Victims of corporate fraud, Certified Public Accountants, and stakeholders in publicly traded companies are going to have mixed feelings after reading articles authored by Carl Tietjen and R. K. Mautz, because decades before the scandals that obliterated retirement funds, job security, and financial institutions from 2001 to 2008, these men already described the underlying flaws and conflicts of interests in corporate America, as if they were prophetic voices warning of impending doom (Hays & Ariail, 2013). Both Mautz and Tietjen called for higher standards and improvements in the process of rendering professional services as CPAs or independent accountants. Tietjens focus was to persuade the public to go easy on accountants considering the challenges they faced. Mautz saw the problem from another perspective, describing the environment that gave rise to the problems related to fairness, transparency, and financial ethics. An in-depth study of these articles, with an eye towards combining related insights leads to the creation of an analysis framework that enables analysts to understand the accounting and corporate scandals that radically altered the financial landscape of the 21st century.
Tietjens Defense
Just like Mautz, Tietjen saw the problems that plagued the accounting profession. He did not deny the propensity of businessmen and corporate executives to bend the rules for the purpose of financial growth and monetary rewards. Tietjen pointed out that in a best-case scenario accountants have the capability to provide a reliable and fair assessment of the organizations financial performance through the use of financial reporting mechanisms mandated by law. However, Tietjen bemoan the fact that in a real-world setting, the accountants do not have absolute power to remain independent in terms of choosing and utilizing the most appropriate accounting parameters for the purpose of creating truthful and verifiable assessments of a companys financial health.
Tietjen acknowledged the problems, and there was no denial on his part that accountants are also capable of misdeeds. However, Tietjen identified the nature of the relationship between independent accountants and publicly traded companies as the root cause of the problem. He lamented the fact that the central weakness in the independent accountants position under the present concept is that he has neither the responsibility nor the authority to require client companies to select financial reporting practices and methods which are not just acceptable but are the most appropriate ones (Tietjen, 1971, p. 70). In other words, Tietjen shifted the blame on erring companies and unscrupulous corporate executives.
Mautzs Laments the Lack of Social Responsibility
Mautz shared the same sentiment when it comes to raising the ethical standards that govern the world of CPAs or independent accountants. However, Mautz perceived the said professionals not from a personal point of view. He did not share the vantage point of Tietjen and he did not empathize with the working mans struggle against his employers. Mautz analyzed the problem from the perspective of accounting firms, the collective work of accountants under a corporate setting. As a result, Mautz saw the danger signs when accountants were viewed not just as ordinary workers, but as stakeholders in a business enterprise hired by publicly traded companies for the purpose of rubber stamping their respective financial disclosures.
Mautz did not see any difference between an accounting firm attempting to increase its revenues in comparison to a publicly traded company competing with other business entities and working to improve the organizations quarterly earnings. Just like an oracle bewailing an incoming misfortune, he issued the following warning: The public accounting firms we once knew appear to be experiencing a metamorphosis into an organization with a wide variety of capabilities offered to any client for any purpose as long as the desired service is both legal and profitable (Mautz, 1988, p. 121). In other words, accounting firms are willing to go through the process of rubber stamping a companys financial statement as long as the action satisfied the minimum legal requirements.
Understanding the Accounting and Corporate Scandals of the 21st Century
It is to the best interest of the general public in general, and to the stakeholders of publicly traded companies in particular, to synthesize and harmonize the insights from both articles in order to understand the corporate and accounting scandals of the 21st century. This process may help develop a mechanism that prevents the repetition of the Enron and Arthur Andersen accounting fiasco (McLean & Elkind, 2013). For example, regulators and investors must agree with the conclusion that says: the basic premise that management has primary responsibility for financial reporting is not likely to change (Tietjen, 1971, p, 70). In hindsight, a better appreciation of the statements ramifications may have prevented the Enron scandal. In the said case, Enron was able to get away with corporate malfeasance for so long because the public was made to believe that a reputable accounting firm was auditing the companys books (Cole, 2014). Thus, Tietjen was correct when he said that the corporation controls the auditing process. For example, Enron utilized an accounting technique called the market-to-market valuation scheme that allowed the company to post future earnings as part of the corporate earnings for a particular fiscal year (Hays & Ariail, 2013).
It is also prudent to listen to the conclusion that says: profitability as a primary goal is inappropriate for an activity with a public interest (Mautz, 1988, p. 124). Using this framework, regulators are alerted to the conflict of interest that existed when Arthur Andersen, the accounting firm responsible for auditing Enrons financial statements, was also the same company that Enron executives utilized to help them get away with corporate fraud (Brown, 2017). It has to be made clear that Arthur Andersen was under the same financial pressure as other revenue generating firms (McLean & Elkind, 2013).
Conclusion
Combining and harmonizing the insights from Mautz and Tietjens articles revealed a host of insights that may have prevented the corporate and accounting scandals that radically altered the global financial landscape. From Tietjen, the revelation regarding the role of corporations in creating and approving financial statements may have encouraged greater scrutiny regarding the actual role that accountants play in ensuring fairness and fair play. From Mautz, the warning about the effect of corporate greed on accounting firms may have prevented the use of accounting firms as a shield to cover corporate wrongdoing.
References
Brown, R. (2017). Regulation of corporate disclosure (4th ed.). New York, NY: Wolters Kluwer.
Cole, C. (2014). Audit partner accountability and audit transparency: Partner signature or disclosure agreement. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 14(2), 84-101.
Hays, J., & Ariail, D. (2013). Enron should not have been a surprise and the next major fraud should not be either. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 13(3), 134-143.
Mautz, R. (1988). Public accounting: Which kind of professionalism? Accounting Horizons, 2(3), 112-125.
McLean, B., & Elkind P. (2013). The smartest guys in the room: The amazing rise and scandalous fall of Enron. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Tietjen, A. (1971). Financial reporting responsibilities. The Journal of Accountancy, 1(1), 69-73.
Commercial activities normally take place because investors see a chance to generate profits in them. Basically in a free market economy organizations freely enter and exit markets. Moreover, investors are attracted by ventures which yield high profits. In some situation, investors who find themselves in ventures which are generating low profits tend to get out of them (Weitzman M, 2003). The current world economy is fast changing due to changes in technology and many other factors. This has in turn imposed pressure on organizations to transform to remain competitive (Weitzman M, 2003). This as in effect made the accounting information a very important tool in assisting the organization in navigating certain environments.
When investors are making a decision they need clear information of the underlying economic situation both in terms of the economic situation and in specifics of the certain ventures (Moss et al, 2002). Fundamentally, for an organization to remain profitable it must be aware of the characteristics of a particular market in which it trades. Further, these organizations should be aware of expenditures as well as the current and future pricing of their products and/or services (Weitzman M, 2003). This information is normally provided in records or accounts of historical transactions in the organization are engaged (Moss et al, 2002). Without such records, it could be difficult to make an effective decision.
Often organization decision involves choices between possible alternative courses of action which are subject to constraints of various kinds (Jackson D, 2000). To make effective decisions these alternatives have to e evaluated. Moreover, the decision so reached must be monitored to establish its compliance with what was expected in the plan (Jackson D, 2000). This because monitoring offers insights into what went wrong and how to modify it.
Organization decisions which can be based on accounting information may include, how much of the product to sell, how much to charge for a product or a service, whether to take over other alternative activity or to shut down the business (Vaassen, 2002). They may also include whether to invest in a specific piece of equipment, choosing between alternative ways of manufacturing something, as well as how to spend on research and development (Vaassen, 2002)
Ventures which have a higher degree of risks achieve a higher return (Weitzman M, 2003). This effect encourages investors to take higher risks ventures with the hope of achieving high rates of returns. Accounting information provides information that is very significant to those who directly or indirectly interact with the organization (Economic Report, 2000). This is because it allows for the assessment of the performance of the managers as well as the performance and standing of the organization itself (Jackson D, 2000). This in essence facilitates the organization managers in making more effective decisions concerning the organization.
Recent research efforts indicate that accounting information is increasingly being accepted as an aid in making organizational decisions (Vaassen, 2002). This has led many organizations to regard accounting information as a procedure of identifying, measuring, and communicating economic decisions to allow informed judgment or decision (Jackson D, 2000). Accounting information is utilized by the user to make data-based decisions. These decisions impact the running of the organization positively or negatively.
The main objective of accounting information is to help organization leaders make information-based decisions. Organization owners utilize accounting information to make investment decisions as well as stewardship decisions (Vaassen, 2002). The primary concern of investment decisions is to create wealth for the owner. Therefore the owner uses accounting information to increase his/her wealth. Moreover, the investors may utilize accounting to assess how the firm is generating profits as well as prospects (Moss et al, 2002). Additionally, investors use accounting information to access the degree of risks related to their investment in the organization (Moss et al, 2002). Accounting information related to risks and returns can be very useful when deciding whether to sell or hold an ownership interest in an organization (Weitzman M, 2003).
In large organizations, investors are generally not involved in the running of the organization. On their behalf, these organizations are run by managers. The managers are expected to run the organization in the interest of the owner. This sometimes can result in conflicts between the owners and the managers. Accounting information assists both parties in their conflict resolution process by revealing how the resources have been utilized (Jackson D, 2000). This information is used by investors either to reward or fire such managers.
