Category: Action Research

It is impossible to separate active research from politics especially if it means transforming peoples lives. Even so, researchers who might be interested in applying their skills and training to address social issues find it challenging to mix politics and psychology.

In this book, Mary Brydon-Miller says that the goal of Participatory Action Plan is to initiate social transformation and community empowerment by enabling researchers who undertake to work with communities to achieve desired social change by using psychology to support social, economic and political values.

Beginning with definition of the concepts of Participatory Action Research which includes the little known concept of participatory research, this book goes on to describe a number of theories and principles of building viable projects through practical teamwork, the role of the researcher and that of the subject, describing the benefits of involving the researcher in the political life of the subject.

The next step referred in the subtitle, explains the methods that can be used by the researcher to engage the community in meaningful research that can help solve its problems. Finally, there is a lengthy explanation of how psychology can be combined with politics to help solve social problems openly and democratically. Issues touching on developing countries, homeless persons, and role of politicians have been discussed.

Additional points worth mentioning are the inclusion of the quote, Be There When it happens by the late poet Joel Oppen-heimer. A well structured book, Education, Research and Action does a good job of describing the benefits of combining psychology with politics, but also why the community should be included in every research.

Class Experience and Conflict in a Feminist Workplace: A Case Study

In work places, perception of class among Euro-American women comes as a result of differences in location of work place and barriers to access of equal work relations in the place of work. In this book, Sandra Morgen uses a health clinic case study to explain how women come to perceive themselves as being either middle or working class.

Contrary to popular belief, coalitions, alliances and work relationships between working-class and middle class women and between Euro-American and women of color do not suggest the existence of sisterhood.

This book begins by discussing the meaning of class to Euro-American women by referring to a health clinic run jointly by middle and working class women workers. The book goes on to explain how class is identified, class differences understood and how they impact on activities in the clinic i.e. are there oppressive class relations etc. A discussion of class theories follows.

The next step involves the discussion of the background and history of a health group called community women for health that was jointly founded by Euro-American working and middle class women. This is followed by a discussion of politics within CWH that saw the middle class women fire the working class. Causes for this outcome of events i.e. strained class relationships; conflicts due to working conditions and class based policies have been discussed.

Additional points worth noting include four separate stories of Betsy, Jesse, Margret and Liz who were interviewed. The well structured book explains equal contributions made by both classes and how middle class came to dominate the clinic by discriminating against their peers. The book ends by giving a conclusion and recommendation.

Feminism and Method: Ethnography, discourse Analysis, and Activist Research

The scientific description of customs of cultures and individual peoples or ethnography is subject to bias every time the relationship between the researcher and the subjects gets out of hand. In this book, Nancy Naples states that negative consequences arising as a result of such bias can be eliminated by taking into account methodological strategies developed by researchers who took postcolonial, postmodern and feminist standpoint.

This is so because members of a community being researched are participants in the research process and certainly do affect the outcome of the research.

This book begins by discussing what researchers can to avoid affecting the lives of research subjects. The book goes on to explain how a feminist approach can be used in ethnography, discuss challenges of ethnography, limits and possibilities of reflective practice i.e. it can make interactive activities between researcher and subjects to be time consuming due to lengthy consultations.

Next step involves explaining how weaknesses of reflective practice can be reduced. The book concludes by briefly discussing the role of feminist theories in ethnographic research and its shortcomings.

Additional points worth noting is the interview conducted to demonstrate reflective practice and the relevance of findings obtained. The book which uses technical terms to bring forth its case does a good job of explaining how bias in ethnography can be overcome so as to give reliable end result. The subjects under study seem to be aware of the bias and feministic materialist approach has been noted to be the best solution to this problem.

Theoretical Bases for Coalition Building: An Assessment of Postmodernism

The author of this book Nancy C. M. Hart sock notes that political theory can be useful for political and policy by helping to reveal possible new coalitions and alliances. This book notes that political coalitions are formed when members of certain communities are dominated and marginalized by others. Coalitions are based on factors such as race, gender, sexuality and class.

The book begins by discussing feminist and postmodernist theories. Postmodernism and the enlightenment tradition are compared. The book also discusses the root of capitalism and it has a comprehensive essay dedicated to failures of postmodernism. The book further discusses the implications of feminist theory and contributions made by Marxist theory to coalition. The book discusses how domineering groups in a society force those dominated to reconstitute themselves into coalitions.

Under the subtopic developing alternative visions, the book suggests to the reader the sources of additional information for better understanding of the subject matter. Something else that is worth noting is the inclusion of a poem by Gloria Anzalduas that illustrates the plight of the subjugated or dominated communities.

The book contains additional short notes that give a brief overview of the kind of ideas that are being discussed in the book and that guides the reader through some of the issues that have been discussed. The book also has a list of contributors that made the work possible.

A well structured book, Theoretical Bases for Coalition Building does a good job of describing existing theories that explain the root of coalitions and also describe alternative theories that can be used to explain the origin of coalitions.

Feminist Approaches to Social Movements, community and Power: Some Theoretical Musings about Gender and Resistance

We are living in times of profound changes. These changes have changed the way knowledge is produced in the field of international relations. In this book, Marianne H. Marchand notes that the most important of these changes include cold war and globalization and the impact that these have had on IR. The end of Cold war changed how international politics were viewed earlier by introduced some subjects for debate like environment etc.

Globalization has made IR scholars shift their attention to issues like social movements, transnational corporations and the likelihood of emergence of a global civil society that could end up forming a New World Order. The order is often fought by people who often resist changes in global political economy.

Beginning with a discussion of knowledge of issues pertaining to globalization, gender and feminism, this book the goes on to describe a number of issues related to gender based resistance to social change, setbacks to globalization and explaining their effect the establishment of new world order.

Next come the issues referred to in the subtitle, which undermine swift implementation of globalization. Finally there are a number of provocative essays discussing diverse subjects such as gender and resistance to global changes, social movements i.e. womens health movement etc, feminist resistance practices, globalization and politics of resistance.

Additional points worth mentioning are the inclusion of excerpts from womens movements and other activists and some long notes from the author to help the reader understand the source of some of the ideas. The book was published in Columbia, South Carolina.

The book gives clear details of how feminist movements hinder global development.

Rethinking Feminist Organizations

Despite the increase in popularity of social feminist movements scholars continue to overlook some strategies, ideologies and forms embodied by feminist organizations.

Patricia Yancey Martin who is the author of this book argue that most scholars who are involved in judging feminist organizations pay more attention to collectivism and bureaucratic issues while at the same time choosing to overlook some qualities of these organizations. This means that a lot remains to be discussed especially when it comes to comparing non feminist and feminist organizations.

The author begins by outlining all key aspects of feminist organizations that he is going to discuss in the book including definitions. The book then goes ahead to discuss some contested issues, how organizations are classified of feminist and non feminist, how feminist organizations lose power by working more with the government, internal structure of the organization, what distinguishes a feminist organization from the others and the ten dimensions or aspects of a feminist organization.

The most important thing done by the author is to define the concept of feminist organizations comprehensively together with all associated terms. This is closely followed by essays discussing all of the ten dimensions that distinguish a feminist organization from a non feminist organization.

Additional points worth noting is the note given by the author to the reader that refers him or her to an earlier version of the book that the reader can use to gain much understanding concerning the issue being discussed. The book also gives the background of the author and issues she is currently covering. The book is well structured and it describes the link between feminist organizations and social movements.

Mens work: Mens voices and Actions against Sexism and Violence

It is the duty of men to prevent violence perpetrated against women, however, little is known about men who commit their lives towards prevention of violence against women. In this book, Rus Ervin Funk observes that it can be a bit confusing to focus attention to men only while ignoring women victims of various forms of violence. The book focuses on and how men can prevent fellow men from perpetrating violence against women.

The book begins by giving a summary of findings of a project that was carried out whose purpose was to see how violence against women can be controlled. The book then goes on to discuss the role played by men to prevent violence against women, it then discusses the various forms of violence that exist in the society and finally the book gives details concerning the project undertaken, what the findings were and the recommendations.

The next step outlined in the subtitle, explains the need for men to re examine themselves by redefining the meaning of a real man in order to effectively tackle the problem of violence against women.

Finally, the book gives details of the outcomes of the project that involved obtaining the views of men concerning violence against women and how much the notion of being a real man contributed towards such violence. All forms of violence are discussed including sexual assault, dating abuse, sexual harassment, domestic violence, prostitution, pornography, and stalking.

