Category: Abuse

Aggregate Description

Drug and alcohol abuse are among the leading causes of health issues among individuals from all racial and ethnic backgrounds (Miller, Forcehimes, & Zweben, 2011). The vice has been on the rise in the past few decades. Unfortunately, little research has been done connecting the rising number of substance abuse cases to the causes of the same. Recent statistics indicate that African American women are significantly involved in substance abuse, which threatens their health. The most abused drugs include alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine among others. In this research, the focus will be to assess the prevalence of substance abuse among African women aged between 25 and 55 years living in Miami. Miami is known as a luxurious area, and drug abuse among African Americans has been on the rise owing to the diversity in culture in the city. The study shall be guided by the Windshield survey tool that allows the collection of data regarding the history of participants in a study. The Windshield survey involves the collection of data concerning the environment in which the target population resides. Questions concerning the nature of housing in the area, availability of public places, infrastructure, and general land use are among the addressed issues in the Windshield survey tool. The tool has roadmaps that guide the systematic collection of data. Data regarding the environment is essential for this research, and it will be collected using quantitative methods of research. Moreover, it will mainly involve obtaining first-hand information from observations during the visits.

Miami is selected for this research owing to its convenience and accessibility to the public. Besides, the area has a diversity of culture and African American women are available in this area. Researchers in this study have sufficient knowledge regarding the populations in this area, which further increases the chances of collecting reliable data. A team of students in the nursing field will carry out this research, and it will involve the collection and analysis of data. Each member will collect data independently. However, the collection date will be compared for consistency and reliability. Since this research targets the African American population, data will be collected using both quantitative and qualitative methods in later stages when direct engagement between the researcher and the participants will be required. Qualitative methods involve the collection of data using interviews and recording the data for sampling in the next stage. In this research, this method would be a good way of collecting data from the population selected. The first step towards achieving data collection through this method will involve determining the sample size, which will be made up of African American women aged between 25 and 55 years living in Miami. In the later stages of direct engagement with participants, each participant will be given 30 minutes to provide information regarding her substance use status. The participants will first be informed of their right to accept or reject to be involved in the research. The participants would also be assured of anonymity and confidentiality of information shared. Alternatively, a questionnaire with open-ended questions could be used. In this case, each participant will be required to fill in the questions and submit the questionnaire to the research panel.

Windshield Survey

Housing

Most houses in Miami are neat and well decorated, thus making the area an attractive residential place for residents. Even the older houses are well kept and refurbished, and thus they are attractive. One would not think that they are older than ten years. The houses are luxurious, and every household seems to have access to the basic issues, which include power and clean water. The houses seem quite expensive and only the wealthy can afford to pay the rent. Therefore, it is evident that the houses are not accessible to persons with special needs, such as individuals with disabilities, as they are considered financially unstable. From the outward look, the houses look new due to the decorations and the well-kept compounds.

Public Places

The surrounding area has plenty of public places, which include hotels and restaurants that are designed luxuriously to suit the needs of both residents and tourists (Shell-Weiss, 2009). The public areas are well kept, and they can host a great number of people. The public sites have well-decorated seats where people gather for special events. The public sites host numerous food vendors where residents and visitors purchase refreshments. Visitors, who are coming to visit the area for tourism purposes, mainly occupy public places. However, residents gather at times especially when there are certain events that warrant such gatherings. There is always a mixture of both the whites and the blacks in public places. The public areas have different flowers, thus offering captivating scenery.

Parks

Visitors coming to the area for tourism purposes are the primary occupants of the parks. The parks are usually occupied by both whites and blacks. Besides, they make nice relaxation centers for both the residents and visitors. The parks have well-maintained seats decorated in different colors, which makes the parks the ideal places for relaxation. The parks are endowed with a variety of recreational sites and facilities including basketball pitches and tennis courts. The green grass growing in the parks is well-trimmed. The parks have trees that make the site a good place to relax.

Culture and Entertainment

The community has preserved its culture, and it acts as a center for tourists from all over the world. The aspect of culture and entertainment is evidenced by the presence of museums, libraries, schools, and transit stations. The museums host special events, which act as centers for tourists attractions in the city (Rath, 2007). Various events such as concerts, performances, and craft shows are among the main events that take place in the museums, and they are accessible to both the residents and visitors. Various luxurious restaurants, guest houses, and wedding grounds are available in the city. These facilities mainly host visitors. Libraries are also located within the community, and they are well equipped to accommodate the needs of both residents and non-residents. The facilities are centrally located, and they are accessible through public means. Therefore, the local community accesses these facilities easily.