The government may require organizations to account for reasons such as taxation, economic management as well as government contracts (Economic Report, 2000). Many countrys governments tax organizations based on their accounting profits. The government uses accounting information to establish how much to tax a given organization. The government also requires this information to establish whether policies encouraging greater competition are complied with (Economic Report, 2000).
The management of any organization requires accounting information more than any other stakeholder of an organization. This is because the management is obliged to plan every activity of the organization (Vaassen, 2002).). Management requires forecast information to access the likely result of the utilization of a given policy. Moreover, the forecast information is also significant in identifying future challenges and opportunities of the organization (Weitzman M, 2003). For instance, the management may endeavor to ensure that the actual results coincide with expected results. Further, the management use accounting information to establish to which extent does the actual performance coincides with planned to establish deviation (Moss et al, 2002). It can therefore be concluded that since management has to plan and run the organization, the accounting information in a broad range to run the organization effectively.
References
Weitzman, Martin L (2003) Income, Wealth and the Maximum Principle. Harvard University Press.
Moss, David A, and Sarah Brennan (2002) Economic Accounting: Past, Present, Future. Harvard University Press
Economic Report of the President 2000, Washington DC Jackson, Dudley (2000) The new National Accounts. Edward Elgar
E.H.J Vaassen (2002) Accounting Information Systems: A Managerial Approach. Maastricht University
Accounting Standards will actually differ from one region to another. Different organizations also develop different accounting standards for their decision-making.
The Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) sets such standards in Australia. This board is to make sure that, the accounting standards are followed professionally in reporting accounting decisions (Monti, Belkaoui, 1991).
By and large these standards almost show commonness between Australia and China. However, to both cases, accountants are required to maintain high standards in their accounting reports.
In both of the countries, they have adopted accounting standards which are required internationally (International Accounting Standards). These standards regulate the accounting system applied internationally so that accounting system is applied professionally. These standards have been set to cater for the changing global volume of business in which corporations is undertaking their businesses internationally. With this aspect accounting standards should be set so as to foster high standards of accountability in professional accounting.
The aim of these international standards of accounting between Australia and China is to foster quality accounting results both in the domestic understanding as well as any inter-global linkages that these countries may engage in. Such standards in both of these countries promote a global proficiency and reliability (Mickee, Garner, 2002).
Due to the current nature between the ownership and control of businesses, high accounting standards have to be maintained to ensure that stakeholders requirements are ensured. Basically, in recent corporations, expansions of firms in Australia and China have been too high. Such expansions have led to increased divergence between the ownership and management of these business firms. To ensure this, International Accounting Standards have been highly applicable in the two countries, to ensure reliability of the shareholders to the accounting information. Either, there have constantly been high capital-inflows in the two countries and the global scenery. To ensure such quality of reputation in accounting system, there has been the use of International Accounting Standards (River, 1994).
Despite the uniqueness in the accounting standards between China and Australia, capital-inflows have been the subject to great difference where the difference in the business environment has called for a difference in jurisdiction in their respective capital regulations.
Due to the high advancing economic growth in China, it has been notably more costly to access capital-inflows by foreigners in China than Australia. The Chinese Accounting Standards (CAS) has created many cross-border bureaucracies that deter foreign investor from entering it capital market (Chen, 2004).
For two countries, companies are expected to apply the International Accounting Standards, which are reinforced for the respective accounting bodies in these countries. In these two countries auditors are supposed to ensure that, the, notable accounting standards have been met in companies accounting systems.
In both countries, the standards should never compromise high quality and such reports should be supported by clarity of evidence and infrastructure for a valid interpretation and application of accounting standards. However, this high quality requirement between China and Australia may vary differently to embrace the different traditions of accounting maintained by the two countries. However, such quality should be within the guidelines of International Accounting Systems. Such high quality in both countries is ensured by the adherence of the international neutral principles governing accountancy. High quality is maintained to ensure reliability for such accounting information to the investors and other users of the accounting system reports. (Lo, Tian, 2005)
In both China and Australia, high standards of quality in restricted. This is in the understanding of the importance of the audit system in business organizations. The audit standards require independency in scrutiny of financial statements by the auditors. Only reported accounting work subject to independent auditing can be voted in as reliable. However, the requirements in auditing are less developed in Australia than in China due to the less development in business structures in Australia. In China, which has the 16 of the worlds most developed companies, the need for audit efficiency has been very high. Investors will only rely on the adequacy of accounting reports, prepared on high quality basis by the auditors. (Otsuka, Lio, 1998)
Effectiveness in controls by the audit firms; in both Australia and China, high quality controls in the auditing system have to be ensured. To achieve this, auditors are called to perform their work with high integrity, professionalism and independency. Through their quality control, auditors are able to reveal the business prospective in a clear manner to the investors (Hay, 1994).
High professionalism; where in the both countries, they have set professional education requirements for the accountant in high professional manner which incorporates the required standards of international accounting. High accounting in both of the countries has been ensured through ensuring high academic professional qualification for those entering the accounting profession. However, there is a difference in the academic requirement between them, where syllabuses have been set to accommodate the business law traditions in the countries respectively (Heely, Nersesian, 1993).
Effectiveness in regulations; in both of the countries, the standards are monitored by different units which works interdependently. Such are the registrars of commission to the accounting boards, self-regulation of corporations and a private sector authority.
However, for both the countries, the authorities for each differ in authorities and regulations, where parties from different group should perform a different designated work prescribed by the law.
References
Chen, J. (2004) Corporate Governance in China. New York, Routledge Courzon.
Hay, D (1994) Economic Reform and state-owned Enterprises in China. Oxford, University Press.
Lo, V., Tian, X. (2005) Law and Investment in China: The Legal and Business Environment after Chinas WTOs Accession. New York, Routledge Courzon.
Mckee, D $ Garner, D. (2002). Crisis, Recovery, and the Role of Accounting Firms in the Pacific Basin (2002), Westport, CT. Quorum Books.
Monti, J, & Belkaoui, A. (1991) Accounting in Dual Economy. Westport CT, Quorum
Otsoka, K., Liu, D., Murakami, N: (1998) Industrial Reform in China: Past Performance and Future Prospects. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
River, R (1994). Setting standard for Financial Reporting FASB and the struggle for control of a critical process, Westport, CT., Quorum Books.
Job Analysis is done to generate a specific job-related goal. The research centers on different Job analysis methods. The research focuses on job analysis output. The job analysis method helps management enhance current job responsibilities. A. JOB ANALYSIS METHODS
Many organizations use different job analysis methods (Jirasinghe, 1996, p. 9). First, human resource personnel can conduct a direct observation of specified job responsibilities. The job analysis researcher can get the total time needed to accomplish each task. The researcher can produce a report indicating the average time needed to accomplish a particular task, including office jobs.
Next, the job analysis researcher can use deeper work methods analysis. Here, the researcher records the time needed to perform repeated production procedures. Specifically, the research includes determining the average time used to accomplish each assembly line job. The research includes the use of motion study or time use study. The job analysis results are used as a basis for setting up an effective and efficient work force.
Further, the job analysis researcher can conduct the interview job analysis method. The job analysis researcher can interview job supervisors, employees, and other interested persons to determine the time needed to accomplish each task. The supervisor has the experience of observing the average time needed to complete the subordinates work assignments. The job analysis results are communicated to interested parties. The results of the survey can be classified as learned job analysis outcomes (Jonassen, 1999, p. 25).
Furthermore, the job analysis researcher can use the interview method to gather relevant job analysis facts. The researcher can interview persons performing each assigned research task. For example, the researcher can ask the time used by each respondent in accomplishing each task. The researcher can gather the required research data. There are different types of interviews. The interviews include both open-ended questions and questions that are answerable by yes or no choices. The interviews can be structured or unstructured. The Mosaic interview method focuses on gathering work information from both the employees and supervisors. Adjustments are made to the current job specification time, based on the results of research (Fine, 1995, p.1).
Questionnaire-based interview
The employee works as an accounting clerk. The clerks duties include submitting financial reports to the immediate supervisor. The reports pertain to the companys daily business transactions. The reports include both receivables as well as payables balances. The accounting clerk reports to the supervisor. The supervisor can recommend the promotion, demotion, or firing of the accounting clerk. The same supervisor can also reprimand the accounting clerk for substandard performance. The working conditions are fine. The rooms are air-conditioned. The work areas are comfortable. The room temperature is normal. The clerk must have prior educational and actual accounting experiences. Consequently, the clerk produces more than average work output.
Job Description
Job Title: Accounting Clerk Position Purpose: to maintain orderly report processing. Typical Job Duties: Process financial reports. Physical requirement: using a computer all day processing accounting records. Reporting Relationship: presents reports to the accounting clerks accounting supervisor. Qualifications: Accounting education Job Qualification/ knowledge/ skills required: Accounting education.
Based on the above discussion, job analysis research generates a specific job-related goal. Job analysis research generates an average time use report. The research includes a job analysis output. Indeed, the job analysis method aids managements goal of improving the current job tasks.
References
Fine, S. (1995). Benchmark Tasks for Job Analysis. Mahwah Press: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Jirasinghe, D. (1996). The Competent Head: A Job Analysis of Heads Tasks and Personality Factors. New York: Falmer Press.
Jonassen, D. (1999). Task Analysis Methods for Instructional Design. Mahwah: Erlbaum Press.