Additional Points worth noting include an overview of key words to guide the reader towards understanding better the subject matter under discussion and the list of acknowledgement that gives the background of the author.

Social Movements: Creating Communities of Change

Social movements and political protests can have significant impact on politics and public policy. It is not easy trying to understand social movements. In this book, David S. Meyer says that since social movements have become a feature that is increasingly associated with modern political life, there is the need to understand them better. This requires analyzing factors of social protest movements handled mostly through feminist protest movements but have often been missing from conventional political analysis.

The book begins by discussing the phenomena of social movements and how such understanding can help social scientists understand the movements better. The book the goes on to discuss how feminist theories can be used best to explain the origins of social movements and protest politics.

The next thing referred in the subtitle, explains how social movements transform the lives of the participants. It also details additional means that can be used by social movements to engage in conventional political activities e.g. public education campaigns, running electoral campaigns, lobbying and non conventional means such as political violence, demonstrations, civil disobedience, picketing, and boycotts.

Additional points worth noting are the authors description of real life movements that helps the reader understand circumstances under which social movements are formed, what political opportunities are created and the effects that social protest movements have on culture, policy, and lives of participants.

The book focuses mainly on feminist theory and its contribution to politics, community and social life. The book ends with a note that guides the reader in understanding the context of the book.

Critical Race Theory: The Intersection of Race and Gender

The last twenty years have seen women desire to shape their lives increase. Women have realized that there is power in numbers. In this book, Kimberley Williams Crenshaw says that transforming problems that were formerly seen as individual and isolated i.e. violence against women, gays, lesbians, African Americans etc into a form of social movement can help solve these problems more effectively. The social movements give the desired political identity that helps fight race and gender based prejudices.

The book begins by discussing means of increasing membership for a social movement in order to give it more social significance. The book mostly focuses on describing gender and race aspects of violence against women of color, failures of contemporary antiracist and feminist theories to address problems faced by women of color.

The next step referred in the subtitle, explains the intersection between racism and sexism in discrimination against black women. The book also discusses the details of a field study on shelters that was conducted in Los Angeles, discrimination against women of color and high rates of unemployment among them, race and domestic violence support services.

Additional points worth noting include excerpts taken fro other books to help the reader gaining better understanding of the subject under discussion. Elaborate discussion of racism and rape occurring against women of color. The book also has additional notes that direct the reader towards sources for further reading.

This book is well structured and it gives comprehensive details on how violence against women of color can be controlled by strengthening social movements that address women problems. This can be achieved effectively by addressing individual and isolated cases of violence through social movements.

The All you need to know about action research (2nd Edition) action research book authored by McNiff & Whitehead provides practical guidance and an in-depth understanding of how action research can benefit professions in the field of education. Action research enables practitioners including educationists to evaluate and investigate their work. They ask, What am I doing? Do I need to improve anything? If so, what? How do I improve it? (McNiff & Whitehead, 2011, p. 45). It is more about observing, reflecting, acting, evaluating, and modifying, a process that helps to improve on new theories or discover new theories. As shown, action research is suitable when one wants to improve understanding and develop ones learning and other peoples learning. This helps educationists improve on their evidence-based teaching mechanisms.

One of the remarkable highlights is in Part III. The section sheds light on designing, planning, engaging literature, and initiating the action plan during the action research process. Most action research focuses on the out there social world (doing things while focusing on persons you are dealing with). However, one also needs to focus on the in here mental world (reflect and think about what one is doing when performing the research). The in here and out here world planning requires an action researcher to address his/her concern for the research, the action to take, data type to be gathered, judge how his education influence the research, ensure that the conclusions are reasonable and evaluate research validity.

When it comes to designing an action research project (Part III), one should develop a conceptual/theoretical framework that details reasons that have subjected one to undertake the research. The conceptual framework(s) should link to literature ideas; what key authors have noted about concepts one has included. In addition, the design process should include the methodological framework to detail how to conduct the research process. The methodological framework chosen should communicate openness to novel possibilities; necessitate systematic inquiry and continual critique.

Part IV details how to get compelling evidence to keep away suppositions and opinions, which may nullify the claim, a very fundamental part of action research. Compelling evidence narrows down to data. To gather quality data, one needs to determine the kind of data one is looking for and find out the most appropriate place to gather it. The best place would be in ones field of practice where data collection opportunities are always available. One also needs to analyze; sort and store data to generate quality evidence. When doing this, one should avoid social closure (thinking that one is right and the rest are wrong), and professional closure (comply with professional experience/knowledge) that can generate bias. To monitor the quality of the data collected, it necessitates one to re-think, reflect and use critical friends to help correlate the data gathered, the process used to gather it, and the real intention of the action research process to see the research is on the right track. This helps to scrutinize the data gathered and develop ideas to enhance data quality.

For the public domain to validate the research claim, an action researcher needs to test the legitimacy and validity of the claim epistemologically and methodologically (part five) after collecting quality data. This is done by creating a self-evaluation report that shows that one is contributing to public knowledge. In the report, the researcher should articulate standards of judgment used while showing his/her awareness of the research problems that exist. This ensures that what the researcher says is logical in association with the researchers ability to produce a coherent narrative account showing the transformational process, issue identification stage to original knowledge claim stage. In addition, this ensures that what the researcher says is truthful, he/she is authentic (show how values are or are not realized), and speaks appropriately (demonstrate socio-political and cultural forces supporting his/her knowledge).

Action research also needs to disseminate and share the value of his research to the public. This is where the research determines who should tell the story, which voice should be heard. The voice should sound truthful and comprehensible. Hence, a researcher should come up with high-quality accounts by taking up an interpretive approach, which acknowledges practitioners are actual participants thus validating them as research-observer. Apart from this, researchers should incorporate the underprivileged (unheard) voices by using real case stories. This also happens when writing a research report. The voice used should indicate that the report is for scholarly practice; should not only contain the importance of the research but also what the researcher has learned from the practice coupled with an analysis, which should be in a reflective commentary form. While disseminating the research, the researchs significance should be explained about the researchers line of work and its ability to transform the entire field of education. This is the only way that a research project is included in scholarly works; demonstrated to be of the highest quality with the ability to benefit persons in the field of education around the globe.

Reference

McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2011). All you need to know about action research (second edition). London: SAGE.

Introduction

Change and innovation are invaluable for a competitive organization. Action Research (AR) is an approach that appears to offer a consistent guideline for turning innovation into a continuous process that becomes naturally customized to the changing context in which a user company finds itself. In order to describe AR, a literature review on the matter is provided in this paper with regard to the impact that this approach may have on the activities of an organization.

Literature Review

In the first chapter of their work, Introduction: Action Research, Diversity, and Democracy Greenwood and Levin (2007) provide a quick overview of their view of AR. According to Greenwood and Levin (2007), action research (also called participatory research, human inquiry, and action science) is an approach to social research carried out by a team that encompasses a professional action researcher and the members of an organization, community, or network (stakeholders) who are seeking to improve the participants situation (p. 4). In turn, Coghlan and Brannick (2014) define AR as both the process of research and the approach to this process. For Coghlan (2011), however, AR is more than an approach: it is a worldview that finds expression in collaborative inquiry and learning-in-action in order to generate actionable knowledge (Coghlan, 2011, p. 79). All these definitions have a ground, and, to demonstrate it, the features of the phenomenon should be discussed.

Features

The article by Brydon-Miller, Greenwood, and Maguire (2003) introduces readers to the journal Action Research and its editorial board, the members of which were the question Why AR? With the help of their answers, the authors have managed to define the key features of AR that include participation and democracy as well as bringing together theory and practice, learning and action. The same features are emphasized by Brydon-Miller et al. (2003), Coghlan and Brannick (2014), Salehi and Yaghtin (2015).

The very essence of AR, in the view of Greenwood and Levin (2007), lies in the ideas of democracy or liberalization. This liberalization appears to spread to every level of AR, not only the level of collaboration. It would be a bit of a caricature to use these words, but according to the authors, there should be no discrimination between methods: be they qualitative, quantitative, or mixed, they can be used in case they produce relevant knowledge. No discrimination is expected between practice and theory, action and thought: in fact, the authors suggest that drawing a harsh line between the two dimensions is harmful to research. Finally, Greenwood and Levin (2007), believe that no discrimination between disciplines is allowed: AR is an interdisciplinary approach.

