts the body and all mechanisms of this interaction, scientists still have a vague understanding of why some people become more addicted to the drug while others might ignore it (Marks, 2016). In accordance with the latest research, certain types of genes might be responsible for the appearance of certain hidden inclinations and underlying risk for the acquisition of the addiction (Horvath et al., 2016). For instance, in families with the experience of substance abuse, its members demonstrate a higher risk of becoming addicted (Marks, 2016). At the same time, not all individuals of this group are necessarily doomed to become dependent. In such a way, the mechanisms of the development of addiction in multiple population groups should be investigated to improve our comprehension of its central aspects and the ways it affects people.

Multiple Biological Models of Addiction

Regarding given uncertainties, researchers also suggest diverse biological models of the appearance of heroin addiction. In accordance with these theories the brain structure, peculiarities of the brain chemistry, genetic abnormalities, and behavior might affect the emergence and development of the given health issue. Moreover, given biological models are also introduced to understand addiction vulnerability (Hart & Ksir, 2017). For instance, there are several early reward-centric models united by the fact that they all consider pleasurable aspects of taking drugs the central cause of the problem (Horvath et al., 2016). At the same time, motivation-focused models emphasize a pernicious impact of misdirected motivation on a person, his/her desires, actions, and motifs. In such a way, all models of the appearance of heroin addiction tend to reveal the factors that might trigger the evolution of behaviors resulting in excessive use of heroin and acquisition of dependence. The latter becomes a serious health problem as it promotes the alteration of the brain functions and work of neurotransmitters.

Reward-Centric Model

Nevertheless, as we have already stated above, early reward-centric models assume that from the biological perspective heroin addiction appears because this sort of drug might interfere with brain circuits responsible for generating responses to such natural rewards as sex, food, etc. The fact is that the central component of the circuitry is the nucleus accumbens, which can be found in the ventral striatum, and this very part of the brain receives dopaminergic innervation (Hart & Ksir, 2017). Known as the reward center, it provides heroin with high abusive potential as the given substance might interfere with the functioning of this part of the brain and result in the dopamine release in this structure (Poon, Turpyn, Hansen, Jacangelo, & Chaplin, 2016). In such a way, an individual starts to feel emotions traditionally associated only with natural rewards. In the course of time, a person acquires the dependence as nucleus accumbens is not able to function without the constant income of dopamine. A person feels depressed and wants to express reward-associated feelings again.

Motivation Focus

Another model presupposes that the given addiction is the case of poor or misdirected motivation characterized by the wrong distribution of priorities and disregard of the basic demands of a person (Hart & Ksir, 2017). For instance, an abuse might devote more attention to using heroin instead of caring for his/her close people, work, or education (Hart & Ksir, 2017). One of the possible explanations for the selection of these smaller and insignificant rewards could be suggested using the biological perspective on how specific areas of brain function and process information associated with rewards (Hart & Ksir, 2017). In accordance with the latest findings, highly-developed brain regions responsible for higher-order processes are significant for decision-making related to addictions (Hart & Ksir, 2017). In such a way, people using heroin acquire altered behavioral patterns characterized by the shift of priorities and adherence to abusive actions. Significant alterations in the way the brain functions result in the appearance of new perspectives on motivation and the distribution of goals. That is why a person cannot stop using drugs.

Vulnerability to Addiction

Investigations in the given sphere also show that there are specific features that might result in the appearance and development of vulnerability to drugs and addictive behaviors. One of the models suggesting this idea state that there are primary and secondary motivational neurocircuitries responsible for the emergence of particular responses to stressors and factors impacting an individual (Horvath et al., 2016). In such a way, specific peculiarities in the functioning of this region of the brain might stipulate the rise of addictive behaviors related to drug abuse, food intake, obesity, alcohol use, etc. (Marks, 2016). A secondary motivational neurocircuitry in its turn is involved in motivational decision-making processes and preconditions the appearance of the solution to take or ignore drugs (Horvath et al., 2016). Nevertheless, both secondary and primary motivational neurocircuitry experience the impact of external and internal factors and might precondition engagement in diverse behaviors, actions, and responses. It also means that the way in which these areas processes data precondition the high or low resistance to drug or vulnerability. The given theory could be used to explain a significant difference in the ways how heroin affects multiple individuals (Horvath et al., 2016).

Treatment

All these factors also precondition the high complexity of treatment. First of all, it is critical to restoring normal brain functioning and behavior to avoid relapses and ensure that an individual will not use drugs for pleasant feelings or poor motivation again. That is why, the combined approach encompassing both behavioral and therapeutic treatments is considered the most efficient nowadays (Bond & Witton, 2017). First, resting on specific medical needs, three types of medications could be used. These are agonists activating opioid receptors (Methadone), partial agonists producing a smaller response in these receptors (Buprenorphine), and antagonists, blocking the receptors (Naltrexone) (Bond & Witton, 2017). Using these medications, health workers might attain improved brain functioning by acting through the same opioid receptors as the addictive drug but in a safer manner (Bond & Witton, 2017). At the same time, behavioral treatment should also be suggested to drug users to attain significant changes in their motivations, actions, and elaborate resistant behaviors. The combination of these two approaches demonstrates the high efficiency and is recommended today as the only method to assist addictive individuals.

