Category: Abuse

Summar

There are a number of factors of social, economic, environmental, biological and psychological factors that are recognized as the most common determinants of substance abuse. Among them, there are homelessness, incarceration, the level of income and education, gender, age and sexual orientation (Substance Abuse across the Life Stages, 2015). Besides, the internal atmosphere of households and communities is known to contribute to the rates of substance abuse. Drugs of various kinds are widely used by both adults and youth. For example, daily use of marijuana among middle and high school students has increased by over 6 % in 2009 and 2010 (Substance Abuse across the Life Stages, 2015). Marijuana use is especially widespread among young adults (18 to 25 years old), over 40% of whom also report binge drinking. Alcohol abuse is also a serious issue for people of 26 to 34 years old (36% of heavy drinkers), and for people older than 35 (19% of drinkers). Drug abuse is not only a public health and criminal issue; it is also an economic problem. By 2011 the financial cost of illicit drug abuse was estimated at over 193 billion dollars (The Economic Impact of Illicit Drug Use on American Society, 2011). The components of the economic cost of substance abuse include the funding of rehabilitation centers and hospitals, work directed at the investigation of drug abuse and trafficking, the support of incarcerated individuals, and general loss of productivity due to addictions. Moreover, substance abuse is extremely costly to addicted individuals. For example, among the psychological effects of drug abuse, there is an obsession with the substances and cravings that are accompanied by hallucinations, anxiety, paranoia and depression, dissatisfaction with ones life, risky behaviors (Tracy, 2014). Among the physical effects of substance abuse, there is exposure to HIV, cancer and hepatitis, vomiting and diarrhea, excessive pressure on the liver and kidneys, brain damage, heart diseases to name a few (Tracy, 2014). In addition, substance abuse leads to criminal activity, provoking aggression and violence. In fact, in the United States, 80% of all arrested criminals are known to be drug and alcohol abusers, 60% of whom were under the influence of various substances while arrested. Finally, substance abuse has an immensely negative effect on interpersonal relationships breaking up marriages, leading to domestic violence and child abuse. One substance abuser in a family causes a ripple effect that directly affects the other family members (a spouse or a partner, children, parents). Besides, drug and alcohol abuse increases the likeliness of suicidal behavior by six times affecting females more seriously than males.

Defense Mechanisms

Denial

Denial is the kind of defense mechanism that is associated with rejection of the existing problem or unwillingness to admit that it is present. Substance abusers who are in denial tend to disagree with those who attempt to confront them about their issues. Denial occurs when an individual is psychologically incapable of coping with particular problems; this is why it becomes easier and more convenient for them to reject the mere fact of the presence of this issue. Substance abusers in denial tend to become aggressive and angry when directly told about their addiction. The aggression often has to do with the fear that the discussed issue may actually be real.

Repression

Defense mechanism known as repression is very widespread. Repression occurs when an individual who has a particular issue will not admit its existence by forcing the evidence of its presence out of their conscious awareness. Staying unaware of a serious issue is safer for the psychological wellbeing of an individual, this is why repression appears. Repression is similar to denial, yet it is believed that repression may happen unconsciously when unwanted or traumatic memories are removed from an individuals memory.

Projection

Projection is similar to denial. This defense mechanism makes an individual ignore their own issues and at the same time recognize them in other people. Often, a projecting individual will ascribe their own behaviors to those who do not practice them. For example, an alcoholic father would punish his son for binge drinking which in reality does not occur.

Displacement

Displacement is an individuals method of coping with painful frustration caused by negative experiences or emotions. In a case of displacement, the outburst of negative emotions is transferred to an area different from where they actually belong (Niolon, 2011). For example, an individual displacing his frustration about a substance addiction may be unreasonably aggressive at their workplace or mistreating their close ones such as family members and friends.

Sublimation

Sublimation is the deliberate alteration of problematic behavior that helps an individual to stay within socially acceptable situations. For example, in substance and drug abuse, the individuals may direct the effects of the substances they use to the areas of work or entertainment. This way, a person influenced by a drug who dances around alone in the street will be noticeable, while the same individual dancing in a club is within a socially acceptable frame.

Reference List

Niolon, R. (2011). Defenses. Web.

Substance Abuse across the Life Stages. (2015). Healthy People. Web.

The Economic Impact of Illicit Drug Use on American Society. (2011). U. S. Department of Justice. Web.

Tracy, N. (2014). Effects of Drug Addiction (physical and psychological). Web.

Group and family cognitive behavior therapy for adolescent depression and substance abuse: A case study

Adolescent depression has in recent times been identified to be a major psychological disorder the world over. Various approaches have been experimented yet most have been shown to have limited efficacy. The study employs group and family cognitive behavior therapy as an intervention for adolescent depression. In addition, the study brings forth the efficacy of CBT as an intervention method in those adolescents with comorbid states especially those with substance abuse issues (Curry, Lochman, Wells, Nagy & Craighead, 2001). The researchers designed a study that encompassed the two disorders and developed CBT management protocols. The research is of importance as it lays emphasis on one of the modalities demonstrated to be effective in the treatment of a myriad of substance abuse disorders among adolescents. The researchers designed a case study to elaborate their findings and as such, shed a light on the effectiveness of this approach in the management and treatment of substance use disorders among adolescents.

An overview of controlled studies of adolescent substance abuse treatment

This is a review of the various current approaches employed in management of adolescents with substance use disorders. The study focuses on five fundamental approaches currently employed by various practitioners in the management of adolescents with substance use disorders. These include cognitive-behavioral therapy, family-based and multi-systemic interventions, behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy, and twelve-step modalities (Deas & Suzanne, 2010). The researchers found out that the cognitive behavioral therapy approach and the family-based or multi-systemic approaches were more effective as management modalities for substance use disorders in adolescents. Even though these approaches are promising, the researchers are cautious since they observed that there is a failure in properly utilizing the tools in other approaches in the management of substance use disorders among adolescents. The study is of importance as it acknowledges the role played by the family and support groups in the management of substance abuse disorders among the youth.

Treating adolescent drug abuse: A randomized trial comparing multidimensional family therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy

The study is a randomized controlled trial that aimed at establishing the differences in efficacy of two main approaches utilized in the management of substance use disorders among adolescents. The study compared outcomes of multidimensional family therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy in the management of substance abuse among the adolescent population. The researchers observed that there was no statistically significant difference in the outcomes of the two methods in the management of substance use disorder in adolescents (Greenbaum, Turner, Henderson & Howard, 2008). The researchers acknowledge that more research needs to be carried out to determine the appropriate and highly efficacious approach in the management of substance abuse in adolescents. This results from the fact that no single method up to date has been used singly in the management of substance abuse disorder with promising outcomes.

Can 12-step group participation strengthen and extend the benefits of adolescent addiction treatment?

Failure rates of various interventions for substance use disorders among adolescents have been of concern to many researchers and healthcare providers. Relapse has been shown to be on the increase even after successful intervention strategies have been put in place. The study identifies the importance of support groups but sets out to determine the clinical effectiveness of such groups to adolescents with substance abuse disorders. The study follows a randomly chosen set of adolescents with substance abuse disorder to elucidate the efficacy of support groups in the promotion of recovery from substance abuse. The researchers observed that only a small percentage of the adolescents referred to specific support groups managed to attend over a period of three months. It was observed that those adolescents with less severe forms of the disorder were less likely to attend support group sessions as compared to those with more severe forms of substance abuse disorder. In addition, the researchers observed a dramatic increase in the rate of recovery in those adolescents that maintained a steady rate of attendance (Kelly, Dow & Yeterian, 2010). Based on this, the researchers recommended a review of the importance of such support groups in the management of substance use disorder among the adolescent population.