By and large accounting is not a tool for control of an organization only. However, it expands its influence to the horizon of the entire race of mankind, where it is used to instill values, contribute to cultural development and promote social mobility in the society through promotion of the society social orders.
Accounting is an important tool in an organization system, where high principles and standards in accounting should be applied to secure the achievement of the mission and goals of the firm. By its nature, an organizations functional outlay consist many accounting system whos in cohesion with one another leads to the promotion of the achievement of a firms goal. In the broad range of the accounting system therefore, every structure in the organization is cordially in agreement to one another promoting high sense of individuals in the same organization.
One of the determinants of the goals of an organization is the nature of the organization behaviour. By its nature, organizational behaviour is the practical way of a persons outlook and perception is regard to an organization. Person behavioural aspects can highly be determined by the organizational behaviour structures. Such structures lead to a change in peoples behaviour, thus developing other behavioural characteristics as well as adopting values and ethics in relation to his work environment. Either, an organization can highly contribute to a persons perception towards work in regard to his cultural believes. Such believes dictate somebody to have a particular perception, towards the organization, where theory says that, the whole nation has a perception of inequality in the management of any organization. Such cultural believes therefore, highly contributes toward a persons imagery in the organization at large (Jackson, 1999).
Individuals in an organization make the broader society, which is ruled by order, ethics, values and beliefs. Therefore the individual behavioural changes by the environment in the organization are passed over and disseminated to the entire society, which comprises of the individuals in these organizations.
It is clear to state that, the launching pad to the organizational behaviour by the individual is the accounting system and principles that are applied in the organization itself. As a rule in the business organizations, accounting system form the cornerstone of pillars, which dictate the performance of the business. With good accounting system, the organization mission and goals are streamlined in the positive way where there is harmony within the organization after achieving its goals. With such harmony, the work environment by the people and their relation to one another is improved. Such improvement in the individual perception about the organization forms the basis of individuals behaviour within which they deliver it back at there homes which is now the society (Lee, 1998).
Therefore, it is an authentic and a legitimate argument by human behavioural activists to state that the society behaviour is directly reflected and guided by the accounting system. This is by the behavioural development concepts that are fostered to the individual in the organization working environment where the management of the organization itself is guided by the accounting systems applied within it.
On the other hand, individuals behavioural development may be negatively influenced by a poor accounting system within an organization. With such accounting system, the organization management and the general business performance is a detriment to the individual behaviour development. By its nature poor accounting will lead to a poor business environment within the organization. Such an environment is a basis for the individual within it to learn and develop behavioural characteristic in adaptation to the environment within the organization. Hence therefore, the broader society embraces behavioural characteristics that are congruent to that manifested by their people who are workers of poorly administered accounting system. The society values, believes and orders will therefore change to emulate the one perceived by their kinsmen working in different organization (Erich, Davis, 1996).
The people behaviour within an organization forms the legal status upon which social justice, equity and equality in distribution of resources is disseminated. For societal development, social harmony is an indispensable tool that cannot be overlooked. Such development is determined by the richness of culture, values and positive behaviour support in the people within the society. However, the main source of such upright behaviour is the basically rooted back to the organization where the better part of the society sources its behaviour. Relative to this, the behaviour development within an organization is determined by the organization development, where the organization behaviour is then determined by the accounting system in that organization.
An organization management constitutes an important tool. The overall rules of an organization management imply how the individuals develop their behaviour. A firms management constitutes a system of accounting inter-linkages between the different organization departments. A system of management constitutes varied accounting system like financial, managerial, costing and strategy, which interpolate with one another to yield the overall business environment (Belkaoui, 1992).
The management scheme uses various accounting authorities in its services delivery to the individuals. Its function includes, planning where it defines its possible goals and establishes definite strategies to achieve them, organizing, where it determines the different tasks that are to be done by different groups and the points/offices where the results of this tasks should be reported; leading, where the management motivates the employees through directing them and choosing different media of communicating so as resolve possible conflict by the employees and controlling, where management ensures the accomplishment of different activities and promoting possible corrections incase of deviance.
Such management functions in an organization form the internal accounting control pedigree, in which systems of accounting are used.
With the management accounting control function in an organization, individual within this organization interact with one another subject to the business environment to yield a behavioural development aspect that defines the individuals behaviour in the society.
Environment within an organization involve interaction of the people with diverse behavioural aspects. Such difference in abilities dictate people to be challenged or adapted in performing specific duties within an organization. In its accounting system, the management delegates duties to the workers in regard to their different abilities. Such abilities can be either physical or intellectual, where physical implies the person use of his body physique adaptation to perform a task while intellectual abilities signifies, the professionally acquired ability through pursuit of academic intellectualism. Such diversity in management accounting control system draws diversity in the individuals outlook where rebirth of behavioural characteristics develops from such role play within the organization. This is through the nation theory, which states that the management administration within an organization is compromised by societal injustice. With this theory, the overall society sees the management administration as juridicated by impartiality where certain individuals are honored to perform more excellent jobs or host descent office bearing priorities. This diversity in cultural understanding forms an important tool in behaviour development, where they stereotype their behaviour to form an adaptation that accommodates this societal belief (Kirkegaad, 1997).
However dissemination of such roles within these organizations involves management accounting regulations where different people are appointed to undertake different jobs depending on their overall abilities. To achieve a harmonious regulation to this problem, the management uses its accounting skills in pursuit of collaboration. Such skills are; the technical, where the management applies specialized expertise, human, where the management uses motivational ability to the workers, to work harmoniously with one another and the conceptual form of skills which involve the use of mental strength to solve difficult situation.
These implications have a diverse impact to the broader society coexistence whose harmony is defined by the individual behavioural aspects in it. With this regard, therefore organizational management accounting system regulates the nature of the behaviour that the people develop as an adaptation to the organizational behaviour.
People develop their behaviour in an organization through learning. Here, learning is a complex statement that denotes the way they adopt behavioral characteristics through emulating and experimenting the environment within the organization. Learning as a method of acquiring behaviour involves people interactive result synopsis with the environment that they are in.
The core implication of accounting is to ensure a good work environment of an organization in its attempt to achieve its goals and mission statement. Good accounting system implies a good working environment where business ethics and regulation are never compromised. The result of good accounting system is therefore a balance of satisfaction between the business owners and the body of workers. With this environment the individual interact with one another in their process of dissemination their duties to lead to a behavioural evolvement that comprises of a rich behaviour culture if the business environment is welcoming or the contrast if the environment is uncouth. Therefore the business organization accountancy system is not solely the important tool to the internal management of the business on its own but it expands it horizons to the broader society whose functional theorem is a variable rooted deeply in the organizations accounting system (Bragg, 2007).
Broadly the society is in harmony when value, orders and believes are highly promoted. Such societal harmony dictates the loss of strength to social conflicts, and other theories of social-structural functionalism that are dependent variable and subsets of the society behaviour system.
Many people form role models to others in regard to the position that one has in the society. People would like to emulate the behaviour characteristics of other in regard to their personalities and social placement in the society. However, a persons position in an organization also forms basis of their position in the society. Since such personal behaviour is also re-defined by the accounting status and broad management outlay within their working organization, role models only carry forward their behaviour they have got from their organization across to the society. This implies that the behaviour variable within the society is a subset of the accounting system within organization. Therefore environment in an organization leads to varied behavioural support system, which leads to varied behaviour modeling characteristics (Fields, 2002).
Job satisfaction is a pillar of influence in one attitude and values that he may perceive in a certain job. This aspect forms an important tool that determines a person attitude towards such kinds of job. A person will develop a positive out look in his perception to a job, which satisfies him. With such satisfaction therefore he develops a behavioral change that promotes his value, attitudes and ethics. However, a condition of no job satisfaction is an inhibitor to behaviour development where the individual is negatively impacted in the work environment in his organization. The end result of such job satisfaction related behaviour phenomena are the society social stabilities. However, individual job satisfaction is direct factor contributed by the organization accounting system, which gives jobs to different people depending on their abilities.
By its nature job satisfaction is determined by what values and attitudes persons have for their jobs. Values towards jobs can be either; terminal; which illustrate what goals the persons wants to achieve in his entire life or can be instrumental which shows the mode of forms to the guiding factors towards achieving ones terminal values. Both forms an array of importance in the environment forming a person existence. People develop different values towards their work, their relation with other and the existing executive environments. Values developed in regard to job satisfaction are important factors, which contribute to the ethics of the individual within the organization and the external environment (society). The so developed values and attitudes in regard to his job satisfaction are ploughed back to his society of existence, which forms a high contributor to the social stability within the society. (Sundem, Stratton, 2006)
After acquiring his behaviour through learning in the organization, the individual makes such behaviour to be permanent through way reinforcement. Such reinforcement of behaviour within an individual perception forms a basic influence of his permanent behaviour. Such permanent behaviour is therefore subjected to society in which the life of this individual persists. With regard to a collective behaviour image so develop through the perception to his job satisfaction and forms a basis of the society where these individuals intermingle with one another in the social co-existence, continuation and development of the society.
Broadly, the final results of the social health and stability of the society is influenced by the accounting system used by the organization which imply how individual perceive about the jobs upon which they will develop values and attitudes based on such satisfaction influence.
Cultural ethics are by themselves influenced by the organization ethics in individuals place of work. During the subsequent interaction with one another, different people cultural ethics undergoes changes. Such changes are directly portrayed in the society.