Similarly, according to Brydon-Miller et al. (2003), AR does not presuppose a value-free approach to knowledge instead suggesting an explicitly political, socially engaged, and democratic practice (p. 13) The promotion of social justice is central for AR, and the respect towards people and their ability to understand is inconsistency with the democratization of knowledge gaining process.

The idea of bringing theory and practice together is also essential for AR. Coghlan and Brannick (2014) specifically emphasize that AR is not learning about action, but researching in action. As a result, the input data for AR keeps changing, and it must be taken into account. Coghlan (2011) dwells on practical knowing and its relation with science knowledge that results in actionable knowledge  the one that can be used in practice (p. 65).

AR is multidimensional in every aspect, including its roots and its current branches. Brydon-Miller et al. (2003) provide a short historical background to the phenomenon, beginning with John Dewey, and naming a number of approaches that were disparate but linked with the ideas concerning knowledge generation and democracy (p. 11). Similarly, Coghlan (2011) points out that the roots of the approach are numerous (including even Aristotelian philosophy). Lewins work, however, was especially emphasized by the author, and the key points of his study (first of all, the idea of bringing theory and practice together and the democratic ideas) have been shown. Greenwood and Levin (2007 authors point out that there are different opinions concerning AR, and they are rather reluctant to consider any view (including their own) as the right one. Still, AR provides its own framework for the research process.

Research Process

The key stages of the AR process within an organization are suggested in the chapter Introducing Action Research of the work Doing action research in your own organization by Coghlan and Brannick (2014). The authors suggest a plan that includes the construction (defining the problem and the context), planning, taking action, and learning stages. According to the authors, the reflection and making the resulting knowledge useful is what distinguishes AR from other research approaches. Greenwood and Levin (2007) also describe the construction stage: without using the term they point out that without defining the problem and pooling relevant knowledge from every possible source, AR is impossible. According to Coghlan and Brannick (2014), the aims of AR include the elimination of problems, changes in the organization, providing its members with self-help competencies and adding to scientific knowledge (p. 5). One could point out that the practical side of AR appears to be in favor of this sequence of aims. Still, it seems that the democracy of the approach would not allow discriminating practice and theory: both aspects of AR are equally important throughout the course of the process which is supposed to be a constantly changing and updating loop (Salehi and Yaghtin, 2015).

Impact

The expected outcome of adopting AR by an organization is considered to be positive. Greenwood and Levin (2007) suggest that the quality of research conducted with the help of AR increases. Coghlan (2011) believes that AR has bigger potential in terms of management and is not used to the limit of its possibilities. Salehi and Yaghtin (2015) point out that AR is essential for innovation, and that in turn is vital for a competitive organization (p. 300). Other researchers, for example, Cabaroglu (2014), demonstrate the impact of AR usage on the participants themselves which reminds one of the personal liberalizations that Greenwood and Levin (2007) mention as a possible interpretation of the AR democratization process. According to Cabaroglu (2014), AR may have a positive impact on the participants performance and skills that include improved self-efficacy, increased self-awareness, enhanced problem-solving skills, and growing autonomy.

Conclusion

Enthusiasts may regard AR as a worldview, and the reason for that, most certainly, lies in the philosophy upon which the approach is based. Still, the key features of AR that include a democratic approach to knowledge and participation along with a requirement for merging theory and practice seem to be promising to any user regardless of his or her enthusiasm. The respect for knowledge and shareholders that is expected from an AR practitioner appears to be a consistent guideline for any research. Finally, the emphasis on learning transforms AR into a loop-like strategy that is fit to be used for research in organizations that seek to improve their state and value innovation and change.

References

Brydon-Miller, M., Greenwood, D., & Maguire, P. (2003). Why Action Research? Action Research, 1(1), 9-28.

Cabaroglu, N. (2014). Professional development through action research: Impact on self-efficacy. System, 44, 79-88. Web.

Coghlan, D. (2011). Action Research: Exploring Perspectives on a Philosophy of Practical Knowing. The Academy Of Management Annals, 5(1), 53-87.

Coghlan, D., & Brannick, T. (2014). Doing action research in your own organization (4th ed.). London, UK: Sage Publications.

Greenwood, D., & Levin, M. (2007). Introduction to action research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Salehi, F., & Yaghtin, A. (2015). Action Research Innovation Cycle: Lean Thinking as a Transformational System. Procedia  Social and Behavioral Sciences, 181, 293-302.

In qualitative research, the researchers attitude, opinions, and background information play a significant role in defining the outcomes of the research. Once the data is collected, the researcher applies his attitude and background information to carry out an analysis. If the attitude and background knowledge are appropriate to the case under study, the results of the study are valid and accurate. However, inappropriate background knowledge or attitude leads to a poor study, whose results are either biased or inaccurate. Kidd & Kral (2005) refer to research where the researcher participates directly in research as Participatory Action Research. They argue in the article that the attitude of the researcher determines how effective their participation will be when carrying out the research. Kidd & Kral (2005) explain that participatory action research is a dynamic process that changes with the needs, challenges, and experiences of a given group.

When taking part in participatory research, several methods are used to prepare the researcher for the task ahead. One method is the situational method. In this method, the researcher is expected first to carry out a self-assessment of his or her attitude of participation. The self-assessment helps the researcher understand the attitude changes he needs to adopt so that he or she can succeed in participatory research. The next step analyzes the right actions, participation, and knowledge required. The other possible method is referred to as critique. This method involves maintaining a critical awareness that avoids the development of ambiguity in the research. The researcher should also critique the disagreements and constraints to ensure that they are based on facts and not ambiguous ideas. In the critique method, a researcher is also expected to critique the qualities of successful research. Understanding the expectations will help him, or her guide the mental and physical participation in the right direction.

Kidd & Krals article describes how to carry out effective participatory research. Counseling research is a good example of participatory research, where attitudes and knowledge play a significant role. Hays, Dean, & Chang (2007) explain that in counseling, cultural awareness and training play a significant role in the counselors approach to certain counseling topics. The methods presented in Kidd & Krals article can, therefore, be applied in counseling to ensure that the counselors training and cultural awareness is effective in certain counseling contexts. Rowell (2006) confirms that counseling is part of PAR. He argues that in the counseling research, action research needs to be used as a link between counseling theory and practice. He emphasizes taking theory and practice as two mutually dependent activities for successful counseling research. In counseling, it should be understood that research may give unreliable outcomes due to the researchers ambiguity and bias. In some cases, the researchers have no idea that they are basing the research analysis on their interests or ideas. It is for this reason that Kidd & Kral (2005) explained the need for self-assessment of the researchers attitude and knowledge before analyzing research data. Once inappropriate knowledge and attitude are understood early enough, the necessary adjustments can be made to avoid research errors.

In conclusion, Kidd & Kral (2005) have provided a comprehensive overview of the possible ways to improve the validity of participatory action research. Since attitudes and preferences exist naturally among researchers, their effect on research outcomes can be minimized by carrying out self-assessment and making the necessary mental changes. As a counselor, I will always carry out self-assessment and ensure that my attitude is set towards achieving unbiased outcomes. For example, when counseling about drug abuse, my self-assessment will help me understand that I should eliminate the hate I harbor towards drug users and adjust my mind to perceive them as people who need my help.

References

Hays, D. G., Dean J. K., & Chang C.Y. (2007). Addressing Privilege and Oppression in Counselor Training and Practice: A Qualitative Analysis. Journal of Counseling & Development 85, 317-324

Kidd, S. A. & Kral M. J. (2005). Practicing Participatory Action Research. Journal of Counseling Psychology 52(2), 187195

Rowell, L. L. (2006). Action Research and School Counseling: Closing the Gap between Research and Practice. Professional School Counseling 9(5), 376-384

Describing stage four of the ARPP

Action research involves four different steps aimed at collecting information, sampling, and providing a representation of the collected information (Sagor, 2010). The first step in action research involves the definition of the problem to investigate, the purpose of the research, and methods to define the problem. The first step includes the reconnaissance with the objective of identifying the people involved and the duration.

The second step involves the collection of data about the relevant subject of study (Sagor, 2010). Both the primary and the secondary sources are sampled with an emphasis on providing accurate information. Similarly, the choice of the source depends on the type of information and representation.