An overview of the effectiveness of adolescent substance abuse treatment models

The study is a review of the current treatment modalities employed in the management of substance abuse among adolescents. The researchers outline the importance of family based approaches in management of substance abuse in adolescents and children. In addition, the study lays emphasis on multidimensional approach in treatment of substance abuse in adolescents rather that the utilization of monotherapy modalities. The researchers employed a wide range of studies carried out prior to the year of publication and carried out a systematic review of the relevant literature pertaining current approaches in treatment of substance abuse disorder. The review reveals flaws I certain approaches that extrapolate data from adult based studies to adolescents leading to failure of laid down strategies in the management of the substance abuse disorders (Muck, Zempolich & Titus, 2001). In addition, the authors outline the approaches that have demonstrated efficacy in the management of substance use disorders among adolescents. Modalities such as cognitive behavioral therapy in conjunction with family/multidimensional provide promising results in the management of both new-onset and relapsing substance abuse disorders in both adults and adolescents.

The effectiveness of the Minnesota Model approach in the treatment of adolescent drug abuse

The study aims at reviewing the current approaches in the management of substance abuse among adolescents. Furthermore, the study reviews the effectiveness of each approach in the treatment and management of substance abuse among children. The researchers also outline the relationship between these approaches with the main approaches used in the mainstream justice system (Winters, Stinchfield, Opland, Weller & Latimer, 2000). Based on this, the study recommends a blanket cover in designing of modalities for management of substance abuse among adolescents to ensure achievement of set goals. In addition, the study outlines the limitations associated with the Minnesota model approach in treatment of adolescent drug abuse.

References

Curry, J. F., Lochman, J. E., Wells, K. C., Nagy, D. P., & Craighead, E. (2001). Group and family cognitive behavior therapy for adolescent depression and substance abuse: A case study. Cognitive and Behavior Practice, 8(4), 367-376.

Deas, D., & Suzanne, T. E. (2010). An overview of controlled studies of adolescent substance abuse treatment. The American Journal on Addictions, 10(2), 178-189.

Greenbaum, P. E., Turner, M. R., Henderson, E. C., & Howard, L. A. (2008). Treating adolescent drug abuse: A randomized trial comparing multidimensional family therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. Addiction, 360-444.

Kelly, J. F., Dow, S. J., & Yeterian, J. D. (2010). Can 12-step group participation strengthen and extend the benefits of adolescent addiction treatment? A prospective analysis. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 110 (2), 117-125.

Muck, R., Zempolich, K. A., & Titus, J. C. (2001). An overview of the effectiveness of adolescent substance abuse treatment models. Youth and Society, 33(2), 143-168.

Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. D., Opland, E., Weller, C., & Latimer, W. W. (2000). The effectiveness of the Minnesota model approach in treatment of adolescent drug abuse. Addiction, 95(4), 601-612.

The research article being critiqued in this paper is titled as Pathways to PTSD, Part II: Sexually Abused Children coauthored by Julie B. Kaplow, Kenneth A. Dodge, Lisa Amaya-Jackson and Glenn N. Saxe. The objective of the paper was to build and analyze a probable model of posttraumatic stress symptoms in sexually abused juveniles, which include pre-trauma, trauma, and disclosure related pathways. A qualitative approach was used in this article to carry out the research, which was well coded and analyzed statistically to arrive to conclusions.

The paper elaborately explains the background of the research at the onset of the document. It states that child sexual abuse is a common happening and can lead to rigorous psychological harm both in the short and long term. Various previously conducted researches highlight the materialization of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in sexually abusive cases given that the symptoms of this disorder are observed quite often in children who undergo this traumatic experience. The paper notifies that although long-term effects and later symptoms of PTSD have been subject to wide research by means of retrospective of adults, there has been a significant lack of research on the more instantaneous PTSD fallouts. The authors consider their research to be the earliest examination of pre-traumatic exposures, trauma attributes, and nervous tension responses at the time of disclosure as pathways to PTSD symptoms in sexually abused children. It discusses about the various factors that put the children in jeopardy, which had been observed as the immediate repercussions of the traumatic experiences. Significantly notable in that context was the demonstration of dissociation during the disclosure, which could be an indication of long-term PTSD. Apart from dissociation, observations revealed that anxiety/arousal could also be a determining factor in PTSD forecasting. The paper lists Avoidance coping as a vital aspect of anxiety/arousal. Cognitively restraining from disclosing information and other avoidance strategies could habitually lead to crisis in various domains in due course. However, they testify that evaluating such strategies could be problematical. Thus, a strategy employing behavioral coding system to mark the respondents avoidant conduct during interviews was adopted to overcome the complication.

The 156 children constituting the sample for the research purpose were aged between 8 to 13 years and belonged to state of North Carolina. They were clinically examined, interrogated, and the interviews were video recorded for forensic reasons. The event of sexual abuse for the interviewed children was marked by an assessment team comprising of members from multiple disciplines as confirmed, probable, suspicious, unknown or else no evidence. Each of these interviews was well documented for subsequent evaluation. The reliability of the research was greatly enhanced by the method of research approach. It research was conducted in two phases. During the first phase, a number of procedures were adhered to, in order to examine pre-trauma variables, trauma variables and then the responses of the 156 children were carefully scrutinized during disclosure of the experience. During the second phase, ranging from seven to 36 months consequent to the preliminary interview, the observation concentrated on examining the symptoms of PTSD, which might have occurred in the children. A statistical modeling was carried out to prepare the obtained data from various interviews to facilitate analysis.

A maximum likelihood estimation approach was adopted for dealing with the issue of missing data. A path analysis approach was adopted for data analysis. A sequence of hierarchically nested ordinary least square multiple regression analysis were employed to approximate the direct as well as indirect impacts of the various categorized variables.

After a thorough analysis, the authors reached a conclusion that the threat of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is greater in children who demonstrate symptoms of averting, anxiety/arousal or dissociation while or just after the disclosure of the abusive experiences. Thus, they suggest that it is imperative that the response of the children post disclosure should be analyzed with immediate effect. The research brings out that dissociation is the most significant predictor of PTSD. Thus, the authors carry out a detailed discussion with relation to dissociation and the impacts it may cause. The paper also provides appropriate references to other relevant works in the field.

The research article also boldly goes on to state the limitations of the study, which was carried out. Although it brought out various significant revelations, the article highlights that the generalization of the sample selected for the study is subject to ambiguity. In addition to that, the authenticity of the fact that the disclosure during the interviews was the first instance when the child talked about their traumatic experiences is unconfirmed.

The article further goes on to list the clinical implications of the study. It states the identified group exhibiting avoidance, anxiety or dissociation faces a greater risk of developing PTSD symptoms later on and thus requires immediate clinical attention. It also identifies demonstrators of coping strategies as an intervention targets in need of therapy.

Overall, it is a comprehensive and well-structured research document, which ventures out to a much under researched subject of study. The research design, although exposed to a few limitations, is consistent with the research philosophy. The concepts of reliability and validity of the research are taken care of with utmost concern by the authors. Finally, it might be said that the article would act as an important literature for future researches, provide essential guidelines, and aid for the same.

Works Cited

Kaplow, J, Dodge, K, Amaya-Jackson & Saxe, G; Pathways to PTSD, Part II Sexually abused children; Psychiatry; 2005, 162; pp-1305-1310.

Introduction

The federal government has established correction facilities in various parts of the United States. These facilities are used for correcting convicted individuals. Criminal justice refers to the system of justice and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts (Schmalleger, 2010).

Correction facilities have been fairly successful in mitigating crime in society. However, they have been experiencing some challenges which have affected their efficiency. Drug abuse has been one of the major challenges facing correction facilities (Mc Vie, 2001). The drug problem can be discussed as follows.

Drug abuse in Correction Facilities

Drug abuse is a common vice in our societies and this problem has been extended to the correction facilities. Drug abuse refers to a maladaptive pattern of use of a substance that is not considered dependent (Mc Vie, 2001). Substance abuse is prevalent in so many correction facilities found in different countries, and it is therefore raising international concern. The federal correction facilities have also been adversely affected by drug abuse-related challenges. The drugs abused in these facilities range from alcohol to hard drugs like cocaine and heroin (Schmalleger, 2010).

Causes of Drug abuse in Correction Facilities

Several factors account for drug abuse in the prisons and they include the following. Correction officers have noted that most of the individuals who have been incarcerated had been using illegal drugs for some time. Upon admission to federal custody, almost seventy percent of the federal offenders are assessed as having some level of substance abuse problem requiring intervention (Mc Vie, 2001). Many people always go to these facilities and this makes it very complicated to curb the flow of drugs into the facilities.