However, the organizations structure itself contributes to the individual cultural ethics perception. Inequalities in management greatly hinder positive cultural support to the individual workers in the organization. Since organization management imply the accounting systems.
With the behaviour development from the organization as a result of accounting system, different implications are drawn to the broader society whose behaviour system is dynamic and dependent of those are working in different organizations.
A good accounting system within system of organizations implies social health and motivation within the society. In this environment people live with one another in peace and harmony with social justices that allow equity and equality in resource allocation. With equitability in resource and wealth distribution therefore, the society prevails in a dynamic co-existence where respect for values, orders and authorities is fostered. Such an implication is highly dependent on the health and uprightness of the accounting system in the organization where the people work and which acts as a great contributor towards behaviour modeling and preservation of societal values and ethics.
Either, people carry forward the behaviour so got from their organization to the society. Such behaviour approach is modeled by the discipline of organizational management system. The authorities of the management system are ruled out by the accounting system in these organizations. With good accounting system, so does positive behaviour develop within the people who carry such behavioural characteristics to their society. With such good behaviour so developed, the society prevails in a social justice. Social justice entails brotherly hood perception of the people in the society. It permits for people to live in order and harmony with respect of each others right. Societal rules, orders and regulations are upgraded and followed in suit by the society. This implies therefore the focus to a definite destiny by the society.
With such good behaviour support by the positive accounting system in organization, society political and religious orientations are improved. Since people in the society develop more upright behaviour it is consequential that they foster positive implication in rules of political and societal governance, which requires respect to law order and authorities.
Impacts of accounting information on the organization
As discussed above, accounting information impacts different impacts on three distinct parties, the individual workers, the organization itself and the community at large. These institutions work together to benefit in solidarity the benefits that arises to the accounting information disseminated by the organization accounting system.
To the organization itself accounting system is a dominant factor which has varying consequences to the health of the business. The goals of the organization can only be achieved through a sound accounting system whose aim is to produce a layout of procedures and protocol that should be followed for a health running of the organization. To the organization, accounting information helps to formulate a good working environment where the functional layout of procedures and processes by different parties is clearly defined. With such role-play by individuals within the business organization, this results to integration and less interpersonal conflicts by the parties within the organization. However achievement of the goals of the organization is a factor, which highly depends on organizational behaviour of the workers in the organization. Such behaviour determines whether people have positive or negative perception towards the organization, which consequently dictates how individual sacrifice themselves in service delivery to the organization (Wright, 1947).
Above others, the basic and major goal of the organization is the maximization of its profit through increased business turn over. To achieve its goal the organizations institutions should work harmoniously and dependent of one another. Such a harmonious environment in the organization is fostered by the good accounting information that is provided by the organization.
Accounting system involves varied disciplines which work cordially with one another to produce accounting information that is used as a management instrument in the organization. Such system of accounting includes financial, strategic, managerial and human resource management. In all these cases, information is produced which through a collaboration to each other, the organization implement issues in regard to this information. This information is important in the health performance of the organization.
In all its activities, the organization work towards optimality in the use and allocation of resources. Such optimality can only be allocation of different costing system in which the purchase and the allocation of different costing system and objects within the organization should be highly monitored. To achieve this principle the cost accounting information of a firm should be clearly adopted to ensure optimality and least costing mission statement of the firm.
Perhaps, the profit of the organization is determined by the nature of the costing so adopted. Costing optimality in an organization involves a broad range of activities that are taken to lower the cost expenditure of the organization. With good cost accounting information, the organization regulates its costing to ensure low costing system in the firms activities. Optimality in organization cost can be achieved through appropriate sourcing of material inventories, their application and full utilization of the organizations equipment to yield the highest benefit. In all cases, organizations should purchase inventories of high quality and the required quantity. Such materials should be sourced from cheap sellers within the market. Material should be used adequately for there purpose and in the right quantity. Either, optimality in costing should also apply in the use of the firm facilities and structures. As a good cost accounting behaviour, facilitates including the human resources should be adequately and optimally used. Such optimal use can only be achieved through the administration of the accounting information which through the management can learn the cost efficiency system of running the business (Fields, 2002).
Strategic development is a key aspect of investigation while undertaking business procedures. To achieve this aspect, the management should never overlook the accounting information that is produced during the accounting system. Due to the high competition in the business environment, the organization ought to form strategies of competition in the market environment of its product. Such strategies can only be achieved through the advice of the accounting information that it acquires from its accounting systems. In regard to this accounting information the organization can thus develop different methodologies as strategies to achieve its development and expansion programmes. This is strategic accounting information which helps organization to develop different strategies that it can use to achieve its expansion mission.
To the organization, financial system is a very important issue and forms the benchmark in every business aspect. Financial system of the organization should be highly monitored if the health of the organization is to be administered. Accounting information is the key aspect that governs the financial accounting system of the organization. All financial business undertakings should be appropriately entered into the books of accounts which can finally be used to formulate authorities and regulation in the organization. For the organization, accounting information is an important tool which guides the organization in achieving its financial decision. Using such information, the organization can adequately plan for its financial budgets to clearly state expenditure requirement and income of the organization. In all its aspects, the organization should try to adequately monitor its financial system so as to achieve its mission and goals. Poor interpretation of financial accounting information can lead to big losses and business drawbacks. Hence therefore management should adequately comply with the information given in the accounting information system of the organization.
Broadly, there is the need for an active linkage between the organizations management and it workers collaboration and cooperation between the management and the workers should highly be monitored. The success of this relation can only be got from the accounting information which dictates on the variable of administration the management should use in its business. Good management is a vital role in a business undertaking. However, the methodologies to use in undertaking this administration are only pronounced in the accounting information. Such information will state the organizational administration structure, the duties, roles and rights of different parties to the administration of the organization. If an organization lacks a good system of accounting information so will its administration and management system be subject to a weakness. In such organization, conflicts of role-play will exist within the organization. These conflicts hamper the acquisition of the goals of the organization.
In all cases, the health of the organization is determined by the nature of its work force. This work force consists of the human resources capital. For high business turnover business duties and obligation should be allocated to different people. Such people should be appointed/ employed in regard to the business requirement and structure of the organization. Different organization calls for difference in their human capital requirement depending on the business needs of the organization. Thus appointment is done in regard to the accounting information which states the human capital requirement of the organization. Depending on the information, different work force is given different roles in regard to the ability and the needs of the business.
Implications of accounting between the individual organization and the community
Accounting information plays an important role in the interaction system between the individual, the organization and the community at large. To each, the benefits of accounting are clearly manifested. However, the three parties ought to harmoniously interact with one another to yield a cohesive environment whose subject is based on the accounting information. Each of the three parties has a varied contribution towards the coexistence of the society and this is impacted differently by accounting. However, for all accounting is an important tool which manifests benefits differently to either of them despite the different benefit that are in the social harmony with the society.
By hierarchy, the individual is the basic unit of the community. Different individuals interact with one another is an organization as they deliver there services in exchange for rewards inform of payment. Broad ranges of these individuals come together and live cohesively under the guidance of the societal norms, value and believe. During such interaction between the groups, accounting acts as a pivot element where it disseminates strength to ensure a collaboration and active role to each of these parties. Since the coexistence of the each involves a harmonious interaction, then accounting becomes an important tool to ensure the achievement of this (Bragg, 2007).
Firstly, accounting implies the overall order rule of administration to the organization. Through accounting information, organizations are monitored about their administration protocols. In these organizations are individuals who through there role play takes with them rewards inform of wages, salaries and other payments. With the health aspect, the organization can achieve their goals and missions effectively. With good accounting system, so can the individuals embrace the same by acquiring good remuneration and other rewards. Such good forms the bedrock of a good livelihood from their family members.
Remuneration is not the important benefit that an individual gets from an organization due to a good accounting system. Perhaps organizational behaviour is the most important implication that a person can get from an organization. The drive to the goals of the organization is done through accounting. Then, within the organization is the organization behaviour theorem where the individual are subject to behaviour development which models their behaviour. In the social interaction with other people and the work environment the individual is subjected to different work ethics that highly lead to a development in his behaviour. Person behaviour is very important to himself, the organization and the community where good behaviour leads to social cohesion and integration within the community. However, at the organization where administration and management is solely dependent to the nature of the accounting system and implications, comes the issue of human behavioural development. Human beings are made to deliver their behaviour in regard to the environment they are ascribed in at their organization.
They develop values and morals relating to the work environment they are faced with. With such an aspect their behaviours undergo a series of evolvement so as to adopt well in their work environment. Such behavioural development is an important tool in the overall society. Either, individual develop other attitude that out weigh the culturally rooted and built attitude that only drive the society to a drawback in its development. Hence therefore in the interaction of individuals, the organization, the community and organizational accounting system is important in imparting a positive behavior development to an individual.
From the noble approach accounting is perhaps a subject matter aimed at helping the organization achieve its goals. However to achieve these goals it employs the individual to deliver work for at different depths in service to the organization by the individuals, it indirectly embrace the benefits of the general community in which these individual forms it (Lee,1998).
With accounting information the organization forms varied management decision focused on it goals. It then formulates different business strategies that help it to endure in an environment with high competition and other business inconsistencies. Accounting can be said to be contributory element in a firm towards achieving its goals. Using the varied accounting systems, it organizes its structures to capture an adaptative image in the business environment. To achieve this, the organization cannot overlook the interest and roles played by the individual workers in its administration. However, it should comprehend to formulate other moderations that capture the possible ways of improving the organization work force structure. It should formulate scheme to improving its workforce relation and attitudes. This is in the view that the organization can only achieve its mission and goals through a positive support it acquires from its workers who have a positive attitude towards their work. To achieve this therefore it should revise on its rewarding system to capture close incentives to them.