The third step is determining whether the sources have theoretical materials that support the research. The last step involves writing a report of the research. The report incorporates the activities used to collect information, the people involved, the approach of the researcher, and the findings (Sagor, 2010). Moreover, the representation of the collected information reflects the transparency of the research process and the researcher in representing the information collected from the field.

Importance of describing the intervention

According to Costello (2003), explaining the intervention in detail aims to reflect the significance of the research work. The describing process reassesses the resources used by the researcher. It is important to evaluate how the researcher conducted the information collection process. Explaining the intervention in detail reduces the challenge of going through all the information as collected from the subject area of study.

Moreover, the intervention is a summary of all the details related to the crude information collected from the participants. Writing a generalized report will help identify the areas that need improvement. In this context, such a report reveals research areas that were not covered well in the initial process of the study, and therefore, require improvement. From this perspective, the resultant material is conclusive and accurate.

How to decide upon and gather data

Deciding what of information to represent in an intervention is limited by the people who access the same. Apparently, the perception of people towards the information, the topic, and the way that it will be presented is critical in the data-gathering process. However, the audience to the information is considered special. Therefore, the choice of the material represented in the intervention is tailored to suit special needs. The intellectual capability of the people addressed is also considered. In this regard, intellectual capability varies by understanding and knowledge of the topic.

How to decide upon and use data for assessing

Using data as an assessment tool depends on the reaction from the audience and the number of responses from the intervention. Jex and Britt (2008) mention that different factors such as the representation style and the type of audience are critical in deciding on data required for assessment. Therefore, if the audience is composed of individuals who possess varying knowledge about the intervention, the representation will pass as sophisticated.

As indicated earlier, the reaction of the audience in terms of understanding reveals valuable information about the effects of the intervention. In addition, the reaction of the audience towards the topic in question is used as a basis of assessment in regard to the use of data in determining the effects of the intervention. On the other hand, the type of information presented determines if the effects of the intervention can be evaluated through data.

References

Costello, P. J. (2003). In Action Research. London, LDN: Continuum Publishers.

Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008). The Theory Base of Organizational Development. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Sagor, R. (2010). The Action Research Guidebook: A Four-Stage Process for Educators and School Teams. California: Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Practical action research is a paradigm of inquiry whose primary purpose is to improve the capacity and subsequent practices of the researcher rather than produce theoretical knowledge (Bell et al., 2004, p. 1).The main feature of action research is that it triggers the researcher to set in motion change based on the feeling that human conditions can only be improved if there is change. Thus, the investigator provides the framework required for the realization of the intended change.

In order to realize the anticipated change, the researcher may work alone or he may work with his comrades but he remains the facilitator (Elliott, 1991). During the research process, the investigator learns together with the clients. In addition, the investigator must identify the problem, collect clients points of view, and analyze them in order to identify gaps. The researcher is the head of the process and he or she steers the analysis of results and identification of actions needed. The realization of the anticipated change requires collective responsibility. Whilst the researcher takes charge of the processes of problem identification, data collection and analysis, and the identification of actions needed, clients are required to participate in the actualization of the identified courses action.

In this research model, several different processes are done collectively; for example, the design of the process and the action reflection cycle for both the researcher as an individual and with the clients (Bell et al., 2004, p. 1). In addition, as much as the researcher is in charge of the whole research process, he or she engages the clients in the process of change actualization.

On the other hand, participatory action research endeavors to first change societal reality and encourage the improvement of capacity and practice of researchers (Bell et al., 2004). This research process ensures that individuals who are affected by the problem under investigation participate in the planning, implementing the suggested plan, analyzing the research findings, and actualizing the recommendations. This research process not only aims at solving the problem at hand, but also cultivating the growth and development of respondents. Generally, participatory action research is triggered by an organization; the organization uses researchers who are familiar with the social design process and relate well with the participants. The guiding principle of this research process is that we are the solution to our own problems (Cresewell, 2011). In other words, people who are affected by a given problem stand a better position of providing proper solutions to the problem at hand. This process also utilizes both local and experimental knowledge when seeking solutions to the identified problems. Participants take part in the processes of data collection and analysis. Bell et al. (2004, p. 1) argue that the researcher cannot have tight control or agenda in terms of research topic or design, but does need to be in a situation whereby the problem is relevant and important to participants, and uses credible methods. Participatory action research not only leads to the advancement of knowledge and research, but also to the achievement of practical results (Cresewell, 2011). Three aspects come into play when this method has been used to conduct research. They are participation, action, and research.

Participatory action research and practical action have three main similarities. Both methods not only call for active participation, but also have open ended objectives and high levels of commitment from the lead investigator and respondents to the research problem and active learning (Bell et al., 2004). First, these research processes allow for the active participation of both participants and researchers in the design of the studies. It should be remembered that participatory action research calls for the involvement of people affected by the problem at hand in the planning, collection and analysis of data, and the implementation of the recommendations (Sohng, 1995). In practical action research, the researcher takes charge of the processes of problem identification, data collection and analysis, and the identification of actions needed; clients are required to participate in the actualization of the identified courses action. Secondly, in these processes the end objectives are not directly specified in the beginning, and results from these processes are essential in solving real problems in organizations (Bell et al., 2004, p. 1). Thirdly, these processes ensure that the researcher and participants take part in solving the problem at hand and both the participants and the researcher learn from the process.

Similarly, these two processes have notable differences. These differences are inherent in the methods employed to solve research problems. In practical action research, the research concentrates on the notion that when the process is improved, the organization is also likely to improve. Bell et al. (2004, p. 1) argues that practical action research seeks to improve practice rather than to produce knowledge. On the other hand, in participatory action research, both the lead investigator and the participants must be from the same organization. The lead investigator and the participants collaborate in the process of identifying solutions to the problem and enhancing the research method. Bell et al. (2004) argues that the goal of this process is to ensure that researchers and participants learn from the research process and become technocrats of major social changes at the organizational level.

In summary, this paper has described the characteristics, similarities and differences of practical action research and participatory action research. First, this paper has noted that practical action research is a paradigm of inquiry where the researchers primary purpose is to improve the capacity and subsequent practices of the researcher rather than to produce theoretical knowledge (Bell et al., 2004, p. 1). In this process, the researcher is the head of the process and he or she steers the analysis of results and identification of actions needed. The realization of the anticipated change requires collective responsibility. Second, participatory action research endeavors to first change societal reality and encourage the improvement of capacity and practice of researchers (Bell et al., 2004). This research process not only aims at solving the problem at hand, but also cultivating the growth and development of respondents. Generally, participatory action research is triggered by an organization; the organization uses researchers who are familiar with the social design process and relate well with the participants. Participatory action research and practical action have three main similarities. Both methods not only call for active participation, but also have open ended objectives and high levels of commitment from the lead investigator and respondents to the research problem and active learning (Bell et al., 2004). Similarly, these two processes have notable differences. These differences are inherent in the methods employed to solve problems identified.

References

Bell, J. etal. (2004). Similarities and Differences of Various Designs of Action Research. Web.

Cresewell, J. (2011). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New York: Pearson.

Elliott, J. (1991). Action research for educational change. Milton Keynes England; Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Sohng, S. (1995). Participatory Action Research and Community Organizing. Seattle, WA: J. Wiley.

Research design

The study will be determined through action research design due to its nature to contribute to the body of knowledge and to offer solution to the problem of tardiness in schools. It is important to change the practice of tardiness among students. Through action research design, the researcher will be able to come up with initiatives that address tardiness in school (Groves, 2010). However, the initiatives will be limited to schools subjected under the setting of the study. Action research has also been selected because it will enable the researcher to understand the context triggering tardiness among students (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012).

The selected design method is not entirely perfect because it bears itself several limitations (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012). One of the biggest limitations is the fear of validity and objectivity of the data collected. It implies collecting incomplete and inaccurate data. At the same time, it can also imply misinterpreting the collected data by the research team or laying too much emphasis on specific data while disregarding others (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012).

Participants

The participants for this research are high school students from an urban setting. Specifically, the study targets chronically tardy students. It will rely on a total of 20 students to participate in the study. The 20 participants will be selected based on information retrieved from their class attendance records within the last semester. The participants will not be limited to a particular grade or class. The researcher assumes that only few students display the problem of tardiness. Therefore random sampling techniques cannot be applied.