Criminal gangs have now extended their presence in prisons. This has enhanced the coordination of drug deals within the facilities. Drugs fetch good returns to the dealers who supply their inmate clients. Hence they try to safeguard their deals to stay in the business. The high demand for drugs has been created by many inmates who rely on drugs. It has also been noted that some staff members serving in these facilities aid the distribution process by providing immunity to the dealers. This further aggravates the whole situation hence it is difficult to solve this problem (Mc Vie, 2001).

Effects of Drug Abuse in Correction Facilities

Drug abuse in the correction centers has led to so many problems within and outside the facilities. For example, there have been many cases of fights among individuals who supply the inmates with drugs. This is because they all want to dominate the chain of drug supply to the prisons. Many inmates have been engaging in violence because of drug abuse.

For example, some of them have tried to kill their colleagues and this is closely associated with the use of drugs. The dramatic rise in the number of prisoners suffering from infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis in the past decade is linked in large measure with substance abuse practices (Mc Vie, 2001). Correction institutions are also becoming quite unsafe due to the issue of drugs. Last but more importantly, the issue of drugs has crippled the capacity of these institutions to fully rehabilitate the convicts.

Recommendations and Implementation

The following recommendations can be used to solve this issue. The inmates should be allowed to use some contraceptives. This can help in reducing the spread of communicable diseases (Mc Vie, 2001). This can be implemented by regularly supplying them with items such as bleaching kits. Counseling sessions should be enhanced in these facilities.

This would help in educating the inmates about health issues associated with drug abuse. In this case, properly organized seminars can be used regularly to teach the inmates. Security is another area that should be given serious consideration (Schmalleger, 2010). Some correction facilities still use poor security systems and they need to adopt modern security management strategies. For example, they should install modern security equipment that would enhance surveillance. They can use drug dogs to check on the presence of drugs in the facilities.

Urinalysis tests should be introduced in many prisons. This can be done to help in identifying the inmates who use these drugs. The inmates who are found guilty through this process should be interrogated for them to give more information about the drugs. ION scanners are very effective in helping to detect the presence of or exposure to drugs (Mc Vie, 2001).

It can therefore be used for screening purposes especially when people enter the correction facilities. Such checks should be conducted on everyone including the staff members. Correction facilities should work closely with other institutions to help in solving this problematic issue.

Conclusion

The correction facilities are likely to lose their role of correcting inmates if serious measures are not adopted to make them effective. The government should therefore be very keen on ensuring that high standards are maintained in correction institutions. This can only be achieved through proper strategies and long term commitment (Schmalleger, 2010). Some people argue that these facilities should be rehabilitated before they can be used for rehabilitation. I tend to concur with them because of the above-discussed issue.

References

Mc Vie, F. (2001). Drugs in federal correction-The issues and challenges. Forum on corrections research: Focusing on alcohol and drugs, 13, 1-4.

Schmalleger, F. (2010). Criminal justice today: an introductory text for the 21 st century. New York: Prentice-Hall.

Substance abuse refers to the total dependence on drugs that may result in very adverse effects on the individuals health both physically and mentally. Substance abuse leads to addiction to the substances involved such that the individuals cannot be able to cope without their use. Substances that are normally abused include alcohol and other illicit drugs. These drugs are very addictive and the proprietors of such substances find it very difficult to distance themselves from their use. There is always a strong desire to take the substances due to the effects and this makes it very difficult for them to control their intake. Addiction to such substances usually has very adverse effects on the individuals lives especially their health conditions. Other effects include social and environmental effects. Despite their effects, most substance users prefer tolerance of these effects. Substance abuse does not only affect the individuals but its consequences spill over to society especially the community and also the workplaces (Cherry, 2003, p17). This paper examines the most immediate effects and consequences of substance abuse to the families of such individuals and how it may lead to violence within the family setup.

Substance abuse by the parents in the family will have a very great effect on the children. In the early stages of development, a mother who is addicted to substance abuse will most likely give birth to a child with a condition referred to as the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (Davis, 2001, p21). This is because substances such as alcohol in a pregnant woman will have adverse effects on the unborn baby. This condition may lead to the birth of children with a lot of birth defects. Babies born with this condition will normally be shorter and have very low weights as compared to normal children. Most of them have deformed skulls and effects on brain development. Other physical features may also be affected. A woman who can not be able to give birth to normal and healthy children within the family system will attract a lot of controversy within the family. This eventually leads to a lot of violence in the family since the spouse will automatically not be able to cope with this condition. Violence can also result from substance abuse effects on normal children. Children who are raised by parents with addiction to drugs and alcohol will have very low self-esteem; have fear of being abandoned and also loneliness which may eventually lead to depression (Kelleher, 2006, p26). Such children may result in violence within the family due to the pressure and stress that is in their daily lives. Studies have indicated that children of alcoholic parents are most likely to result in alcoholism and other drugs which pose a greater risk of violence.

Substance abuse is a great threat to intimacy within the family system. Alcoholism and addiction to drugs may lead to the spouses developing a hatred for each other. This may also result in a lot of self-pity and loss of social ties which may eventually lead to stress and depression for such spouses (Rugh, 2005, p10). Within the family setup, if one parent gets addicted to alcohol or drugs the other parent has to perform both roles of parenthood. Most of the family responsibilities shift to only one parent. As a result, the parent who is not engaged in the substance abuse may not be in a position to handle all the responsibilities resulting in child and family neglect. The demands to the parent become too much to handle. Alcoholism and other drug addiction result in many marital problems as the burden becomes too heavy on one parent. Intimacy between the two parents dies very fast and most individuals will result in extramarital affairs (Hampton, 2004, p18). On the other hand, most men who are involved in the addiction to alcoholism have high rates of incest within the family. Most children who are reported to have been raped and sexually harassed by their parents result from the effects of substance abuse. The major reason is that most of the individuals who are addicted to drugs are not able to reason and make sound decisions. They end up performing very weird acts within the family and this leads to a lot of violence now and then. Children from such families lose the love and trust of their parents. They seem not to trust anyone else in their lives due to fear of being hurt and most of them actually end up with fellow alcoholics and very abusive relationships.

Families that are affected by the problems of substance abuse are likely to have a lot of emotional problems. The family lacks ways of expressing their emotions and feelings in the right manner. The parents themselves will result in denial of these effects and any attempt to address the problems within the family result in a lot of arguments since they believe they have no problem in their drug intake. This results in a mood of negativity within the family. The communication methods of the family change from well-organized discussions to other forms of communication such as complaints, expressions of displeasure, and criticism. Most of the family members lose positive thinking and the overall mood of the family is filled with ignorance and anger (OFarrell, 2006, p31). In the families that are affected by the substance abuse the only language to get attention from others becomes creating a situation of crisis. This makes the instances of violence be very many within the family since everyone in the family has a negative mood and attitude. With such attitudes prevailing there are very many instances of wife battering and other forms of physical violence since the man may be feeling that the family is undermining his authority. The woman on the other hand may turn her anger on the children and the family becomes a den of violence. This breaks all the bonds within the family and eventually a family breakup (Hampton, 2004)

The most adverse effects of substance abuse on the family are the economic and financial hardships (Hampton, 2004). Individuals who are addicted to substance abuse are likely to affect the work environment where they may be getting their daily bread. The individuals become very unproductive both in the work environment and also in the family. Many employers on getting fed up with such individuals will lay them off. These results in job loss by such individuals and financial crises will start taking course especially if such individual was the sole provider of the family. On the other hand, if such individuals do not lose their jobs, any income that is generated by the family is directed towards the purchase of drugs. The substances are very addictive and they are costly and this, therefore, affects the family resources. This makes the other family members suffer since such an individual cannot be able to provide adequately for the family. Purchase of simple household basic needs becomes a great problem. The children will suffer from neglect since most of their needs cannot be met.