Accounting as a business management tool is highly important in the organization achievement of its goals. Through use of accounting, the firm can be able to allocate its resources adequately and optimally to achieve a success in the costing system. Optimality in itself involves the human resource attribute which should be adequately used for highest firms rate of production. However, the functional rate and capacity of the workforce depends on the attitude and values that the work force has towards the organizations.
By accounting system, the firm can regulate its functional system to adopt more efficiency methods and strategies that help production system geared towards production of goods which are to be consumed by the community. Therefore, with the good accounting system the organization can thus achieve their required goods and services in their right qualities and quantities and at the best time possible.
Therefore, through a good accounting system and its effect to the organization, the community and individuals are equally provided with their needs. These interlinkages lead to an end result of harmony between the organization itself and the individual workers together with the larger community. Accounting system therefore helps the organization to make foundations upon which to regulate its business in relation to the requirements of its worker and the broad society.
Accounting benefits highly accrue to the community. The individuals who serve the community are members of the community.
To the community, justice, equity, equality and political harmony arises from the results of the accounting information from the organization. This is because the workers of the organization are members of the society whom with them are positive behavioural aspects that have grown from that basic interaction with the environment of the organization work place.
With them therefore, they carry with them varied positive behaviour aspects that result to positive influence in the social integration and development in the society. (Jackson, 1999)
With the positive behaviour so gained, social justice in the society is empowered where the community members live in peace and harmony and the influence of behaviour that they have got from their organization. Such social justice leads to the functional integration of humanity in the society hence promoting the general well being of the people in the community.
With the behaviour so acquired in the community through the organization accounting administered, the same is carried forward to the community where equity and equality issue are fostered. With the rule of equality means equity there is a resource in the community sharing and distribution of scarce resources in the community. Such aspect thus implies equitability in community resource which promotes peace and tranquility. (Erich, Davis, 1996)
Either the organization produces goods and services to be consumed by the society. The organization can only know what goods in what quality and quantity it should produce to sustain the requirements of the society. The problem to this can be through an adherence to the regulatory rules so produced by the accounting system of the organization. Hence therefore an importance should be attached to a cordial relation between individuals organization and the community which can only be fostered by administration to the accounting information produced by organization management.
Bibliography
Belkaoi, A. (1992). Morality in Accounting. Westport, CT. Quorum Books Publishers
Bragg, S. (2007) Management Accounting Best Practices: A Guide for Professional Accountant. London, Mosby.
Erich, H. & Davis, J. (1996) UNDERSTANDING GROUP BEHAVIOUR: small Group Processes and Interpersonal Relations, Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence. Erlbaum Associates.
Fields, E. (2002). The Essential of Finance and Accounting for Non financial Manager. New York, Amcom Division Publishers
Jackson, P, (1999) Virtual Working; Social and Organizational Dynamics. London: Routledge.
Kirkegaad, H. (1997). Improving Accounting Reliability: Solvency, Insolvency and Future Cash Flows. Westport, CT, Quorum Books Publishers.
Lee, C. (1998) Alternatives to Cognition; A new look at Explaining Human Social Behavior. Mahwah Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Australian standard of business combination accounting is based on International Accounting Standards. A critical review of AASB 3 has been undertaken in this essay about procedures of purchase method to be adopted for business combination accounting. The use of fair value evaluations of assets and liabilities transferred during the acquisition has been critically analyzed. Goodwill has a special role to play in business combinations, and accordingly, efforts have been made to evaluate goodwill calculation methods with particular stress on its accounting aspect. It will be seen in the write-up that Australian accounting standard AASB 3 is aptly adopting the changes that are emerging at the level of IASB.
Significance of reporting entity
AASB 3 defines reporting entity as an entity, in respect of which it is reasonable to expect the existence of users who rely on the entitys general purpose financial report for information that will be useful to them for making and evaluating decisions about the allocation of resources. A reporting entity can be a single entity or a group comprising a parent and all of its subsidiaries. (AASB 3, Appendix A)
The important criteria in the determination of reporting entity in a business combination are existence of users. The existence of users does not only mean present users of the financial statements, they may be the future users of such statements. They may be investors or creditors, or even a general information seeker of that company. The idea is that company financial statements may be used by them to take important financial decisions.
In most business combinations acquirer is the reporting entity.
As the criterion is the existence of users of financial statements, these are the financial statements and financial reports prepared as per the Corporation act that bears the brunt of being a reporting entity. Therefore directors of the reporting company have to be careful in determining their company as reporting company because once identified as a reporting entity; it has to comply with certain requirements detailed as under:
Reporting entity has to prepare financial reports following Chapter 2M of Corporation Act following all applicable accounting standards.
Section 295(4)(d) requires directors to make a declaration that the financial statements of the company comply with all applicable accounting standards.
A reporting company has to prepare both consolidated and separate financial statements.
The implication of the Purchase method of accounting
AASB 3 allows only the purchase for accounting the business combination. Accounting business combinations on purchases method involves the determination of the following three elements of the combination, namely
Identification of an acquirer
The purchase price or cost of combination, and
Allocation of the purchase price over acquired assets and liabilities.
Identification of acquirer
Normally an acquirer is also the reporting entity in a business combination, but sometimes both may be different. An acquirer is identified from the circumstances that surround the combination process. For example, an acquirer may be the entity,
the fair value of whose net assets are greater than the other; or
the entity paying cash or other consideration cost say shares to purchase the other entity, or
the company whose management is in a position to select the management team of the other company.
Identification of acquirement is important as according to AASB 3 the acquirer is the combining entity that obtains control of other combining entities or businesses (AASB3, para 17)
Generally speaking, an acquirer obtains control of another entity when the acquirer has the majority of its shareholding, i.e., more than 50%. It is not necessary that a company may hold majority shareholding to have controlling powers in the other company. Under the following circumstances, a company can obtain the acquiring control even when holding less than 50% of the shareholding of the acquired company:
when the acquirer holds the majority of the voting rights, or
when as per an agreement, the acquirer governs the financial and operating policies of the acquired company, or
when the acquirer is in a position to appoint a majority of board members or governing body of the other company.
Purchase price
In a business combination, purchase prices are the basis and the nexus of the entire transaction, as AASB3 allows only the purchase price method of accounting. The pooling of interest method is not allowed.
The total purchase price is equal to the fair value of the consideration given by the acquiring company. As per AASB 3, for determining the purchase price or cost of business combination a date of exchange needs to be determined. The date of exchange has been defined by AASB 3 as the date on which the acquirer effectively takes control of the acquiree. The purchase price of the combination shall be the aggregate of the following on this date of combination, namely
fair value of the assets given by the acquirer
fair value of liabilities incurred and assumed by the acquirer, and
the cost incurred by the acquirer that can be directly attributed to such a combination deal.
Allocation of purchase price
Once the purchase price or cost of combination is exchanged, the next process is the allocation of such price over acquired assets and liabilities. The purchase price is allocated to identifiable tangible and intangible assets and liabilities of the subsidiary based on the fair market value of such assets and liabilities on such date of acquisition. However, while making such allocation the purchase price may increase or decrease from the fair value of net assets acquired, and these conditions are dealt with as under:
If the purchase price exceeds the fair value of underlying net assets, the excess will be recorded as goodwill and that will be tested for impairment annually.
If the purchase price is less than the fair value of underlying net assets, the acquirer is required to reassess the identifies assets and liabilities; and excess remaining after such reassessment is recognized in the profit or loss account.
The determination of fair values of assets
The business combination scheme prescribed under AASB 3 envisages the determination of the fair value of assets and liabilities at two stages, namely
Firstly to compute the purchase price, the fair value of assets, stocks, and other assets transferred by the acquirer to discharge the considerations or purchase price.
Secondly, fair value is considered when the purchase price is allocated among identified assets and liabilities acquired from the subsidiary.
It is interesting to note that though AASB 3 has prescribed methods to calculate the purchase price of business combinations and to allocate the purchase price on identifiable assets and liabilities using the fair valuation of assets and liabilities on exchange date, AASB 3 has not prescribed any method or provided any guidance on valuation of assets and liabilities.
This leads us to believe that fair valuation of assets is an exercise to find out the market value or replacement value of the assets and comparing those values with the carrying value of assets. Finding out market values of fixed assets like land and building is an experts job and thus that needs to be referred to say registered valuers. For other fixed assets replacement values may be computed by taking quotations from intending buyers of those fixed assets. The services of actuaries may be used to evaluate certain long-term liabilities.
About intangible assets, it would be seen whether those intangible are separable and valuation would be considered following the provisions of AASB 138. In other words, different assets and liabilities would be valued using the different and varying degrees of information available in other standards, as AASB 3 is insufficient in guiding fair valuation of tangible as well intangible assets.
Treatment of directly attributable cost in a business combination
The directly attributable costs of combinations are an integral part of the scheme of business combination accounting as envisaged by AASB 3. The direct costs attributable to the business combination may include the expenditure of the following nature:
Professional fee of consultants like accountants, valuers, legal advisors, and others,
The cost of maintaining a separate acquisition section to carry out all activities related to combination, and
Other directly related administrative costs if any.