Streetscape

The well-decorated buildings on the roadsides define the streetscape of Miami with every effort made to keep the sidewalks clean. Trees and beautiful flowers on the sideways are a common feature that welcomes one to the city. Garbage cans are seen on each side of the road, which is a clear indication that the citys management is concerned about cleanliness. Well-decorated seats appear on the roadsides, and they are usually used by both residents and non-residents.

Street Use

Normally, there are few people on the sidewalks during day time, but the number increases in the early morning and late in the afternoon. The sidewalks are well lit at night even though there are not many pedestrians on the sidewalks at night. In most cases, the side walkers are usually on their way to workstations and they rarely interact with each other.

Commercial Activity

Given that the city receives many guests, most businesses are restaurants and food vendors. There are no vacant storefronts in the city as all are occupied by business persons seeking to take advantage of the profitable business opportunities presented by visitors.

Road Signs

There are numerous road signs across the community roads directing people to various sites such as museums, libraries, and schools among others. The signs are informative, and even visitors can use the signs to locate the major sites that they want to visit. Since the area receives thousands of visitors each year, the road signs are important as they offer directions to various institutions.

Industry

Tourism is the principal industry in the community, and the city receives millions of visitors each year. Mostly, visitors come to enjoy the recreational sites in the city. Tourism is the primary source of income for the city, hence reducing pollution. Other industries, which are flourishing in the city, are the banking sector and commerce, and they are not linked to any form of pollution.

Land Use

Land use in the community is maximized, and only small pieces of land remain idle. The communitys land is apportioned into three main uses, viz. residential commercial, and industrial (Shell-Weiss, 2009). Residential land takes most of the land with luxurious rental houses dominating the area. Roads are the dominant form of infrastructure crisscrossing the land while railways are only located at the borders of the community.

Infrastructure

The infrastructure within the community is exceptional with all areas having access to the necessary services and recreational amenities such as electricity and water. Bridges, roads, and other infrastructures are equally distributed, and each household has access to these essential services.

Public Transport

The city has a well-organized public transport system comprising Metro buses and metro rails. The metro rail trips are less expensive as compared to other forms of transportation available to the community with each trip costing $2 payable through an Easy card. Similarly, buses are inexpensive as they charge the same amount as the metro rails. The two are energy efficient as evidenced by the cheap transport fee charged per trip. The two forms of transport are used by both residents and visitors since it is easier to use than other forms of transportation.

Traffic

Traffic in the community is hectic, and most vehicles using the roads are private cars. Few commercial vehicles are present on the roads as opposed to private vehicles, which dominate the roads most times. Bicycles are not as many as vehicles and there are narrow lanes for bicycle users. Traffic is not always heavy, and it is only severe in the morning and afternoon hours.

References

Miller, R., Forcehimes, A., & Zweben, A. (2011). Treating addiction: A guide for professionals. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Rath, J. (2007). Tourism, ethnic diversity, and the city. New York, NY: Routledge.

Shell-Weiss, M. (2009). Coming to Miami: A social history. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

The actions of every person have a particular impact on society and its development, and this impact is sometimes underestimated. Most of people believe that, taking into account the total population of the world, their actions are insignificant and can hardly change anything. This, however, is not true, for every personal problem sooner or later becomes the problem of the whole society. The understanding of these relations between history and biography (personal troubles of milieu) is what Mills called sociological imagination, or the ability of a person to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals (Mills 5).

One of the examples that illustrate personal trouble of milieu is marriage. A number of people who I know personally are now married and, through their example, it is possible to show which influence the marriage has on public issues and social structure. With respect to public issues, the marriage may change, for instance, peoples leisure. The married couples desire to stay at home after work, rather than go to the bar or to the movies has a certain effect on the society, especially if more than one couple is taken into consideration. This, in its turn, has certain social influences because the attendance of these places may decrease, thus resulting in the reduction of their profits.

Another example may be eating too much. A friend of mine has encountered such a problem and now tries to fight with it. It is a great problem on the individual level because it affects the persons health, both physical and emotional. If this problem is considered on a social level, eating too much may result in such problems as obesity and other eating disorders. This further entails changes in pharmacy with new medicines being invented and healthcare with new health clubs and fitness centers emerging. Thus, personal issues have an influence on public and social structure of the society.

The final example is alcohol abuse. I know a person who suffered from alcohol abuse this is why I can imagine what problems this issue may involve. On the level of personal problems, alcohol abuse destroys the persons health; it may result in the loss of job, friends, family, and money. On a social level, it may result in social degradation and increase of unemployment if a great number of people start abusing alcohol. As a result of hard-drinking and unemployment, the crime rate is likely to increase, especially that of minor crimes, such as theft, burglary, kidnapping, hijacking, etc. This will disrupt social structure and entail a number of other public issues, such as family fights, divorces and the problems connected with them, etc.