On the other hand, the family may spend a lot of finances to put such individuals under rehabilitation programs for a solution. Substance abuse may also result in a lot of serious health conditions that may require specialized treatment. This again diverts the family resources to medical treatment. The family is now forced to look for other means of supporting themselves and this increases the levels of dependency on non -family ties (Kelleher, 2006, p36). Financial crises may result in the selling of the familys assets and also depriving other available resources. Over time, the family may find itself languishing in poverty and this may lead to more reasons for depression within the family. Attempts to sort the financial gap may lead to crimes such as theft.

To illustrate the effects of substance abuse in the family system, a case study was carried out on various patients and their families who had fallen victims to substance abuse. The study builds on the social cognitive theory of substance abuse. The theory seeks to examine substance abuse as a social problem and the case study focuses on the effects of substance abuse in the family set up besides efforts initiated to achieve desired changes. The sample included women, men, and adolescents patients who had were under the addiction to various drugs such as alcohol, heroin, marijuana, and other drugs. The main aim was to find out how addiction to such drugs had influenced their families. 67% of the women interviewed expressed their willingness to abort their pregnancies on realizing the complications they would pose to their children. Most of them have tried to withdraw from the drugs had found it impossible and this resulted in more than 25000 babies being born with FAS complications.

The women still wanted to maintain their spouses which were very difficult especially for those seeking to have children. This was one of the major reasons they sort help. Some women also admitted having fallen victims to prostitution and this had exposed them to many diseases and a sequence of abortions. 80% of men interviewed had already lost their jobs to the drugs and many of their families suffered a lot of financial difficulties. A couple of them were also involved in extramarital affairs, family neglect, crime, and violence. The teenage sample indicated a family history of drug addiction which resulted in frustration and loss of family ties. Some resulted in drug abuse due to the inability to cope with pressure at home and being unable to help their suffering parents. 74% of the total sample admitted to having been involved in various forms of crime and violence with some having to face the authorities (Swanson 2008).

Social workers related to substance abuse have different roles to play to arrest the situation. The most immediate role is to counsel the family members affected either in a group or individual sessions. This plays a big role in assisting individuals to deal with the effects of substance abuse such as physical and mental illness, poverty, unemployment, and physical abuse (Kaufmann 2007). Social workers coordinate with other physicians, counselors, and nurses in ensuring the individuals get the appropriate treatment. They also have a duty of carrying out various interviews on the clients and keeping records that are used for reviewing the extent of the problem within the society by other professionals. They monitor, evaluate, and keep records of the progress of patients who are recovering from substance abuse.

The social workers also play a role in referring the patients to the community resources which assist families affected by substance abuse to recover. They play a very important role in counseling other family members in a bid to assist them to understand and deal with the members involved in substance abuse. Other roles of the social workers involve conducting programs that educate the community on the effects of substance abuse. Such programs are useful in preventing the effects of drug abuse, reduce the social and family problems resulting from substance abuse, and promote health and also enhancing the role of counseling services in the community. Social workers also develop and advise the authorities on amendments to social policies in order to ensure families affected by substance abuse benefit from the community development programs (Harrison 2008).

In conclusion, substance abuse affects every member of the family even if it is practiced by only one member. The costs that are brought to the family and society are significant and immeasurable. It results in loss of productivity within the family, impairment of both physical and mental health, crime, violence, neglect of family members, and dependence on other people for survival. Families that are affected by the effects of substance abuse, therefore, live under many hardships and suffer different degrees of trauma. An approach to solving the effects of substance abuse within the family system requires a lot of family therapy for the members. This calls for various programs of social work which address such issues. The programs should have a framework of counselors who offer education and different sessions of family therapy (Kaufmann 2007). They should also educate the families on the different forms of treatment and recovery from substance abuse.

References

Andrew L. Cherry (2003). Substance abuse: a global view. Greenwood Publishing Group.

DI Davis (2001). Substance abuse and family interaction. US, McGraw Hill Press.

Douglas Rugh (2005). Effects of Parental Substance Abuse on Current Levels of Domestic Violence. Journal of Family Violence. Springer Netherlands.

Gary L. Fisher and Thomas C. Harrison (2008). Substance Abuse: Role of Social Workers, Therapists, and Counselors. Allyn & Bacon Publishers.

JW Swanson (2008). Mental disorder, substance abuse, and Domestic violence. The University of Chicago Press

M Chaffin and K Kelleher (2006). Onset of physical abuse and neglect: Substance abuse and social risk factors. Elsevier Publishers.

PA Fazzone (2000). Substance abuse treatment and domestic violence. Diane Publishing.

P Kaufmann (2007). Family therapy of drug and alcohol abuse. Halsted Press.

Robert L. Hampton (2004). Substance Abuse, Family Violence and Child Welfare: Bridging Perspectives. Sage Publications

Timothy J. OFarrell (2006). Behavioral couples therapy for alcoholism and drug abuse. U.K, Guilford Press.

Introduction

Drug abuse is a major challenge in the contemporary world because it leads to grave social and economic consequences (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). According to research findings, the United States of America has the highest percentage of drug abuse globally (Warner, 2008). Drug abuse mainly begins during teenage (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). The first part of this essay discusses social and cultural determinants of substance abuse. The second part focuses on the dynamics of addiction.

Social and Cultural Determinants of Drug Abuse

Most cases of drug abuse are linked to the social context in which an individual lives. Peer influence is one of the social factors that lead to substance abuse. Peer influence mainly affects teenagers because they undergo psychological challenges (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). For instance, many teens cannot make rational decisions because they lack mental maturity. Consequently, they can be influenced to abuse drugs.

Lack of cultural ethics contributes to drug abuse. For example, in the US, many people abuse drugs due to the absence of stringent cultural norms (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). Lack of proper parental guidance also encourages children to abuse drugs. For instance, in some families parents smoke and drink in the presence of their children. Furthermore, some parents share drugs with their children.

Widespread Use of Drugs

The following factors contribute to the prevalence of drug abuse in the society. First, easy access to drugs encourages many people to misuse them (Rassool, 2008). For instance, many people smoke and drink in the US because alcohol and cigarettes are sold near learning institutions and in residential areas. Second, lack of proper enforcement of drug laws encourages drug abuse (Rassool, 2008). Third, social and cultural challenges, such as peer influence and poor parental guidance leads to increase in substance abuse.

Impacts of Substance Abuse

The following are some of the consequences of substance abuse. Drug abuse affects the financial status of an individual directly (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). Substance abuse leads to addiction, which makes a person to crave for drugs.

A drug addict is compelled to spend many resources in buying drugs. Over expenditure on drugs directly affects the financial status of a person. Drug abuse also leads to indirect financial costs. In the US, drug abuse leads to wastage of billions of dollars annually because it increases the demand for healthcare (Warner, 2008). It also leads to damages, poor productivity and increase in crime (Rassool, 2008).

Substance abuse leads to physical and psychological side effects. For example, an individual who misuses cocaine and marijuana is susceptible to psychological disorders because these drugs impair the brain (Nakken, 2009). Consequently, a drug addict can easily cause an accident. Many cases of suicide and homicide are linked to drug abuse. For example, majority of people who misuse guns in the US are drug addicts (Rassool, 2008). Moreover, drug addicts find it difficult to socialize with people because they have emotional challenges.

Dynamics of Addiction

Drug addiction refers to a person who is dependent on drugs (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). Addiction denies addicts natural comfort; hence, they experience extreme discomfort in the absence of drugs. Drug addiction is an intricate challenge because it affects people differently. The following are the main dynamics of drug addiction.

Denial refers to the failure of a person to accept truth. Drug addiction can lead to a serious perversion of acuity (Nakken, 2009). Majority of drug addicts usually deny their social, economic and health status. For instance, a person who breaks the law due to drug abuse may fail to admit his mistake because he cannot make proper decisions. Indeed, many drug addicts often fail to accept that they have a serious mental and physical illness.

Regression refers to moving back to a previous phase of human growth during difficult moments. For instance, a teenager who is devastated with challenges of drug abuse may demonstrate previous infancy behaviors (Nakken, 2009). A grown-up can regress when seriously stressed by drug addiction.

Reaction formation refers to altering undesired thoughts, judgments and impulses into a desired behavior. For example, a drug addict who is thinking of stopping substance abuse may be extremely motivated to continue using drugs. A drug addict is unable to express negative feelings of annoyance and disappointment with his addiction (Nakken, 2009).