Data retrieved from school records may necessarily not be reliable because of the existing policy in schools where students are automatically regarded tardy when they get in class after the bell. Therefore, reasons for tardiness will have to be explored further before a participant is considered for inclusion in the study.

Data collection

The study will use three methods of data collection over the time period for the study. It will rely on observation, interviews with students, and analysis of students work. A school setting will be identified through data from the district education office. The population and diversity of a school is of interest to the researcher. Once a school is located, the researcher will proceed to select the participants and seek their consent to participate in the study. The process of data collection will take place within a time period of a week where the researcher will administer an intervention for solving the problem of tardiness while at the same time seeking to determine the cause of the problem.

There shall be a checklist for pre-test observation and a post test observation. The checklist will enable the researcher to collect data before and after the involvement. The survey questionnaire will involve a list of closed ended questions that are aimed at getting the relevant and correct information about the study (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012). After the survey tools have been prepared, they will be administered to the target sample population.

A few assumptions will have to be made in the process of data collection (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012). Generally, the researcher will assume that the response made by the respondent will be to the best of their knowledge (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012).

Data analysis

In order to analyze the data, statistical tools of analysis will be used. The researcher will collect data that can be quantified in numerical terms. The researcher will explore any significant differences of the data observed before and after the interventions. This will require t-test analysis to establish whether tardiness is increasing or reducing. Data will be recorded on a daily basis for the one week period.

It is important that the survey tools be tested for both reliability and validity. Determination of reliability will be done through conduction of piloting program where a small section of the sample population will be issued with the survey tools in order to identify mistakes within the tool (Bailey, 2008). Reliability will further be tested to ensure that the survey tools remain consistent. The consistency test entails rating the items over time and it is done to determine whether one specific item in the tool can yield the same response when administered at different times. Through the use of Pearson Correlation Coefficient, the result of the reliability test can be determined. The process of coding during data analysis depends on the subject and hence it is important that the consistency test be done for reliability of the tool (Mitchell & Jolley, 2012).

The test items or the questions also have to be subjected to reliability tests. These items must be able to provide the exact requirements of the study not unless the questions will be rendered unreliable. Apart from reliability tests, the survey tool must also be rendered valid before use. Validity is about the items being able to provide relevant information for the study. Criterion related validation is the most useful and important type of validity test (Groves, 2010).

References

Bailey, R. (2008). Design of Comparative Experiments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Groves, R. (2010). Survey methodology (2nd ed.). Belmont: Duxbury Press.

Mitchell, M., & Jolley, J. (2012). Research design explained. Florence: Cengage learning.

Aidinopoulou, V., & Sampson, D. G. (2017). An action research study from implementing the flipped classroom model in primary school history teaching and learning. Educational Technology & Society, 20(1), 237247.

The setting of the study was a primary school in Greece (a history course). The participants were 49 eleven-year-old children, who were divided into two groups: 26 in the experimental, and 23 in the control one. The hypothesis of the study was that the utilization of the flipped classroom model in primary school would allow distributing the classroom time more conveniently and effectively. As a result, according to scholars, it would be possible to increase student outcomes and promote their learning experiences. The methodology of the study was action design, the use of which aimed at investigating the potential of the flipped classroom model to enhance learners academic results and to lead to the more rational use of classroom time. The first action research cycle consisted of such phases as (a) planning, (b) acting and observing, and (c) reflecting and re-planning. The second cycle incorporated the phases of (a) action and observation and (b) reflection.

The authors found that the flipped classroom model made it possible to use classroom time more efficiently due to allowing for the release of time from lecturing to more interesting student-focused academic activities. In the experimental group, there was more time available for enforcing activities associated with historical thinking skills. At the same time, findings indicated that the memorization of historical content was at the same level in the two groups. The article emphasizes the advantages of the flipped classroom model for promoting students learning goals. The authors did not compare different study levels of schoolchildren or the achievements of boys versus girls. However, they provided valuable insights into the implementation of the model, including the benefits and challenges of the process.

Al-Naibi, I., Al-Jabri, M., & Al-Kalbani, I. (2018). Promoting students paragraph writing using EDMODO: An action research. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 17(1), 130143.

An English as a foreign language class at Arab Open University was analyzed with the aim of evaluating the effect of Edmodo, a social networking website, on learners writing performance. Twenty-five students participated in the study, the primary purpose of which was to analyze whether and to what extent Edmodo could promote students writing in a foreign language. The studys hypothesis was that the use of a social network as a method of teaching writing could enhance students skills by providing a more engaging learning environment. The action research design utilized in the study incorporated the identification of a problem by the teacher, the creation of an action plan, the collection of data in the classroom, the analysis of data, and the teachers reflection on the whole process. The 25 participants were pre-intermediate students in the foundation program at Arab Open University. Out of them, 60% were females, and 40% were males. The learners studied part-time, and their ages varied between 26 and 35 years.

The authors found that Edmodo had a rather positive effect on students writing skills development. Whereas initially, learners did not know how to brainstorm writing ideas, their ability to write topic sentences was poor, and their paragraph structure was not effective enough. Meanwhile, the use of Edmodo increased the students writing skills and enhanced their awareness. The article is a valuable source for the teachers of English as a second language since it offers an analysis of how additional means of teaching can promote students second language writing skills. Al-Naibi et al. (2018) not only present the assets of using the social network as an educational tool but also note the potential barriers to such implementation.

Calvert, M., & Sheen, Y. (2015). Task-based language learning and teaching: An action-research study. Language Teaching Research, 19(2), 226244. Web.

The studys focus was on the analysis of action research as a method of evaluating language learning tasks by teachers. The authors hypothesized that action research enabled a better understanding of task-based instruction with the help of the mentioned approach. Calvert and Sheen (2015) suggested that language teachers could find solutions to crucial task-based issues that might occur in the process of teaching and learning. The method employed in the study was the action research design, which incorporated the teachers development, enforcement, reflection, and modification of language learning assignments with the aim of meeting the needs of students to a greater extent. The students were participants of an adult refugee English learning program, aged from 25 to 56 years. The demographic distribution was the following: seven Nepali Bhutanese learners, three Ethiopian, two Iranian, and one Eritrean. There existed considerable differences among the students educational background and language proficiency, as well as the duration of living in the USA.

The authors found that in a challenging educational setting, the utilization of task-based learning and teaching demanded much preparation on the part of a teacher. Specifically, the effective introduction of tasks would require the effective management of students literacy issues and ecological realities. Furthermore, it was found that the successful arrangement of task-based learning would entail the consideration of students various backgrounds and cultural experiences along with low linguistic horizons. The article will be of use for the teachers who endeavor to utilize task-based learning in their classrooms but do not know what challenges they might face or how to deal with them. The scholars suggest educators engage in critical examination and reflection in order to gain the best results of task-based learning.

Kostaris, C., Sergis, S., Sampson, D. G., Giannakos, M. N., & Pelliccione, L. (2017). Investigating the potential of the flipped classroom model in K-12 ICT teaching and learning: An action research study. Educational Technology & Society, 20(1), 261273.

The focus of the study was the analysis of the flipped classroom models potential to promote teaching and learning of information and communication technologies (ICT). The authors hypothesized that there existed a potential of the flipped classroom model to promote students learning in various dimensions, including cognitive learning, distributing educational activities, motivating students during learning tasks, and engaging learners in various activities. The population of the study was composed of junior high school students. The methodology of the study was a quasi-experimental design as a part of the action research method. Two classes of students aged fourteen years participated in the study, which lasted eight weeks (one full semester). The participants were divided into two groups, the experimental and the control one, each consisting of 23 students. The experimental groups ICT course involved the utilization of the flipped classroom model, whereas the control group attended a traditional course. In each of the two groups, there were 12 girls and 11 boys. Consent was obtained both from students parents and the schools administration.

The scholars found that the use of the flipped classroom model allowed for a holistic conceptualization of learners experiences by integrating existing approaches. Kostaris et al. (2017) concluded that the use of the flipped classroom model promoted learners cognitive outcomes. Furthermore, the authors found that low-performing students could benefit from the model most of all, indicating the greatest improvement at the end of the program. The article is related to other works in the selected area of study, demonstrating consistent findings in the higher education context. However, scholars also pointed to the importance of utilizing the flipped classroom model in the whole sequence of the K-12 education process.

Nold, H. (2017). Using critical thinking teaching methods to increase student success: An action research project. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 29(1), 1732.