Under the scheme of evaluating the purchase price or cost of combinations as per AASB 3, the direct costs as stated above are added to the fair value of assets( including stocks, if any) given and liabilities assumed by the acquirer.
Treatment of such direct costs attributable to business combination would depend upon the nature of cost involved:
Direct costs of acquisition are added to the amount of cash paid or the fair value of the stock issued in determining the acquisition price.
Suppose a stock is issued, then the costs of registering and issuing securities reduce the fair value of the securities issued.
But indirect costs such as share of administrative costs running the establishment of the acquirer are not considered while evaluating the purchase price of the acquisition.
Accounting treatment of bargain purchase
The purchase method of accounting is based on a principle that purchase is the result of a bargaining process in which the combined entities have evaluated the fair value of the subsidiarys assets and liabilities in determining the amount of cash or property or stock that will be exchanged for the stock of the subsidiary. For business combinations accounted for as a purchase, the entity acquiring the stock will be considered the parent, while the company that is being acquired will be considered the subsidiary. The accounting is done generally following either of two ways:
If books and records are combined, the parent will record the assets and liabilities of the subsidiary
If separate books and records are maintained, the parent will record investment in a subsidiary equal to the net amount of assets and liabilities that would have been recorded if the records were combined.
When purchase price exceeds the fair value of net assets recorded, the excess is treated as Goodwill paid for such acquisitions, and thus capitalized to Goodwill account. By AASB 3 goodwill is not amortized, but every it is tested for impairment.
A situation may also arise when the purchase price of business combination is less than the fair value of net assets acquired, then traditional treatment is that the value of non-current assets other than long term investments is proportionately reduced by the amount of such excess, and if still there is balance excess then that is treated as a deferred credit or negative goodwill. But AASB 3 requires the acquirer to reassess the identified assets and liabilities and the excess is recognized in profit or loss account.
Treatment of Goodwill in a business combination
Under the purchase method of accounting for business combinations, assets acquired and liabilities assumed are recorded based on their fair value. Accordingly, there may be some residual value of purchase price paid that is more than the fair value of net assets acquired. This residual value represents goodwill paid for the acquisition under a business combination.
So goodwill emerges in such transactions when the purchase price is greater than the fair value of net assets. However, when the purchase price is less than the fair value of net identified assets, the AASB 3 require the acquirer to reassess the identifiable assets and liabilities; and fair value of net assets acquired in excess over purchase price remaining after such reassessment is recognized in the profit or loss account.
Initially, the goodwill is recognized at a cost but tested for impairment every year on the balance sheet date or earlier as per requirements.
Goodwill may also form part of assets acquired. Like any other asset fair value of the goodwill is evaluated as intangible, only when it is identified and separable from the entity. If this is not possible Goodwill will be automatically recognized as residual value over net assets acquired.
But when such goodwill is internally generated by the acquiree, its treatment is not similar to goodwill that is externally acquired. It will not be separately recognized as identifiable assets as it would not possible to separate them from the entity. Internally generated goodwill will be reflected in the residual purchase price over the fair value of identifiable net assets acquired.
Current proposals
In keeping pace with IFRS 3 of IASB, Australian accounting standard AASB is also set to get amended with effect July 2009. According to Accounting Alert 2008/03, The revised AASB 3 applies prospectively to business combinations for which the acquisition date is on after the beginning of first annual reporting period beginning on or after 1 July 2009.
Further changes in business combination accounting include greater emphasis on fair value as the measurement principle. Under the proposed accounting process fair value of the acquiree would be determined before calculating the goodwill. The purchase price will not be compared with a fair value of net assets acquired to calculate the value of the goodwill paid; instead the fair value of acquiree as the whole will be the basic parameter for determining goodwill.
The proposed draft states that the fair value of the acquiree as a whole should be used as the basis for determining goodwill arising in an acquisition, summarized as follows:
The fair value of the acquiree as a whole
Less
The fair value of identifiable assets and liabilities acquired
Equals
Goodwill arising from business combinations.
The concept of calculations of goodwill on basis of valuation of the subsidiary as a whole is a refreshing idea. The business combination involves the acquisition of the entire entity by the acquirer. Therefore goodwill should be calculated regarding the valuation of the subsidiary as a whole, and not regarding the valuation of identifiable assets and liabilities acquired in the combination process.
Conclusion
Australian accounting introduced AASB 3 in 2005 has objectives of accounting business combinations through purchase methods using fair values for identification of assets and liabilities that are transferred from subsidiary to the parent company. Business combination accounting as envisaged by AASB 3 is an effort to simplify the use of purchase method accounting of business combinations. The purchase price is the amount given plus directly attributable cost on a combination of entities. Goodwill is normally the residual of the excess purchase price paid. The emphasis in determining the purchase price and goodwill is on fair valuation. But the only lacuna is that the standard does not suggest any direct method of fair valuation of assets and liabilities. The plus point is that the Australian accounting standards concerning business combination are keeping pace with IASB. The proposed changes in IFRS 3 are also being introduced in AASB3 effective from July 2009.
References
AASB 3, Appendix A, Reporting Entity, page 38, Web.
The case study will focus on AMP Limited which is a financial services organization based in various countries around the world. The company has an employee base of about 14,500 employees in the AMP International organization of the company. The case study will focus on the service division of AMP which provides a variety of services to the companys affiliate in Australia. These services include human resource services, administration services, procurement management, and maintenance of the companys facilities. The use of the US EPA classification of environmental costs is useful for this case study because it helps to explain how and why different types of costs need to be considered for decision making within the management accounting system (KPMG 2002)
The use of the classification system was able to highlight the environmental costs that are utilized by the various divisions of Services AMP. The companys environmental costs are mostly related to the energy and water consumption needs of the organization as well as waste disposal activities identified in the first question of this analysis. By classifying the various costs of the company based on the EPA classification system, the company will be able to develop a new environmental management system that takes into account a new structure of costs that can be managed properly under the new system.
Definition of Environmental Management Accounting
Environmental management accounting is defined as a process that deals with the identification, collection, and analysis of data that is related to an organizations environmental costs as well as its environmental performance. This information is usually beneficial to the companys managers when it comes to decision-making activities. Environmental costs according to this study are defined as the costs that are related to the environmental aspects of a business and they have to be paid directly so that goods and services are produced for customers.
These costs do not however cover waste management and disposal of the materials that have been used by the organization or business to produce goods and services. Environmental costs do not also cover the corporate responsibility activities within the surrounding environment where the organization operates (Langfield-Smith 2009).
AMP accounted for the environmental impacts of its offices by conducting a high-level analysis into the way the company used various resources to conduct its business operations. The analysis was able to reveal electricity, water, wastewater disposal, and management are activities that have the most impact on the companys environment. The management accounting system used by the organization has accounted for costs by vendors, costs for building services paid for by Services @ AMP, and costs that arise from waste collection and disposal activities (KPMG 2002).
The reason why AMP took part in the case study was so that it could be able to change its environmental management accounting systems to reduce the impact of the companys operations on its surrounding environment. It also took part in the case study to demonstrate its commitment to environmental management and adopt practices that will reduce the environmental impacts of its operations.
The company has an environmental policy that aims at improving the environmental performance of AMP as well as incorporating the efforts of its employees to improve the environmental performance of the company thereby enhancing business decisions and actions. The environmental management accounting case study will therefore act as a starting point for the organization in developing its environmental management activities to reduce its environmental costs (KPMG 2002).
Changes that AMP made to its Management Accounting System
A high-level analysis was conducted to determine the environmental costs that are incurred by AMP which were found to be categorized in the current management accounting system to include organizational spending on building services and wages as well as the costs incurred by AMPs vendors. The environmental costs that are incurred for AMPs building services are usually combined with those for every building office occupied by the company.
These charges are based on the number of offices that have been occupied instead of the amount of office space that has been utilized in general and they are usually charged back to the cost centers of the company in the form of single office service charges (SOSC). The single office service charge system includes rental payments, maintenance of the space, office cleaning, electricity, water, and wastewater management systems within the company (KPMG 2002).
The company also spends environmental costs for invoice payments, office stationery, materials (paper) that are used for marketing and public relations activities, office furniture and supply purchases, and also payment for leases on the rented out cost centers. Based on the high-level analysis of the companys environmental costs, AMPs managers discovered the key opportunities needed to improve or change the management accounting system used by the company were directed towards improving the availability of information in relation to environmental costs. The opportunities would allow AMP to identify any cost-saving exercises that would reduce the environmental degradation of the companys environment (KPMG 2002).
The key changes that were therefore going to be made in the companys management accounting system included placing additional fields in the accounting system that would cater for various types of goods and services as well as the quantities of these goods and services, identifying the environmental inputs and outputs of AMP which would be accounted from the rent incurred by the company within the accounting system, separating the environmental costs from the costs that arose from the single office service charge, the rationalization of vendors which would support the additional fields within the accounting system and the separation of electricity charges from the single office service charge (KPMG 2002).
Definition of Environmental Costs
Environmental costs are referred to as the direct costs that are utilized by corporate ventures and businesses to provide goods and services to customers while at the same time managing the environmental impacts of these goods and services. Environmental costs are important for an organizations managers as they are able to offset any environmental costs by generating revenues from recycling wastage materials and selling waste.