Fantasy refers to the inability of a person to accept his social status. For instance, individuals who have lost all their wealth because of drug addiction cannot easily come to terms with their condition because they have psychological problems.

Rationalization is a common behavior among drug addicts. It refers to a situation in which drug addicts try to justify drug abuse. Additionally, they blame others for their problems and mistakes.

Conclusion

This essay has revealed that substance abuse is a serious problem that has pervaded the American society and other parts of the world. It has also pointed out the consequences of substance abuse in the society. Therefore, various measures should be adopted to curb substance abuse.

References

Kuhar, M., & Wrobel, S. (2010). The Addicted Brain: Why We Abuse Drugs, Alcohol, and Nicotine. London: SAGE.

Nakken, C. (2009). The Addictive Personality: Understanding the Addictive Process and Compulsive Behavior. London: Palgrave.

Rassool, H. (2008). Alcohol and Drug Misuse: A Handbook for Students and Health Professionals. London: Routledge.

Warner, J. (2008). U.S. Leads the World in Illegal Drug Use.

Sociocultural determinants of substance abuse

Drug and substance abuse is caused by many factors that include environmental, age, race and ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, income level and socioeconomic class (Howinson, 2005). Socioeconomic determinants that determine substance abuse include peer pressure, family influence, social networks, and societal attitudes towards substance use.

Research has shown that social networks and peer pressure are key determinants of substance abuse among teenagers. Many young people are exposed to drugs and illegal substances from their interactions with peers and family members who use drugs (Page, 2012). In many cultures, substance abuse is determined by prevailing attitudes towards the use of certain substances.

For instance, in certain cultures, marijuana is widely accepted as a substance that helps individuals to relax and meditate (Howinson, 2005). Addiction to substance abuse is widespread in America. It has been identified as a challenge among young people, athletes, and adults. The main causes of the substance abuse and addiction include poor housing, high rates of unemployment, lack of proper health care, and inadequate education opportunities.

Direct and indirect costs of substance abuse

Substance abuse is a major public health issue in the United States that has far-reaching financial costs. Direct costs of substance abuse include health care expenditures and lost earnings due to absenteeism from work (Meara & Frank, 2005). On the other hand, indirect costs of substance abuse include expenses related to accidents and crime as well as treatment of diseases caused by substance abuse.

These diseases include heart disease, HIV/AIDS, and cancer (Meara & Frank, 2005). Other problems that cause indirect costs include stress, violence, and child abuse. Psychological costs of substance abuse emanate from treatment of disorders such as depression, anxiety, antisocial personality disorder, stress, and paranoia (Page, 2012).

Physical effects of substance abuse include intoxication, liver damage, lung damage, and kidney damage. These effects are mitigated using treatments that are very expensive. Long-term substance abuse creates tolerance to drugs, which results in increased use. This exposes victims to risks of overdose that could cause death.

Link of addiction to crimes and accidents

Criminal activities that result from substance abuse include domestic violence, robbery, assault, rape, and prostitution (Page, 2012). Drug addiction causes mental illnesses and poor perception of social support (Page, 2012). These effects motivate addicts to commit crime in order to finance their addictions.

Others commit crimes such as rape and assault due to personality disorders and interactions with other addicts. Research estimates that between 40 and 80 percent of prostitutes use drugs (Howinson, 2005). Prostitutes are major victims of rape and assault. Many accidents are caused by drivers who lose consciousness due to intoxication from drug use (Page, 2012). On the other hand, driving under the influence has been cited as a major cause of accidents.

Implications with suicide, homicides, and interpersonal relationships

Drug addiction has been associated with suicide and homicide. Many addicts commit suicide after they develop depressive disorders that make them feel hopeless and helpless (Page, 2012). According to research, substance addiction is the second major cause of suicide in the United States.

Individuals with substance use disorders are at higher risks of committing suicide than individuals who do not use drugs. Many victims decide to commit suicide after failing in their attempts to eradicate substance abuse habits (Page, 2012). Suicide is also fueled by risk factors associated to addiction such as financial and social challenges. Substance abuse makes individuals prone to high-risk behaviors that affect their relationships with other people and increase their likelihood of harming other people (Page, 2012).

Dynamics of addiction

It is important to differentiate between individuals who can control their substance use habits and those who can. Drug users usually find reasons to rationalize their habits especially when they fail to eradicate their addictions. Substance addiction results from continued use of illegal substances with disregard to their negative effects on health and financial wellbeing.

Addiction is characterized by four key stages that include compulsion, continued use regardless of negative effects, craving, and denial (Miller, 2011). It affects the social, psychological, and biological wellbeing of individuals. Examples of defense mechanisms used by addicts include denial, rationalization, avoidance, intellectualization, regression, acting out, dissociation, projection, and reaction formation (Miller, 2011).

Defense mechanisms

Common defense mechanisms applied by addicts include denial, regression, dissociation, rationalization, and intellectualization (Miller, 2011). Denial refers to the act of ignoring the existence of a problem that has dire consequences. Many addicts act in ways that enable them to avoid dealing with reality and painful consequences of their addiction. Regression refers to embracement of past behaviors that were overcome during earlier stages of development.

Dissociation refers to loss of touch with time, people, and self (Miller, 2011). Many addicts experience disconnect in their relationships with themselves and other people. Rationalization refers to the act of justifying ones behavior or unwillingness to eradicate destructive habits. Addicts usually justify their substance abuse habits in order to avoid denigration from other people.

Finally, intellectualization refers to overreliance on thinking as a way of handling impulses or instincts that are likely to cause destructive behaviors (Miller, 2011). It disregards the importance of feelings and emotions in making decisions. For instance addicts focus on reasons why they cannot overcome their addictions instead of focusing on how they can use emotions of pain and regret to initiate change.

References

Howinson, J. H. (2005). Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Meara, E., & Frank, R. G. (2005). Spending on Substance Abuse Treatment: How Much is Enough? Addiction, 100 (9), 1240-1248.

Miller, G. (2011). Learning the Language of Addiction Counseling. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Page, K. (2012). A parents Guide to Substance Abuse and Addiction. New York.

Banned Drugs

Metamizole Sodium

Metamizole Sodium is a drug which is seen as a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and it has been widely used as a very strong pain killer on medical grounds and it is also used to reduce fever. It has a wide usage all over the world and it has been seen as very effective in pain killing and reducing fevers. In medical grounds, it is referred to using various names such as Analgin, Dipyrone, Melubrin and Novalgin. It was first introduced in the market by a German company known as Hoechst AG which is now part of the corporation known as Sanofi Aventis. It was first introduced in the market in the year 1920 and subsequently its mass production was underway in the year 1922. It remained accessible freely in various markets throughout the next decades until the 1970s when medical experts determined that it carried the risk of bringing about agranulocytosis, which is a very risky condition and at times a fatal condition (Nestler, 2004).

This discovery did not take full effect because there was no evidence to determine the level of risk that this medicine carried. Controversy has remained high as to the levels of risk that the drug has of causing the condition. However, a significant number of medical authorities of many countries have banned the use of Metamizole Sodium and those who have not banned the use have also restricted the use of the drug. However, there are still various medical authorities that have not completely banned or restricted the use of and in their jurisdictions the drug is still found to be bought over the counter by patients. There are still other jurisdictions where the use of the drug is restricted to medical prescription by a medical doctor (Farrell, 2005).

Fen-Phen

Fen-phen was a medication that was widely used in the United States as an anti-obesity medication. This drug consisted of the drugs phentermine and fenfluramine and later the substance dexenfenfluramine was incorporated into the drug. It had been used for a number of decades in the United States to fight obesity and there had been no medical complications associated with it until later. Its ban was precipitated when there were cases of pulmonary hypertension and valvular heart diseases on its users especially the female users of the drug. The Food and Drug Administration of the United States banned the use of the drug in the country due to these side effects which proved to be fatal on the patients. Its withdrawal from the market was enacted in the year 1997 (Poling, 2006).