The study focused on the investigation of how critical thinking teaching methods could promote student success. The authors noted that problem-solving and critical skills were crucial components of both the educational and professional success of learners. The hypothesis of the study was that students critical thinking skills could be significantly promoted by means of utilizing multiple teaching approaches, questioning stimulating deep thinking, sources reliability, and predicting outcomes. The population studied in Nolds (2017) research was composed of bachelor-level college students. The methods utilized by the author were action research and the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Students attending three courses (strategic planning and management, business ethics, and operations management and decision-making) were participants of the intervention. All of the students were enrolled in the Bachelor of Applied Science program. The average age of participants was 33, varying between 19 and 60. Many of them were veterans who had completed their military service, and 65% of students were female. The total number of students involved in the study that lasted for 15 months was 316.

Nold (2017) found that the use of critical thinking methods allowed enhancing learners skills in various aspects, including both the educational and professional dimensions. Findings also indicated that an eight-week program was sufficient for a positive impact on students constructs and outcomes associated with success. The researcher noted that educators aimed at improving their students outcomes should incorporate multiple assignments, including research methods, and then provide substantial feedback on achievements and drawbacks. The study is linked to similar works in the selected area of research, namely, students engaged in multiple subject areas. The research enriches knowledge in the sphere of critical thinking development.

References

Aidinopoulou, V., & Sampson, D. G. (2017). An action research study from implementing the flipped classroom model in primary school history teaching and learning. Educational Technology & Society, 20(1), 237247.

Al-Naibi, I., Al-Jabri, M., & Al-Kalbani, I. (2018). Promoting students paragraph writing using EDMODO: An action research. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 17(1), 130143.

Calvert, M., & Sheen, Y. (2015). Task-based language learning and teaching: An action-research study. Language Teaching Research, 19(2), 226244. Web.

Kostaris, C., Sergis, S., Sampson, D. G., Giannakos, M. N., & Pelliccione, L. (2017). Investigating the potential of the flipped classroom model in K-12 ICT teaching and learning: An action research study. Educational Technology & Society, 20(1), 261273.

Nold, H. (2017). Using critical thinking teaching methods to increase student success: An action research project. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 29(1), 1732.

Description of the context for the study: qualitative research based on three different schools; one of public school, private and comment preschool. Using interview questions by analyzing the interview questions after the interview was done with the student.

Each area of study has its own body of knowledge and the study of STEM in the context of the research fits well with the qualitative research paradigm. The findings in this research are based on interpretations, personalistic, situational, and other interpretations of the knowledge and practice in the areas of investigation.

The qualitative paradigm was based on the systematic review of literature and the themes developed from the review of literature. The epistemological, theoretical, and disciplinary perspectives of qualitative research in the context of STEM activities and how the learners respond to the activities provides the rationale to use the qualitative paradigm to address the data collection and analysis. In public schools, the STEM activities are funded by the Office of Partnership Development because they recognise the need to get involved in supporting early STEM involvement among the children. On the other hand, the study of the implementation of STEM in private and comment preschool are supported by stakeholders who want to have the young child develop the skills necessary to be successful later on life in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM).

The focus of the study is in the development and analysis of creative and critical thinking skills among the children aged 4 and 8 years and the teaching strategies to improve their abilities. In addition, the strategy was to analyse how the STEM activities could be implemented among the kids to achieve the learner centered skill. The critical thinking skills no only boarder on the use of math and science based subjects, but covers other areas of study that includes engineering activities. Typically, most learners do not embrace or do not like the activities associated with STEM because most of the tasks are boring and uninteresting besides the children and even the adults having the perception that STEM is complicated. The study will focus on identifying the strategies to use to implement the STEM activities among the earlier learners so that they are made to appreciate the benefits of engaging in the activities earlier in life. The earlier engagement in STEM activities can be discovered and established through interviews and the responses the children and other stakeholders provide to the interviewee on how the activities help the students to develop individual skill and how such activities can be implemented by the teachers.

Here, the core issues and tools to use are the people and the responses of the children on the attitude they have developed on the earlier exposure to STEM, ability to make observation on how the children interact in the learning environment by emphasizing on observations, intuition, and empirical evidence.

For instance the most appropriate method that was used ion the study was the use of interviews. Interview questions can be analysed using the qualitative paradigm and both the aggregative data and interpretive data formed the basis of the study. Interpretive data could arise on the study because the participants who were interviewed had an experience of poor implementation of the program and the aggregative data resulted from the participants who had experienced a good program. In both cases, it was imperative to try to determine the themes that were identified by the respondents as crucial in each case of the program.

The interviewing strategy was to collect unique information that was held by the respondents, collect numerical aggregation and data about the data, and establishing what could not be observed by the researcher. It was important mix the questions to reduce boredom.

It is critical to note the nature of responses that each teacher presents and the common themes in each response. For instance, the general response to the first question is that the STEM implementation enables the teachers to develop positive attitudes towards the program when implemented at different levels.

The teachers emphasise on science and technology, but the standard elements include the mathematics as one of the subjects identified in STEM. It is possible to note that the dynamics of developing STEM is evident in the statement we explore more and increase our focus on Engineering in the classroom.

The STEM implementation approach focuses on the individual, collaboration, and others propose that the activities run concurrently. In each case, the mix of activities provides the activities that are done in groups as asserted in the statement that there are also small and whole group instruction times that would be teacher-guided in which the teacher would be there to not necessarily dictate the activity, but guide, encourage, and ask open-ended questions based on the students leading.

On the other hand, it is evident that there are no individual differences among the STEM research implementation strategies when implemented in groups or at the individual level. Typically, it is possible to roll out the program either on the individual level or at the level of the groups.

Reviewers were asked to assess the responses to determine the benefits that the individuals could get when STEM was implemented. It was establish that most responses agreed that the instructional strategy improves the students thinking and analytical skills that underpin the establishment and implementation of STEM for the children. It is worth noting that one of the respondents agreed that building thinking skills in the students and not just in the areas of Science, Technology, Engineering and Math, but also in other areas. STEM has also challenged me to think more in depth about the activities I have out in my classroom which is the main goals of the STEM program.

In terms of passing information to parents and other stakeholders on the importance of STEM, the instructors agreed that STEM encourages the students to build their critical thinking skills and to engage in learning through exploration, collaboration and problem solving strategies. It is viewed as a good thing to use STEM to develop the critical thinking skills of the children and investing in them is worthwhile.

In general, the conclusion is that STEM has boosted the development of the skills of many children in the field of math, engineering, and sciences as is evident in the way the children appreciate STEM and the lifelong benefits they get when the children continue into further studies. It is important, however to note that no formal assessment is available for STEM, but it is evident that the students are building and growing their thinking skills and problem solving skills.

Brief introduction focusing on relevant literature

The study was based an analytical exposition of the methods used to solve the problem related to the development and implementation of STEM, which is an acronym for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics among the young children in the range of 4 and 8 years. The objectives are to provide an excellent view to understand and rich open comprehension of the implementation and the success of the program based on an analysis of the background knowledge of the early learner in STEM. In addition, the strategy involved using the instructional methods and interactions between the student and the teacher with the elements that define STEM to get the young students exposed earlier an earlier to science, engineering, and math to increase the attention of students by using strategies that fit with science, such as hands-on.

Here, the analytical problem was to determine how successful an earlier exposure to STEM could increase the knowledge and skills of the students in science, engineering, and math, leading to the overall academic development of the young student. On the other hand, it is evident that 77% of the women do not as stakeholders provide the necessary support for the children to participate in STEM. In addition, an analytic solution to the problem is also evident in the lack of motivation to get involved in the study.

However, further analysis of the literature review shows that STEM promotes integrated learning and the results include the ability to develop the mind, knowledge, and skills of the student to increase interest in the STEM subjects. The literature develops a common understanding that the STEM enables the student to develop problem solving skills. Despite that, the minority of students are women and the approach to develop the skills in STEM of the minority group are adequately provides by the teachers.

Methodology  sampling/subjects, procedures for data collection, how data will be analyzed, overall timeline

The proposed methodology is based on a qualitative research paradigm that is embedded in the systematic review of literature and interview questions to provide the responses from professional teachers on implementing STEM. It is evident that when examining the knowledge paradigm of different researchers, there is a common consensus that the qualitative paradigm fits well into the study on STEM and its application among children aged between 4 and 8 years.