Environmental costs are beneficial to an organization because they improve the environmental performance of the organization increasing the companys competitive advantage. According to the US EPA Pollution Prevention Benefits Manual of 1989, environmental costs are classified into five tiers which include Tier 0, Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3, and Tier 4. Tier 0 classifies environmental costs to be the direct costs that are associated with the capital expenditures, raw materials, and operating costs of a company (KPMG 2002).
Tier 1 describes environmental costs to include the hidden regulatory costs that arise from activities that fall under compliance and quality assurance such as monitoring, reporting, and controlling of organizational resources. Tier 2 deals with environmental costs that are related to the contingent liabilities that arise from poorly disposed of chemicals, contaminated environmental sites, and fines and penalties that arise as a result of not conforming to the standards and guidelines of the companys license.
Tier 3 environmental costs are the less tangible costs incurred by a company such as an employee and community relations costs, customer perception costs, and risk management, and avoidance. Tier 4 environmental costs are those that are related to the external environment of an organization. They include costs that are incurred from the depletion of natural resources by the company and the release of wasted materials into the surrounding environment (KPMG 2002).
Four benefits that companies in the service sector can derive from the identification of environmental costs include the increased transparency of these costs which leads to a reduction in the number of funds used to deal with environmental problems. Another benefit of identifying environmental costs is that they can be able to offset environmental costs by generating revenues through the proper disposal of waste materials.
Identifying environmental costs also leads to improved environmental performance because these costs can be properly managed by the company and it also leads to the promotion of accurate pricing of products and services. The identification of environmental costs also allows a company to develop an environmental policy to manage the use of resources within its environment of operation (KPMG 2002).
Environmental impacts of Services@ AMPs
The environmental impacts that are brought about by Services@ AMPs activities include electrical costs, water consumption, and the costs that are incurred from other resources that are used to provide financial services to the companys clientele. The generation of solid waste (waste paper, kitchen waste, and general waste), wastewater and gas emissions also have a significant impact on the environmental costs of AMP. Electricity, water, food, office stationery, furniture, and equipment are identified as the main inputs used by the company to create commodities or products in the form of financial services while waste paper, kitchen waste, wastewater, gas emissions, and general waste are identified as the outputs that arise from the process of developing the products (KPMG 2002).
These impacts are dealt with by the companys management accounting system which conducts a high-level analysis of the system to relate the activities undertaken by the company with the environmental costs incurred by the company to manage these environmental impacts. One technique the company uses to manage these impacts is by categorizing the type of spending in the general ledger which might include building maintenance costs, wages, and electrical costs.
The accounting system used by Services @ AMP is able to provide information on the various types of vendor costs as well as the costs for many of the building services paid by the company. The company is also able to pay for office stationery, furniture, equipment, and publication material by charging back the costs of these products to AMPs cost centers.
Services @ AMP manages the environmental costs of purchasing electricity and water purchases but in some cases, the building manager conducts the procurement of the companys purchases. The building manager also manages the cleaning contract for Services @ AMP where the contracting company offers services for waste collection and disposal as well as payment of wastewater bills. The company has been able to reduce the number of vendors that it uses for the supply of electrical and water services which is part of the activities it incorporates for managing the environmental impacts of its inputs and outputs.
Changes that can be made to AMPs Accounting System
Any changes to the environmental management accounting system will mostly be directed towards improving the information that deals with the costs and quantities of goods and services that arise from AMPs environmental impacts. One change to the management accounting system will involve placing an additional field to the management accounting system so that it can be able to provide more details to the products offered by AMPs suppliers.
The company was able to conduct a trial of this change by identifying potential vendors within the accounting system who would be able to provide electricity, water, office equipment, stationery (paper), paper recycling, and shredding services. The costs related to these goods and services were consolidated, an exercise that demonstrated office equipment and stationery to account for 71 percent of AMPs total costs. Creating an additional field would therefore allow the company to identify cost reduction opportunities (KPMG 2002).
Another change to AMPs accounting system will involve separating the costs charged for waste collection and disposal with those for building and office rent. This will ensure that the system is able to properly track the quantities and costs that are used by these services. These separate charges will ensure that AMP is able to effectively manage waste reduction within the company and also efficiently monitor the recycling activities of the company.
The company was able to conduct an audit into whether these changes would manage waste disposal activities within the company effectively. The results of the audit revealed that the volume of general waste could possibly be reduced to 80 percent if a paper recycling system was implemented within the company. The audit revealed that separating waste collection and disposal costs from the rent incurred by AM would have a direct impact on the environmental costs incurred by the company for these activities (KPMG 2002).
Another change that could be implemented by the company for its accounting system includes separating environmentally-related costs from the single office service charges (SOSC). The ideal situation would be one where cost centers are charged based on the actual environmental costs that arise from electricity, water, and waste environmental impacts on AMPs environment. However, once the company introduced the SOSC system to minimize administration costs, this option became financially impossible. This change in the current context would however highlight the costs that are incurred by AMP listing them as a separate item in the SOSC charged to the companys cost centers (KPMG 2002).
Another change that could be adopted by the company is reducing the number of vendors who provide the services that are related to the environmental impacts of the organization. The reduction would ensure that there is some form of transparency within AMPs accounting system allowing for the addition of fields within the system. AMP was able to conduct a vendor analysis in 2001 that would allow Services @ AMP to select the most suitable vendors for its goods and services. The results of the analysis demonstrated that vendor reduction or rationalization activities presented a significant opportunity for the company to attain operational efficiency and cost reduction in its activities (KPMG 2002).
Relevant Costs for Selected Environmental Inputs and Outputs
The five relevant costs for environmental inputs and outputs for AMP include electricity costs, water costs, newspaper purchase costs, paper recycling, and shredding costs, and office stationery and paper costs. These costs were identified as relevant because they accounted for a large percentage of AMPs environmental costs. The cost breakdown of each of these items in terms of percentage focuses on the kind of environmental impact.
The items that had the highest costs included office stationery and paper which had a cost breakdown percentage of 71 percent followed by electricity costs which had a percentage of 21 percent. Newspapers, paper recycling, and shredding services used by the company had a breakdown percentage cost of 4 percent and 3 percent respectively. Water had the smallest percentage of AMPs total costs which amounted to 1 percent (KPMG 2002).
Office stationery and paper had a high breakdown cost percentage because it covered various purchases which included office equipment, food, and catering services, publication materials that will be used to produce journals and brochures to support the marketing activities of AMP, and also furniture purchases. The evaluation of relevant costs revealed that the cost of outputs such as solid waste and wastewater disposals was relatively low when compared to other costs because it accounted for less than 2 percent of the companys operating expenses (KPMG 2002).
Breakdown of AMPs Costs
The breakdown of costs for the top fifty items ordered by AMPs cost centers for a six-month period revealed that compendium and satchel sets accounted for 33 percent of the budget while office paper and stationery accounted for 27 percent of the companys budget. Staff gifts and incentives which were other items ordered by the company accounted for 20 percent of the expenditure while one-off purchase items accounted for 7 percent. Folders, dividers, and files accounted for 6 percent of the budget while stickers took up 4 percent of the cost. Funds that were set aside for other purchasers accounted for three percent of AMPs cost budget (KPMG 2002).
Stationery costs were relatively high because of the irregular purchases made because of staff incentives and one-off item purchases. The costs per item also varied significantly between two or more items which meant that quantitative information was needed to determine the potential environmental savings of the company. To reduce the relative costs and environmental impacts associated with stationery items, AMP could establish a baseline that would determine the use of resources and waste management for the organization.
The baseline would enable AMP to monitor any deviations between resource utilization and waste generation minimizing any costs. AMP could also include environmental performance indicators within its management report allowing the company to determine the quantity and prices of products ordered.
Another opportunity that the company can use to reduce costs is to apply the relevant environmental criteria in the compilation of a preferred items list which will be used by the company to determine products that have the highest relative cost. Also using vendor monthly reports will allow management to compare the cost of stationery ordered by the various cost centers of the company so as to identify areas for cost reduction and also a reduction in consumption (KPMG 2002).
Benefits Resulting from the Separation of Costs
A waste audit conducted by the company was able to reveal various benefits that could be accrued by the company if it decided to separate its costs. The audit which was conducted on several floors of the Services @ AMP building revealed several potential benefits that would be useful for the company. The potential benefits that accrue from the separation of costs for AMPs environmental inputs and outputs are the reduction of general waste which will go down by 80 percent in volume if the company adopts a recycling program and a reduction in kitchen waste by up to 65 percent in volume if a recycling program is introduced in AMP.
In the case of office stationery, the company will be able to accrue some benefits by recycling waste paper into office paper and also placing recycling bins in all AMP offices. The company will also be able to experience a 48 percent reduction in other recyclables and wastewater incurred by the company during the course of its operations. Recycling of waste paper will also enable the company to experience a 5 percent reduction in the number of costs that would be used to purchase office paper.
The waste audit also revealed that AMP had a reduction potential of 33 percent for its general waste meaning that the company could save thousands of dollars on waste management activities. The audit also revealed that copying double-sided papers and also reusing single-sided papers would save the company approximately $177,800 in expenses on a yearly basis compared to when single-sided papers were used and disposed of (KPMG 2002).
References
KPMG (2002) Environmental management accounting: a case study for AMP. Victoria, Australia: Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia.