The ban was fuelled when doctors determined that the use of the drug had a negative effect on the patients who used them. These effects were mainly connected to the functioning of the heart and a significant number of the patients who used this drug had their hearts adversely affected. This led to such conditions as pulmonary hypertension and also such conditions as vulvular heart conditions. These conditions were deemed fatal by the medical doctors and this fueled the FDA to ban the use of the drug in the United States of America. After its ban its availability started to dwindle in the market and by the year 2004 the drug could hardly be found over the counter as well as many drugs outlets in the United States (Schäfer, 2006).

Ways of looking at drugs

Legal way of looking at drugs

One way of looking at drugs is the legal legislations which are concerned with drugs. In many countries there are medical agencies which are mandated to look into the legal issues that concern drugs. These institutions are tasked with the responsibility of ensuring that the various activities that are involved in the drugs strictly adhere to the legal framework of their jurisdiction. These activities include such activities as the drug testing and researching which must adhere to various legal stipulations and this is deemed to ensure the safety of the end user of the drug products. Another activity is the production of the final product which must adhere also to various legal stipulations and this is deemed to ensure that the processing of drugs does not jeopardize the health of the end user. It has come to the attention of these institutions that various aspects can undermine the quality of the drugs and in this way also put the health of the end users of the drugs at risk (Shearer, 2005).

Medical families have also to be put under some legal scrutiny because some of the medical families have had substances that have been putting the patients at risk. These risks are varied on various fronts and include the precipitation of dangerous and fatal conditions to the people to other aspects like addiction. Many drugs have been banned from various countries a good example being Fen-Phen which was banned in the United States on the basis that it precipitated fatal heart condition on the people who were using it to fight obesity. Other drugs have been deemed to be very addictive and this have led to their ban or restricted use a good example being morphine in various countries in the world (Roozen, 2004).

Safety of the drugs

Another important way of looking at drugs is the safety and this is ensured by various institutions in various countries around the world. A good example of one such institution is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States of America. In this way of looking at drugs, the drugs are subjected to various research programs to verify the levels of their side effects and if the drugs is worthy to be used by the population. These institutions view the issue of drugs in such way as to determine whether the usage of the drug is beneficial to the population on the grounds that the drugs would be used to cure or as a remedy of a condition which is more serious and a greater threat than the side effects that the drugs will bring about. It is important to note that a significant percentage of all drugs in use in the modern world today are dotted with a number of side effects which can be fatal or not as serious (Hibell, 2004).

It is the responsibility of these institutions to determine that all drugs that are in use in their jurisdiction do not pose a threat. The pharmaceutical companies have been very active in coming up with new drugs which are seen as remedies to various ailments and conditions that have been a bother to the population. These companies have adopted a very competitive nature of conducting businesses and in their endeavors to be the best companies in the market have come up with various drugs which are deemed to be very effective. However, these efforts have been deemed with various controversies that have noted that the quality of the drugs can be very low and this has led to the fact that these drugs have also been associated with various grave side effects. It is in this respect that the institutions have been mandated to ensure that drugs are safe to be used by the population who reside in their jurisdictions (Higgins, 2003).

Drug abuse policies

There are two types of drugs abuse policies which have been implemented by various administrations authorities and institutions all over the world. These policies are named the Harm Reduction Policy and Zero Tolerance Policy. There have been controversies in the adoption of these policies around the world and this can be attributed to the fact that different quarters concerned with drug abuse have favored one policy over the other. Social factors have also fueled these controversies with some viewing that one policy would work better without jeopardizing the livelihoods of people who are known to abuse drugs (Haasen, 2005).

The harm reduction policy is concerned with reducing or minimizing the risks that are accrued to drug abuse in various societies. This policy is a combination of various pragmatics and policies of public health which are compassionate and they are all deemed by their supporters to reduce the consequences that are attributed to drug abuse especially the illegal drugs in any society. These supporters argue that laws enacted in a country that prohibit the use of drugs put the drug abusers at more risk associated with the drugs a good example being the Prohibition of alcohol in the United States during the 1920s whereby alcohol was grossly abused in the country. The harm that prohibition laws subject the drug users are also gross based on the fact that the users rely on criminal cartels to supply them with drugs (Burrell, 2005).

Zero tolerance on the other hand is concerned with the authorities and the law enforcement dealing with drug abusers and drug peddlers according to their own judgments and according to the laws and legislations that have been passed in a given country. These laws and legislations apply to every offender irregardless of individual culpability or the extenuating and surrounding situation and circumstances. This policy has been used in criminology and has been affected in various forms of social misconduct including drug abuse. These laws mainly target the peddlers who are deemed to be the most dangerous people in any drug abuse scenario and this is because they contribute largely to the vice of drug abuse in the society (Roe, 2005).

When contrasted, these policies have been very instrumental in ensuring that the drug abuse vice in various countries has been kept at manageable levels. However, many feel that the best way of doing this is using the harm reduction policy which ensures that the harm on the drug users is minimal and that people will not have to go through dangerous avenues to get access to the drugs. This will be very efficient because many people generally oppose to oppressive laws and hence if prohibition laws are put in place many people will want to use the drugs (Prinzleve, 2004).

On the other hand zero tolerance is seen by many people as encouraging prohibition laws and these have not realized their objectives in many instances. This laws that are under the umbrella of the policy of zero tolerance have been seen by many people as not realizing their overall objective and many have the feeling that instead the laws only achieve in realizing the extreme opposite of their objectives (Kumpfer, 1996).

Effects of heroin abuse

Heroin is a highly addictive drug that is commonly used and it has many street names. It is one of the most used hard drugs especially in the developed countries like the United States and its use is also being initiated in some developing countries. It has some very harmful effects which can be categorized as short term and long term. These effects can also be termed as acute and principle effects (Chen, 2005).

After one has used the drug in a single dose the short term effects are revealed almost immediately and they disappear after some time ranging from some minutes to an hour. After an injection, the user immediately feels a surging euphoria and the skin feels a flushing of warmth. This is also accompanied by the mouth going dry and the use experiencing heavy extremities. After this feeling of euphoria a heroin user will then relapse into a condition that is commonly referred to as on the nod. This is a mixture of both drowsiness and wakefulness. It is at this state that the functioning of the mind is adversely affected and this can be attributed to the fact that the nervous system of the user is already depressed. This brings about the speech being slurred, the gait of the person being slow, the pupils becoming constricted, the eyelids becoming droopy, the night vision being impaired, constipation and vomiting (Chivite-Matthews, 2005).

The long term effects are revealed after a continued use of the drug over a period of time. One of the effects is the veins becoming collapsed of the users who can be classified as chronic users of heroin. Other long term effects include the lining of the heart becoming infected, cellulites, abscesses and diseases of the liver. Complications of the pulmonary may arise and these are mainly attributed to the fact that the health of the abusers is grossly and negatively affected and many of them have very poor health conditions. Pneumonia and other pulmonary complications are also rooted to the fact that the users of heroin have their respiratory system grossly depressed by the substance (Van den Brink, 2005).

Users of heroin that is obtained from the streets are exposed to more dangers. This is because street heroin may contain some additives that do not dissolve and hence end up clogging the blood vessels that lead to the major and vital organs of the body which include the kidneys, liver, heart and lungs. It is important to also note that heroin users also develop tolerance and this means that they end up increasing in their intake of the drug to keep up their intensity and also the effect of the drug. With the increase of the doses, physical dependence develops and also the addiction develops. Physical dependence is very dangerous and this is because the reduction of the intake sparks off the withdrawal symptoms (Bossong, 2005).

Withdrawal symptoms are very intense and in regular users of the drug may experience withdrawal symptoms as soon as few hours from the last injection of the drug. This is marked by drug craving, pain in the muscle and bone, restlessness, diarrhea, vomiting and insomnia. It can also be characterized by cold flashes and the presence of goose bumps which is referred to as cold turkey, movements of kicking the habit and also other symptoms. The symptoms mainly start off after forty eight to seventy two hours after the last administration and subside after two weeks. Withdrawal symptoms can be fatal to the weak users who do not have access to a good meal (ONS, 2006).

Methamphetamine

Why is methamphetamine a problem to the rural areas?