The subjects who were interviewed in the study included teachers to provide the data for analysis while observations were made to determine the effects STEM on the young students. However, the criteria for sampling underpin the importance and appropriateness of the findings and how well the findings are generalizable. The qualitative paradigms requires that the sampling strategy is able to provide a sample that enables the researcher to be able to see through the eyes of the respondent, provide a detailed description of the study, establish how the social change in the context of knowledge acquisition among the students who get involved in STEM, how to increase motivation among the students involved in STEM, and the effects the study has on the skills development of the student.

It is important to note that the qualitative paradigm enables the researcher to make accurate representation of facts because the subjects in the study were not predictable, but accurate. The randomization effects were not applicable on the type of study, and probability sampling was not used and the approach made increased the reliability of the results.

The sampling strategy was based on a non-probabilistic approach that was based on the quota system that allowed the researcher to determine the characteristics of the target population and the sample. Here, the quotas were created based on the quotas that include the age, gender, and class of the student. In addition, the representativeness of the sample was based on the quota system where each subjects was taken from the three target areas of the subjects. On the other hand, the sampling strategy involved theoretical sampling because general research questions were applied on the respondents such as asking them about age, class, and general attitude towards participating in STEM. In addition, the core elements included in the study that provide the guidelines includes the ability to understand the phenomenon, which involves implementing STEM among the young children, the acquisition of enough knowledge about STEM because numbers do not make much relevance in the qualitative study.

Here, the overall time-line is 2 years because of the data collection methods. The students will be able to participate with teachers and the students collaboratively to develop the right skills and knowledge for the students that have a long term effect on the future lives.

Data collection procedure

The strategy used observations and interviews to collect primary qualitative data by paying careful attention to detail and skill to make direct observations and to interview the stakeholders. In addition to asking questions, it was deemed necessary to carry do continuous monitoring the children to understand the performance gaps and improvements, and the motivation the children developed towards getting involved on the STEM project. The activities that were evaluated to collect primary data were based on the STEM activities where each family was registered to have a hand on experience on the program. In addition, incorporating the subjects earlier in the process made it easier for the children to have earlier involvement and exposure to the activities. In addition, the caregivers and parents were involved to motivate the children to appreciate and get encouraged to participate in the program.

Parents were advised to make observations of the activities done by their children and how the children interacted in the environment of study. Observations and deductions were made on how the children interacted and performed different activities using the various materials that were availed them. In addition, each parent who had a child participating in the STEM program could be asked to appreciate and monitor the performance of the child based on the extension of the classroom activities into the homework. On the other hand, the most appropriate time was two years because the change a child undergoes when exposed to STEM does not occur immediately, but takes time.

On the other hand, interview formed the backbone of the primary data collection method because interviews produce a lot of qualitative data within a very short time. The advantages with interviews are that the researcher was able to collect the right detailed volume of data to inform the study. Discovery of how individual behave when subjected to the STEM environment, identification of the most useful part of the data collection and analysis is feasible, it is possible to add impersonal data into the study, and it enables a deeper understanding of the data collected from the study.

Data analysis

The results were then organised into themes and each category of data was investigated and interpreted according to the interrelationship that appeared among the items. The results showed that the STEM activities were incorporated in each class to enable the teachers to explore the items that had the most important effect on the knowledge and skills development activities of the children. It was realized that the children who were taken through the STEM activities were able to use different tools to express the knowledge and skills learnt and the new vocabularies while making them look at life with renewed curiosity.

It was possible for students to use different tools to make measurements of different items such as when a child encountered a challenge to measure the size of a worm. In addition, the child was able to learn by developing interest in habitats and was able to share the new findings with other students. The observations encouraged the teacher to create new strategies on how to motivate the learner to develop more interest in making new investigations.

Discussion of perceived strengths and weaknesses of proposed study

The study had weaknesses and strengths in the quest to investigate the application of STEM on public school, private and comment preschools. Among the strengths were the ability to enable the researcher to interpret the findings based on the intuition and the generality of findings on different situations that define the context of the study for students from different backgrounds. The study emphasized on empirical evidence because it was oriented on the field of study and experiential, relying on observations and on the site participation of the researcher. The study focused on the use of objects that were unique to each situation of study and the findings were generalized across different learning environments.

Each childs unique learning activities were factored into the study and the points of view of the students and the teachers were integrated into the study in the quest to discover the most appropriate STEM implementation strategy and the best approach to motivate the learners and increase the skills and knowledge acquired in class. Other observations that were made include an increase in STEM activities among the students because most students were able to use appropriate terminologies to communicate the knowledge and skills they had acquired.

On the other hand, implementing STEM will help the students, parents, and teachers and other stakeholders to improve their attitude towards STEM careers and fields by increasing the enrollment rates of the students, increasing the rate of participation in STEM, help the teachers and students develop self-confidence in the STEM activities. STEM will help improve the careers, knowledge and skills by enabling the students to increase test scores when compared with those students, who do not attend the STEM programs, increase the general knowledge and skills in science and engineering, and increase the graduation rate of STEM students.

Investigations reveal that involvement in STEM helps students to know their strengths and weaknesses and the possibility of pursuing STEM related studies in future instead of pursuing them only to discover that STEM difficult for them in future. IN addition, children get motivated to pursue STEM related studies in future because they are able to develop increased interest in STEM at an earlier age.

Brief description of actions/changes anticipated as result of study

In summary, it was noted that certain areas of study were to be focused on to make the STEM processes for implementing STEM reliable. It was established that the transition of the new system of the students into the new realm of knowledge and skills on STEM was necessary to ensure necessary success in implementing STEM. Once the research document has been introduced into the realm of knowledge acquisition in STEM, the teacher, parents, and children will be informed of the benefits that accrue for the child and the effects such knowledge acquisition will have on the long term development of the childrens skills in STEM and practical application. The most important changes anticipated include transition from the traditional instruction methods to emphasizing on STEM. In addition, it is projected that by integrating the STEM strategy into the normal or traditional instructions methods, many young students in the USA will benefit because they will develop the desired skills and knowledge to become competent in the engineering, math, and other sciences.

In addition, the study provides pointers to the need to factor STEM access among the minority groups to enable the children and parents participate in the programs. STEM must support the racial and ethnic equality by creating more opportunities for the minority groups. It is crucial to implement STEM after school to help bridge the opportunity for the existence of the underrepresented and under-served communities on interactive levels. The recommendation after collecting and analysing data was that most of students like science after practice STEM activities in preschool through K-5 and more analysis will help to build this part of the investigation. In conclusion, it is possible to increase the motivation of young learners to pursue STEM related studies earlier in life.

Problem Identification

Crown Plaza Hotel is one of the leading hotels in Dallas, attracting both local and international visitors. The fact that this facility serves locals and international visitors means that it has to meet the diversified needs of its customers. According to Cletus, Mahmood, Umar, and Ibrahim (2018), major hotels, and resorts serving international customers are often under pressure to have a diversified workforce that can enable them to understand and meet the diversified needs of their customers.

Crown Plaza Hotel is facing the same problem. The company has made an effort to ensure that its workforce is a representation of the type of customers that they expect. However, it is emerging that the company is finding it difficult to manage a diversified workforce. In this paper, the researcher seeks to address the problem of diversity management that the company faces.

Description of the Organization

Crown Plaza Hotel is one of the leading hospitality companies in Dallas. The company has experienced massive growth over the past years as the management continues to invest in infrastructure, employees’ empowerment, and superior value delivery to its customers. The firm has over one hundred employees working in its various departments. The management has been keen to ensure that its workforce is as diversified as possible to ensure that it is in the best position to understand its customers’ needs. The hotel serves both local and international customers in Dallas.

Context of the Problem

The management of Crown Plaza Hotel decided to ensure that it employs workers from different parts of the world to reflect the face of its customers. Instead of just focusing on diversity based on the local American context, the firm has made a deliberate effort to hire foreign country nationals to meet the diverse needs. Although the majority of workers are Americans, others are from South America, Europe, Asia, Middle East, and Africa.

The strategy is to ensure that it can meet the unique requirements of its customers. The problem with this strategy is that the management is finding it difficult to manage the diversity of its workforce. It became evident that this is a problem when the human resource manager admitted that differences in values and cultural practices among employees are proving to be a major problem when it comes to coordinating and controlling activities of these workers.