Conclusion

Altogether, summarizing these theories, it is possible to state that alterations in some brain regions and cerebral cortex are also followed by impaired decision-making which results in the increased risk of using drugs. There are multiple reasons for the emergence of these alterations; however, these might cultivate vulnerabilities to drugs and the overall deterioration of the situation associated with the drug use. At the same time, from the biological perspective, addiction to heroin is also closely associated with the brains reward system. Using the evolutionary approach, the functioning of the given system is needed to guarantee our survival by repeating actions critical for this process and associating them with pleasurable feelings. Thus, heroin affects the body in a similar way. The substance makes neurotransmitters facilitate the production of dopamine which, in its turn, stipulates the emergence of pleasant feelings and emotions. It means that our brain becomes deceived by the drug as it starts to consider it one of the aspects needed for survival and insists on its constant income. That is why a person acquires a dependence that is hard to overcome because of the alterations in the functioning of the cerebral cortex and some regions in the brain.

References

Bond, A., & Witton, J. (2017). Perspectives on the pharmacological treatment of heroin addiction. Clinical Medicine Insights: Psychiatry. Web.

CDC. (2018). U.S. drug overdose deaths continue to rise; increase fueled by synthetic opioids. Web.

Gottås, A., Arnestad, M., Halvorsen, P. S., Bachs, L. C., & Høiseth, G. (2016). Pharmacokinetics of heroin and its metabolites in vitreous humor and blood in a living pig model. Forensic Toxicology, 34(2), 277–285.

Hart, C., & Ksir, C. (2017). Drugs, society, and human behavior. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Horvath, T., Misra, K., Epner, A., & Cooper, G. (2016). Biological causes of addiction. Web.

Marks, D. (2016). Dyshomeostasis, obesity, addiction and chronic stress. Health Psychology Open. Web.

Poon, J., Turpyn, C., Hansen, A., Jacangelo, J., & Chaplin, T. (2016). Adolescent substance use & psychopathology: Interactive effects of cortisol reactivity and emotion regulation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40(3), 368-380.

Drug addiction is one of the most serious issues in the modern American society. Numerous approaches have been used to address the problem. It is possible to note that positive coping strategies can be beneficial for drug abusers, their families and the entire society (Connors, DiClemente, Velasquez, & Donovan, 2012). Different positive coping interventions have been developed, and they all show very good results. This paper outlines major peculiarities of an effective intervention aimed at helping people suffering from addiction.

The hypothesis can be formulated as follows: positive coping intervention techniques will aid in the recovery of individuals suffering from drug addiction. The intervention in question is based on the three domains that are referred to as “the pleasant life”, “the engaged life” and “the meaningful life” (as cited in Krentzman, 2013, p. 157). The intervention involves group and individual sessions aimed at enhancing the participants’ positive coping skills. The first type of sessions aims at making the participants aware of the fact that drugs are a shortcut to pleasant life, but it is a wrongful way leading nowhere. This section of the intervention also involves the development of skills and knowledge about individuals’ strengths that can be used to achieve pleasant life through making effort instead of using drugs (Krentzman, 2013). This stage involves assignments and tasks that help people address various stressful situations based on their psychological types (Dennhardt & Murphy, 2013).

The second stage can have manifold outcomes at different levels. Apart from helping individuals, they are aimed at engaging the community. The section associated with the domain of the engaged life involves the development of skills the participants will use to become more active in their social life (Krentzman, 2013). Besides, the community is involved. It has been acknowledged that the support of others (especially family members) is essential (Orford, Velleman, Natera, Templeton, & Copello, 2013). However, the participation of people from the neighborhood is also beneficial (Krentzman, 2013). People are encouraged to participate in sessions and various activities. In this way, the community becomes less biased and more involved. People do not stigmatize drug abusers but try to help them. Importantly, they have skills to do it effectively. The interaction between drug abusers and the rest of the community creates the platform for the supportive environment, in which people will be able to live without drugs.

Finally, the third domain can be regarded as central. This part of the intervention aims at helping the participants to set life goals and develop skills to achieve them (Krentzman, 2013). Drug addicts often have no purpose in life but seek pleasure (Lewis, Dana, & Blevins, 2014). However, when they set their major goal (or even a smaller short-term objective), these individuals often quit using drugs as they are focused on achieving something they have in mind.

Clearly, this intervention is beneficial for the participants’ life. Drug abusers can get rid of their harmful habit. Moreover, they will develop skills that will enable them to succeed in life. They will have a positive attitude, they will be goal-oriented, they will have the necessary support to achieve their goals. Of course, the intervention will also increase the aspect of positive psychology. New evidence proving the effectiveness of the approach will be found. New methods and strategies can be developed and considered by peers.

References

Connors, G. J., DiClemente, C. C., Velasquez, M. M., & Donovan, D. M. (2012). Substance abuse treatment and the stages of change: Selecting and Planning. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Dennhardt, A., & Murphy, J.G. (2013). Prevention and treatment of college student drug use: A review of the literature. Addictive Behaviors, 38(10), 2607-2618.

Krentzman, A. R. (2013). Review of the application of positive psychology to substance use, addiction, and recovery research. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(1), 151-165.

Lewis, J.A., Dana, R., & Blevins, G.A. (2014). Substance abuse counseling. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

Orford, J., Velleman, R., Natera, G., Templeton, L., & Copello, A. (2013). Addiction in the family is a major but neglected contributor to the global burden of adult ill-health. Social Science & Medicine, 78, 70-77.