There are various reasons why methamphetamine is being used in elevated rates in the rural areas. One of the reasons is that in the rural areas there are many abandoned building which provide apt labs for the processing and production of the drug. Another reason is that the key ingredients of producing the drugs are abundant in the rural areas. These reasons have led to the easier access of the drug by the rural dwellers that have many resources that are necessary for the production of the drug (ONS, 2006).

Another reason why the drug is very accessible to the rural dwellers is that the labs which are used in the production of the drug are mainly portable. This means that the drug lords who operate in the rural areas have all the mechanism at hand of evading the law enforcement agencies as the police and also the Drugs Enforcement Administration in the United States. With the labs being portable and there being the availability of many abandoned building in the rural areas ensures that the tracking of the drug manufacturers is a hard job for the various law enforcement agencies (Kandel, 1996).

The drugs being produced in the rural areas are also cheap for the rural areas and this has brought the situation in which many people can afford the drug. This has increased the drug usage in rural areas in the present days and this has raised the concern to many related organization (Schottenfeld, 2005).

Another fact is that the drug enforcements especially those mandated to tackle the issue of drug abuse and peddling has been concentrating on the urban areas and has almost neglected the rural areas. This means that the rural areas have been enjoying the system under which they are almost free to use drugs. This is also true to such drugs as methamphetamine which the mechanisms of the government to fight this vice has neglected the rural areas (ONS, 2006).

Problems of methamphetamine use in rural areas

The use of this drug in the rural areas has been rooted as the cause of some of the problems that are being experienced in the rural areas. One of the problems is the rising number of orphans accrued to the parents being dead as a result of the usage of the drug. Many foster homes residents are also children of the people who cannot be meted with the responsibility of bringing up children because they are addicts or children whose parents have died as a result of using the drugs or their parents have been imprisoned for charges related to the drug (ONS, 2006).

There is also the problem of rising crime cartels in the rural areas which are attributed to the sale of the drug. This means that many criminal organizations in the rural areas can be rooted to the sale and production of this drug (ONS, 2006).

References

Bossong, M.G., Van Dijk, J.P. and Niesink, R.J.M. (2005), Methylone and mCPP, two new drugs of abuse?, Addiction biology 10(4), pp. 3213.

Burrell, K., Jones, L., Sumnall, H. et al. (2005), Tiered approach to drug prevention and treatment among young people, National Collaborating Centre for Drug Prevention, Liverpool.

Chen, C.-Y., OBrien, M.S. and Anthony, J.C. (2005), Who becomes cannabis dependent soon after onset of use? Epidemiological evidence from the United States: 20002001, Drug and alcohol dependence 79, pp. 1122.

Chivite-Matthews, N., Richardson, A., OShea, J. et al. (2005), Drug misuse declared: findings from the 2003/04 British Crime Survey. Home Office statistical bulletin 04/05, Home Office, London

Farrell, M., Gowing, L., Marsden, J. et al. (2005), Effectiveness of drug dependence treatment in HIV prevention, International journal of drug policy 16S, pp. S6775.

Haasen, C., Prinzleve, M., Gossop, M. et al. (2005), Relationship between cocaine use and mental health problems in a sample of European cocaine powder and crack users, World psychiatry 4(3), pp. 1736.

Hibell, B., Andersson, B., Bjarnasson, T. et al. (2004), The ESPAD report 2003: alcohol and other drug use among students in 35 European countries, The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs (CAN) and Council of Europe Pompidou Group.

Higgins, S.T., Sigmon, S.C., Wong, C.J. et al. (2003), Community reinforcement therapy for cocaine-dependent outpatients, Archives of general psychiatry 60, pp. 104352.

Kandel, D. and Davis, M. (1992), Progression to regular marijuana involvement: Phenomenology and risk factors fro near daily use, in: Glantz, M. and Pickens, R. (eds), Vulnerability to Drug Abuse pp. 21153. American Psychological Association. Washington.

Kumpfer, K.L., Molgaard, V. and Spoth, R. (1996), The Strengthening Families Program for prevention of delinquency and drug use in special populations, in: Peters, R. and McMahon, R. J. (eds) Childhood disorders, substance abuse, and delinquency: prevention and early intervention approaches, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.

Nestler, Eric and Malenka, Robert (2004). The Addicted Brain. Scientific American, pg. 78-83.

ONS (2006), Health Statistics Quarterly 29, Office for National Statistics, London.

Poling, J., Oliveto, A., Petry, N. et al. (2006), Six-month trial of bupropion with contingency management for cocaine dependence in a methadone-maintained population, Archives of general psychiatry 63, pp. 21928.

Prinzleve, M., Haasen, C., Zurhold, H. et al. (2004), Cocaine use in Europe  a multi-centre study: patterns of use in different groups, European addiction research 10, pp.14755.

Roe, E. and Becker, J (2005), Drug prevention with vulnerable young people: a review, Drugs: education, prevention and policy, 12(2), pp. 8599.

Roozen, H.G., Boulogne, J.J., van Tulder, M.W. et al. (2004), A systematic review of the effectiveness of the community reinforcement approach in alcohol, cocaine and opioid addiction, Drug and alcohol dependence 74, pp. 113.

Schäfer, C. and Paoli, L. (2006), Drogenkonsum und Strafverfolgungspraxis, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin.

Schottenfeld, R.S., Chawarski, M.C., Pakes, J.R. et al. (2005), Methadone versus buprenorphine with contingency management or performance feedback for cocaine and opioid dependence, American journal of psychiatry 162, pp. 3409.

Shearer, J. and Gowing, L.R. (2004), Pharmacotherapies for problematic psychostimulant use: a review of current research, Drug and alcohol review 23, pp. 20311.

Van den Brink, W. (2005), Epidemiology of cocaine and crack: implications for drug policy and treatment, Sucht 51(4), pp. 1968.

The problem of substance abuse is quite prevalent in Miami and it affects almost all demographics. However, substance abuse in black women who are aged between 25 and 55 years is rarely considered an issue of major concern and it is often relegated to the background.

The effects of substance abuse among women are manifested differently than in men and the youth in general. Most of my encounters with cases of substance among women who are aged between 25 and 55 in Miami are often directly connected to other demographical subcategories. For instance, substance abuse in Miami is quite prevalent among most of the sex workers in my neighborhood. Nevertheless, it is hard to decipher whether the womens addiction came before their career choice or vice versa. In addition, it is likely that women from lower economic classes are more exposed to the problem of alcohol and drug abuse as opposed to females from other economic classes (Kurtz 7).

From my experiences, women from lower economic neighborhoods are often exposed to risk factors that might contribute towards their substance abuse habits such as joblessness and crime. Miami is a favorite spot for merry makers and tourists from all around the world. Consequently, I find that many people in Miami tend to adopt casual attitudes when it comes to their health and behaviors. The issue of drug abuse among black women is trivialized just like most of the other addiction issues that apply to the local population in Miami. Therefore, I see a need to evaluate the issue of substance abuse among black women in Miami albeit in a scientific capacity.

Research into this issue would have direct impacts on both victims and policy makers. For example, I have noticed that there are fewer drug rescue centers that target black women in Miami than in other cosmopolitan areas such as New York and California. However, most of the substance abuse trends that apply to Miami are similar to the ones in other urban neighborhoods in the states of California and Florida. My view is that Miami does not employ the necessary seriousness when it comes to substance abuse issues among women. Nevertheless, it is important to note that considerable research on substance abuse issues among the youth in Miami is available although it is not adequate.

Although black women aged 25 to 55 have all the necessary qualifications of being a minority group, their plight is often ignored because there are too many minority-groups in Miami. Another issue that I reckon to be worth noting is how black women relate to Miamis drug economy. Furthermore, I am interested in knowing the substance abuse data that is available within Miamis healthcare systems. Some of the other important factors that might have a direct impact on substance abuse issues among black women in the 25 to 55 age-bracket include sexual practices, social support systems, and institutional support (French and Martin 455). All these three factors have a major impact on the patterns that apply to substance abuse among black women in Miami. The overall goal of looking into the issues of substance abuse between among black women in Miami is to shed more light into this issue and come up with viable solutions to the abounding problems. It is also important to note that there is very scarce research on this issue.