The specific problem that the firm faces are the inability to manage diversity. The difference in the background of employees of the company makes it difficult for the management to develop a solid organizational culture that defines how workers should handle customers. For instance, some employees from Africa believe in maintaining close interaction with their customers as a way of understanding their needs and addressing them as and when they emerge.

On the other hand, the majority of American and European workers in this company believe in giving guests their space as soon as the needed services are offered, and only engaging them when they ask for help. Each group has their justification as to why they believe their approach is the most appropriate to ensure that customers’ needs are met in the best way possible. The management is struggling to address this diversity problem at this company.

Needs Assessment and Diagnosis

The researcher conducted an assessment at this company to identify the specific source of the problem. The assessment was conducted by engaging different members of this company as explained in the section below. The diagnosis revealed that it is true that diversity is becoming a problem at this firm. The decision to hire people of different gender, ages, nationalities, and religions among other demographical factors was meant to ensure that this company would be capable of meeting the needs of its diversified customers. However, it is turning out to be a problem because of the inability to manage a diversified workforce. The diagnosis revealed that the ability of this firm to succeed would be compromised significantly if this problem were not addressed effectively.

Data Collection

In this project, the researcher needed to collect data to understand the nature of the problem at Crown Plaza Hotel. As a consultant hired by the company to address the problem, the first step was to engage the management to determine the view of the company about the problem. As such, the researcher asked senior and mid-managers within the human resource unit to state their view about the problem of diversity at the company.

The researcher then focused on non-managerial employees to understand their views about the problem. According to Hudson (2014), the best way of understanding the source and nature of a problem within a company is to engage different groups that it affects. Collecting views of the managers and employees made it possible to find a model of solving the problem in a way that all stakeholders find to be acceptable.

Data Analysis

When data has been collected from various sources, Saxena (2014) explains that the next step is to conduct an analysis. The analysis involves processing the raw data into information that addresses the research question. In this project, the researcher considered qualitative analysis of data to be the most appropriate method. This approach allows respondents to provide a detailed explanation of a phenomenon beyond stating statistics. It made it possible to explain why diversity is a problem at this company, and how employees feel it can be addressed.

Proposed Organization Development Interventions

The approach that Crown Plaza Hotel took to diversify its workforce is a strategic move that would enhance its success in the market, especially at a time when it is continuing to receive customers from various parts of the world. However, the management must address the problem identified above, which is related to managing a diversified workforce. One of the interventions that the management should consider is to develop a strong organizational culture. Hudson (2014) explains that having an organizational culture creates a standard practice that defines what all employees are expected to do within the firm.

The management should explain its culture to all the workers so that they can understand their rationale. Every time a new worker is recruited, they should be made to understand the culture and they have to promise to abide by them before they can start working. The strategy will eliminate cases where the firm has to tolerate divergent views on how customers should be handled. The organizational culture should reflect the diversity of the workforce and customers that the company serves.

The second intervention is to organize regular team-building retreats. According to Saxena (2014), people often tend to focus more on what makes them different from the rest of the group, ignoring important factors that make them common. This strategy is meant to help these workers to identify their common interests and the way they can overcome the possible differences. Retreats should be planned during low seasons when the company receives a minimal number of customers. It would mean that when one team goes for the retreat, the other would remain within the facility to attend to the needs of the few visitors. Regular retreats where employees engage in activities such as sports would help create unity among employees despite the differences discussed above.

Required Resources

The management of this company will require some resources to implement the strategies proposed above. Finance is one of the critical resources that will be needed to implement the strategy. Developing an organizational culture is a time-consuming process that involves understanding internal forces within the firm and external environmental forces. The company will have to pay the consultant (the researcher) to develop an effective organizational culture that takes into consideration the diversified needs of stakeholders within the firm. Team-building retreats also require some form of financing.

The company will need to cater for the transportation of its workers and pay for the other expenses such as accommodation and food. Bedi, Lakra, and Gupta (2014) observe that in any major project that an organization takes, time is always another major resource whose significance cannot be ignored. The problem should be solved within the shortest time possible to ensure that the workforce at the Crown Plaza Hotel can work at their optimal level without getting distracted by the problems associated with their diversity. The activities will take about six months to be completed. The firm will need to invest about $ 250,000 to address the problem.

Timeline

The activities should be completed within a specific timeline to ensure that the problem is addressed effectively as expected by the management of Crown Plaza Hotel. The urgency of the problem means and the commitment of the management to support the project means that it has to be completed within the next six months. The main activities identified include engaging stakeholders to identify the problem and to find a common solution, developing an organizational culture based on information obtained from them, reviewing the relevance of the new culture to make changes if necessary, entrench the new culture within the firm, and engaging in team-building retreats to help promote unity. Table 1 below outlines the timeline of different activities that will be taken in this project.

Anticipated Resistance

When introducing a new system or policy within an organization, it is common to encounter resistance from a section of the stakeholders. Hudson (2014) explains that one of the major concerns is the fear that the new system may render their experience irrelevant, compromising their position within the firm. One of the anticipated resistance is that some of the current employees may be uncomfortable with the proposed changes in the organizational culture. The management may also be unwilling to finance the proposed team-building retreats unless it is assured of the direct financial benefits. Kurt Lewin proposes a way of addressing the problem.

The model shown in figure 1 below proposes a systematic way of introducing change in a way that would have little resistance among stakeholders. The first step is to unfreeze, where the manager explains to the stakeholders the relevance of the new system and prepared them for the change. The second stage is the actual change process where the new culture will be introduced within the Crown Plaza Hotel. The last stage involves entrenching the new values and ensuring that everyone understands what is expected of them.

Potential Benefits

The proposed solution has huge benefits for this firm in its effort to address the problem of diversity. One of the main benefits that this strategy will have is that employees will understand what is expected of them based on the set organizational culture. It eliminates time wastage often associated with cases where employees take actions without proper guidance (Foma, 2014). In this case, the culture will inform their decisions based on various departments where they work.

The strategy of having team-building retreats will promote unity among employees. They will understand and appreciate the uniqueness of every stakeholder based on gender, age, race, nationality, and any other relevant demographic orientation. When employees engage in such activities, they learn to work as a unit. They get to dispel stereotypical sentiments in society. The unity among employees will help lower the overall cost of production while at the same time increasing the productivity of the employees.

Suggested Evaluation Approach

The management will need an effective evaluation approach that will help in ensuring that the intended goals are realized. The selected approach should be capable of identifying potential weaknesses as soon as they arise so that necessary changes can be introduced. The most appropriate evaluation approach is the multi-stakeholder feedback program. Under this program, the management unit, employees, customers, and any other relevant stakeholders will be allowed to give their feedback on the program. They are expected to state whether it has helped improve the overall performance of employees, cohesiveness at work, and lowered the cost of production.

They will be advised to give their recommendations in case they feel that some adjustments would help improve the effectiveness of the plan. This approach of evaluation will ensure that the views of everyone are taken into consideration when making necessary adjustments to the plan. The management will need to evaluate the program after every six months to ensure that necessary adjustments are introduced.

Summary

Crown Plaza Hotel is a leading hospitality firm in Dallas, offering a wide range of services to its customers. However, the report reveals that there is a problem of managing diversity in this company. Although the management has made a good move of hiring workers from diverse backgrounds, differences in culture and values are proving to be a challenge to the management and among employees. The report suggests that this firm should consider introducing a solid organizational culture that is based on its diversified workforce and clientele base. The management should also consider introducing team-building retreats where employees can get to learn about the importance of diversity and the need to overcome negative stereotypes.

References

Bedi, P., Lakra, P., & Gupta, E. (2014). Workforce diversity management: Biggest challenge or opportunity for 21st century organizations. Journal of Business and Management, 16(4), 102-107.

Cletus, H. E., Mahmood, N. M., Umar, A., & Ibrahim, A. D. (2018). Prospects and challenges of workplace diversity in modern day organizations: A critical review. Holistica, 9(2), 35-52.

Foma, E. (2014). Impact of workplace diversity. Review of Integrated Business Economic Research, 3(1), 382-390.

Hudson, S. W. (2014). Diversity in the workforce. Journal of Education and Human Development, 3(4), 73-82.

Saxena, A. (2014). Workforce diversity: A key to improve productivity. Procedia Economics and Finance, 11(1), 76-85.