Langfield-Smith, K. (2009) Management Accounting: Information for Managing and Creating Value, 5th Edition. New Jersey: McGraw Hill.
Notes payable are integral parts of a companys accounting as they serve as general ledger account presenting the issued promissory records. The violation of the proper procedures with notes payable may lead to unethical behavior and adversely affect the stakeholders. In this regard, this paper focuses on the reclassification of notes payable in the context of ethics and identifies options that were possible to follow.
The key topic of the given case study is unethical accounting practices with the aim of meeting the employers expectations. Among the key stakeholders, one may note Kurt Nolte, the controller, and Hans Pfizer, the president of Pendleton Automotive Corporation. At the same time, ten stockholders act as indirect stakeholders, who want to receive their annual dividends. There are two facts of unethical accounting, each of which needs to be analyzed to properly understand the situation.
First, the behavior of the president seems to provoke the controller to come up with an unethical decision of reclassifying note payable. From reviewing the given case study, it becomes evident that the president pressured his employee to adjust the financial statement regarding cash flows and make $60,000 payable activity.
This is a violation in the treatment of notes payable that is prescribed by the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) that are used to present the official reporting necessary for an accurate description of the financial condition of an organization (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2015). In addition, the mentioned principles require ensuring validity of the information provided in the documents. Thus, the unethical behavior of the president was caused by the desire of acquiring the advantage from falsifying the financial statements.
Second, as for the controller, one should emphasize that his behavior was also unethical. Instead of seeking new opportunities to accomplish the required $1 million to make sure that the stockholders will receive their dividends, he participated in fraud. Namely, the controller violated the accrual principle proposed by the GAAP. This principle means that to account for a companys operations, not only transactions related to money are recorded, but also barter, sales on credit, exchange of assets and liabilities, and other transactions (Kimmel et al., 2015). The controllers actions led to the violation of transparency and integrity of the companys accounting system.
The alternative to the given study is possible for both the president and the controller. They might refuse to adopt the unethical behavior and follow the regulations prescribed by the national guidelines. For example, the president might ask the controller to prepare the list of potential solutions, emphasizing that they should be ethical (Zadek, Evans, & Pruzan, 2013). In his turn, the controller might decide to seek an outside counsel or present this complicated situation to the attention of the board. Accordingly, the president might also consider that the collective discussion of the issue would lead to a more appropriate decision.
The critical analysis of this case study shows that none of the stakeholders want to discover the misclassification. The controller wants to meet the expectations of his employer even by means of unethical solutions, and the president strives to satisfy the stockholders requirements regarding dividends. It seems that stockholders are not interested in accounting details of Pendleton Automotive Corporation unless they receive their shares. However, if the board members will observe $1,030,000 net cash flow, they might be willing to understand these numbers occurred. Thus, there are two ethical ways to address the discussed problem, including the open discussion with the board and search for an external counsel.
References
Kimmel, P. D., Weygandt, J. J., & Kieso, D. E. (2015). Financial accounting: Tools for business decision making (8th ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Sons.
Zadek, S., Evans, R., & Pruzan, P. (2013). Building corporate accountability: Emerging practice in social and ethical accounting and auditing. London, UK: Routledge.
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or GAAP is an accounting standard used in the United States. Conversely, International Financial Reporting Standards or IFRS previously Accounting Standards (IAS) is an accounting standard that is widely accepted and used worldwide. In this regard, U.S. companies that want to expand overseas would probably consider reporting their activities using IFRS, whereas businesses entering the U.S. market can adopt GAAP, although the latter is not necessary. Therefore, it is important that company managers understand the similarities and differences between the two approaches to adopt a new system with minimal temporal and financial costs.
Generally, there are three major differences between GAAP and IFRS standards. First, while the former is considered a rules-based approach, the latter is principles-based (Ross, 2022). It implies that GAAP provides more detailed accounting procedure regulations, resulting in less interpretation freedom for organizations. In contrast, IFRS puts a heavier emphasis on central principles allowing companies to decide the rest. Secondly, IFRS forbids the usage of the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method to account for inventory, whereas GAAP allows using both LIFO and last-in, last-out (LILO) methods (Ross, 2022). Finally, if under IFRS, it is possible to change the value of inventory according to the changes that occurred in the market, GAAP bans this type of action.
As mentioned earlier, a business in the U.S. can start using IFRS standards if it plans to open offices overseas. However, managers should also be ready to adapt to a new way of thinking as IFRSs emphasis on principles necessitates delivering personal judgment according to the situation. Moreover, to successfully adopt IFRS methods, managers and accountants should identify the necessary type of data that should be collected additionally or instead of the information that was collected under GAAP. When this step is completed, managers can provide employee training accordingly.
Additionally, it is important to understand how adopting a new standard may affect the company income statement, retained earnings statement, and classified balance sheet. As for the former two aspects, the change from LIFO to LILO can cause either reduced or increased profitability. It happens because the costs for the same product may vary over time. Then, for example, if the price rises later during the production cycle, LIFO would result in lower income. As for classified balance sheets, as mentioned before, IFRS is more adaptable to changes in market value.
Securities and Exchange Commission was established for the purpose of setting standards for reporting financial position of companies that are publicly held. The commission left the mandate to financial accounting standards boards. However in the year 2001 and the year 2002 evens of Enron, WorldCom led to the commission to get directly involved by creating a board that was mandated to oversee corporate scandals.
However this body works in conjunction with the accounting board. The aim is to ensure the accountants work is properly inspected and regulated to avoid scandals in corporations. Therefore the current view of securities and exchange commission of accounting standards for publicly held companies is different form financial standards board thats why they have come up with their own board in the name of public company accounting oversight board to regulate the work of accountants.
Financial accounting standards boards is an accounting standards sending body for the United States of America while international Accounting Standards Board is a standards boards which sends accounting standards for countries that have converged to have their reporting system similar. It is situated in the United kingdoms and has members across five continents. Financial accounting standards board issues generally accepted accounting principles for American Institute of satisfied accountants to oversea their implementation while international accounting standards board issues International Financial Reporting Standards which are implemented by various accounting bodies in various countries.
The two bodies have similar objectives of producing standards which are used by companies in reporting their financial positions. Before the collapse of Enron accounting rules were criticized because they did not allow the auditor to go beyond verifying what was in the books. The rules do not allow the accountant to discover and investigate fraud instanced.
The gross profit on sales has many benefits as opposed to contribution. The gross profit normally takes into consideration all the costs associated with a certain unit. It does not leave any cost out as compared to marginal costing method. Fixed costs is normally taken into consideration when fixing prices unlike instances of contribution margin. It is also easier to calculate profit. In both instances contribution margin and gross profit on sales the net income will be similar because all the cost will have been considered by then.
External reporting always considers the performance of the organization as a whole not as a unit. Therefore the use of contribution margin will not be applicable. It is normally used for internal decision making. The contribution margin statement is normally classified by behavior wile the gross profit sales statement or absorption statement is normally classified under a function because absorption method does not consider whether the cost is fixed or variable.
The synonyms of traceable and non-traceable costs are for traceable costs the synonym is direct costs while for non-traceable is indirect costs. The focus in this module is mostly on general variable cost although fixed cost is dealt with but the main aim is to deal with variable cost and how to allocate them. The expanded contribution margin income statement is called marginal costing profit and loss account (statement).
When making decisions for purposes of planning the organization normally uses actual costs not estimated costs. These actual costs which are related to a product and activity or a division will enable the organization decide on the best way forward for that particular section or unit. The reasons why there is cost allocations in companies is to ensure that indirect costs that are incurred have been allocated in equitable manner to production units. These costs are incurred for the purpose of the existence of the organization. When non-traceable costs are not allocated to various operating units it means they will be shown in the consolidated financial statement for the whole company.
Activity based costing normally considers an event, a task or unit of work that is fundamental to production. This may include designing of product, operating of machines and many others. It considers cost of individual activities and assigns costs to cost subjects such as products and services. The traditional cost allocation method considers costs to departments or units abut does snot consider the activities. The process of adopting activity based accounting has many benefits to the organization because costs of production are actually estimated with reasonable certainty thus it improves management and profitability for the firm. It also helps in the best pricing and product mix decisions.
A company with high fixed cost will not desire to use activity based costing as it is the case of a company with higher variable cost. Fixed costs are normally not considered when allocating cost to various production units because fixed costs are associated with the whole system of production in a certain unit therefore activity will be said to use the fixed cost. some of the characteristics of firms that benefit from activity based costing include good profitability, fair pricing and improved processes of production.ABC cost system is not a mere cost allocation method but a method that provides information that will satisfy the customer and improve profitability for the company. The method also helps in pricing and product mix decision for the company.
There is a danger of accepting a price which is above the contribution margin if the whole organization is on the verge of making a decision or curtailing production because fixed costs are not covered and if all orders are accepted above the contribution margin disregarding the fixed costs the organization may be making huge losses. It is important to use this criterion when production is still profitable. If the organization is making losses it is not prudent to use this method.
If the organization is currently operating in full capacity it should not accept any order which is below the profit margin whether above the contribution margin. However when they have idle time it should accept production above contribution margin or when entering a new market where they anticipate to change price in future. At times it is important to allocate costs to product services when the products produced or service influences the cost. In this case the other methods should be disregarded.
References
Horngren C.T., Datar S.M and Foster G; Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis (2003) prentice hall pp. 141-142.