References

French, Michael and Robert Martin. The Costs of Drug Abuse Consequences: A Summary of Research Findings. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 13.6 (2009): 453-466. Print.

Kurtz, Steven. Prescription Drug Abuse among Ecstasy Users in Miami. Journal of Addictive Diseases 24.4 (2011): 1-16. Print.

Introduction

Despite the numerous laws protecting the rights of children, child abuse cases have been on the increase in recent times. Most incidences involving child abuse are left unreported, which leads to further increase in such cases. Child abuse can be manifested in different forms; however, the most common forms are physical, emotional, and sexual harassment. Child abuse may take place at home, school, or in any environment in which the child resides. Being neglected by parents is also a form of child abuse, and it is the most common type today.

Causes of child abuse

Child abuse is an intricate happening with manifold causes (May-Chahal and Cawson 970). Psychologists argue that most men who batter their wives are likely to abuse their children physically as well. Another reason for child abuse is unplanned pregnancies. Children born out of unplanned pregnancies are neglected in most cases.

Neglect is a form of abuse, which accounts for more than 75% of cases involving child abuse (Wang and Holton 56). Children with disability are also victims of torture and abuse. Disabled kids are subject to stigma, since they are secluded from their peers, and as a result, they may develop further complications in the future.

Drug addiction by parents is also another form of child abuse. Parents who are drug addicts resort to violent acts, and thus, they neglect their kids in most cases. About 60% of cases involving child abuse are among parents who are drug addicts (Wang and Holton 58). Alcohol addiction is another threat. Such parents abuse their kids either physically or sexually during their moments of inebriety.

Child neglect

Neglect is a form of ill-treatment that manifests itself through failure by a parent or caretaker to meet a childs basic needs (May-Chahal and Cawson 972). This form of maltreatment is the most common type of child abuse, and it involves denying a child access to basic needs. Different people define child neglect differently as the definition depends on the society that the child resides in. Child negligence can be intentional or unintentional (May-Chahal and Cawson, 972).

Parents who fail to care for their children when they have the ability to do so are said to have neglected their children intentionally. The United States reported the highest rates of child neglect in 2007 by recording about 3 million cases involving either neglect or other forms of child abuse (Wang and Holton 69). Studies indicate that victims of neglect are at risk of committing suicide if appropriate actions are not taken in time.

Effects of child neglect

The consequences of neglect differ from one individual to another, depending on his/her ability to cope with the pain caused by such isolation. The stage of negligence is also important when analyzing the effect of child neglect. Thus, at a tender age, it may cause a child to develop aggressive behaviors as opposed to neglect at a later stage in life (Wang and Holton 73). Neglected children conventionally may become weak physically.

Medical practitioners argue that such children are at a higher risk of suffering from a stroke in their adulthood as compared to their peers who receive good care from their parents. In addition to the aforementioned effects, child neglect may also cause poor performance in school.

Physical abuse

Physical abuse of a child is an act by an adult intended to cause bodily harm or inflict injury to a minor. Physical abuse denotes any form of aggression or suffering caused to a childs body by an adult (May-Chahal and Cawson 978). In most western countries, any form of punishment that may cause injury to a kid is against the law, and it is classified as a form of physical assault. Physical torture directed to kids causes them to develop undesirable behaviors in their adulthood as they grow up being the victims of such tortures for a long time.

Physical abuse can also cause emotional and psychological distress, and the victims are at risk of committing suicide. Physical abuse is defined differently in different countries, and thus, there seems to be no universal definition. Cases of physical abuse have also been on the rise, and most human rights activists attribute this increase to a culture that allows punishments to be used on children.

Acts such as slaps and beatings are also regarded as forms of physical abuse though their effects are not directly noticeable. They are regarded as examples of physical assault since they degrade the childs dignity and integrity. Lack of a universal definition of what constitutes physical abuse has been a key drawback to the fight against child abuse.

Control of physical child abuse

Physical abuse can be controlled through the enactment of laws that clearly define what exactly comprises a physical assault. Clear penalties should be spelled out in the law so that parents and other perpetrators accused of mistreating their children are punished accordingly.

Training parents on how to handle their childrens undesirable behaviors can also go a long way in solving the problems involving physical abuse. Governments should aim at relaxing the legal procedures that the affected kids have to go through before they receive treatment (Wang and Holton 86).

Effects of Physical Abuse

The effects of physical abuse can be either short term or long term (May-Chahal and Cawson 980). The short-term effects can be in the form of fractures, cuts, bone twists, and burns. The long-term effects are severe as the affected childs behavior suddenly changes, and the child becomes susceptible to criminal acts.

According to research carried out by the UNICEF in 2007, 60% of victims of physical torture end up in criminal acts at a tender age and end up being arrested and imprisoned, while 27% of the kids who go through physical abuse are arrested for criminal acts at their adulthood (Wang and Holton 112).

Other long-term effects of physical abuse include brain damage and poor physical development. Persons who undergo physical torture in childhood are at a higher risk of suffering from disorders such as allergies, asthma, and diabetes (Wang and Holton 98). However, this aspect does not mean that every child who goes through torture in his/her childhood will be affected by these ailments though a good number of such individuals are at risk.

Child sexual abuse

Sexual abuse of a child entails forcing a minor to engage in sexual activities with an adult. According to the law of contract, contacts involving a minor are invalid. A childs consent is thus immaterial, as a minor is considered incapable of entering a contract with an adult. Any perceived consent cannot prevent the state from punishing a criminal charged with abusing a child sexually.

In most jurisdictions, the act results in life imprisonment or the death sentence (Johnson 462). In a bid to shield children from sexual exploitation, the United Nations has adopted an international treaty that makes children protection a matter of the respective states. The term sexual abuse does not only denote the actual sexual activity but exposing ones sexual genitals to a minor amount to sexual abuse.

According to a report released by UNICEF international in 2003, sexual abuse is more prevalent in African countries than it is in western countries (Johnson 465). The report showed that about 35% of all the reported cases of sexual abuse were in Africa. Sexual abuse is not only directed to the girl children.

In some cases, the boy child is also affected by this vice, whereby old women engage boys in sexual activities. According to the 2004 statistics, sexual abuse directed to the girl child stood at 20%, while that directed to the boy child stood at 7% (Johnson 466). Such type of abuse may affect the child both mentally and physically by causing injuries on ones genitals. A kid who has been exposed to sexual harassment stands a higher chance of being abused further in adulthood due to a feeling of desperation and psychological trauma caused by the act.

Effects of sexual abuse

A child exposed to sexual abuse is observed to develop certain undesirable behaviors both in childhood and adulthood. The short-term effects include poor self-esteem, depression, and badly disturbed sleep. The affected kids may experience developmental disorders later in their lifetime due to depression. Victims may also avoid intimate relations, and they may even withdraw from learning institutions due to low self-esteem.

Depression and low self-esteem may also drive the victims to drug abuse in the end. According to a report released by the National Institute of Drug Abuse in 2003, about 37% of adult women who were subjected to sexual abuse in their childhood resorted to drug abuse (Johnson 470). The aforementioned effects are worse if the real sexual act takes place or if the abuse involves the use of force.

Conclusion

Cases of child abuse continue to rise despite the numerous international laws that aim to protect the rights of children. Lack of proper skills by parents on how to bring up their children has been fueling the increase in cases of child abuse.

Drug abuse has also contributed to the rise in child abuse cases. Most cases involving children go unreported, especially for fear of tarnishing the names of the affected. Cases of child abuse are high in developing countries as compared to developed countries. Africa is in the lead for cases involving sexual abuse directed on girls due to the reluctance by communities to abandon their cultures.

Works Cited

Johnson, Charles. Child sexual abuse. The Lancet 364.9432 (2004): 462-470. Print.

May-Chahal, Corinne, and Pat Cawson. Measuring child maltreatment in the United Kingdom: a study of the prevalence of child abuse and neglect. Child abuse & neglect 29.9 (2005): 969-984. Print.

Wang, Ching-Tung, and John Holton. Total estimated cost of child abuse and neglect in the United States, Chicago: Prevent Child Abuse America, 2007. Print.