All these examples may be viewed in relation to structural functionalism. As stated by this sociological paradigm, all the elements of society are interdependent and function according to generally accepted rules. Thus, members of society are expected to get married in order to perform their primary function, reproduction. They should also take care of their health in order to live longer. Lastly, they should not abuse alcohol or other substances because it is not in accordance with social rules. To regulate the observance of the rules with regards to these functions, there exist institutions of marriage, healthcare centers and rehabilitation centers.

These examples can also be considered in frames of conflict theory. This theory posits that members of the society exercise control over each other, thus affecting social order. The most widespread conflicts at this are class, race and ethnicity, religion, and gender conflicts. Therefore, if applied to marriage, conflicts may arise due to gender distinctions, for instance, because of womens unwillingness to be housewives. In case with eating too much, different social structures, such as media and workplace, contribute to discrimination against people suffering from obesity. With respect to alcohol abuse, people suffering from alcoholism fear to be dependent on other people; by refusing from this dependence, they start drinking even more trying to fight with their inner conflict.

Lastly, considering these examples in terms of social interactionism is also important. Social interactionism claims that people regard different things depending on their meaning for them; this meaning derives from social interaction. Thus, for instance, the society demands people to get married because everybody else does it. This demand influences peoples ideas about marriage and their decision-making. When it comes to eating too much, a person suffering from this problem realizes that it is bad and that this problem should be dealt with because otherwise he/she would differ from the rest of the society. Finally, a person who abuses alcohol knows that it is not good for him and the society because his friends or relatives repeatedly tell him/her about this.

In sum, such personal issues as marriage, obesity, and alcohol abuse have a great effect on larger society. If these issues are applied to functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism, some of the problems connected with them and implications they may involve become clearer. This may help to deal with these problems in future.

Works Cited

Mills, Charles W. The Sociological Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Introduction

A great number of works have been dedicated such issues as alcohol abuse among students. One of the most comprehensive sources is the book College Drinking: Reframing a Social Problem, written by George Dowdall in 2008. He analyzes origins of this phenomenon and proposes strategies for overcoming it. The authors main point is that this behavior has recently become a sign of prestige and social acceptance, therefore it is vital to dispel the myths about this dangerous habit. George Dowdall argues that the image of drinking is iconic this is why it is essential to show that overt attractiveness of this behavior is just a trap for the young generation (Dowdall, 8). It is also helpful to refer to the study NIAAAs Rapid Response to College Drinking  conducted by a group of scholars under direction of William DeYoung in 2009. This study is based on the most up-to-date findings; it aims to assess the effectiveness of various methods of coping with this excessive drinking among college students. The major argument is that this issue cannot tackled only through imposing restrictions on students, it is necessary to bring changes into the institutional setting and broader environment i. e society (DeYoung et alp 12). Finally, we may need to analyze a newspaper article Dangerous College Drinking by Paul Candon, who strives to attract publics attention to this issue and outlines the strategies for alleviating the situation. He also states that alcohol is seen as part and parcel of college life (Candon, unpaged). Despite the differences between these sources, the writers regard college drinking as a cultural phenomenon as a sign of belonging to a certain group of people, namely, student community. Moreover, the authors agree that this issue demands different kinds of intervention like individualized or group counseling as well as changes to institutional, community and public policies.

Main Text

George Dowdall intends his book for a diverse range of readers: parents, educators, social workers and students. It can be observed even in the structure of this work because some chapters explore the underlying causes of this behavior, whereas passages mostly warn students against alcoholic binges and those risks which this conduct entails: for instance, sexual harassment, violence, a large number of accidents, including deaths (Dowdall, 3). The scholars argument is quite convincing he draws various examples in order to get his points across to the audience: he refers to media reports describing the accidents caused by alcoholic binges and analyzes movies which portray drinking as something attractive. George Dowdall relies on the statistical data in order to prove his point. According to the scholar, the major task of educators, psychologists, and social workers is to dispel media stereotypes of college and students life (Dowdall, p 84).

He proposes different strategies that may help these people: individual or group counseling, changes to the public policy, especially the sales of alcoholic beverages, establishing stricter rules for those students who are constantly engaged in binging or other deviant behavior. Most importantly, it is necessary to prove to them that there are more pleasant and absorbing pastimes apart from consuming alcohol. This conduct should no longer be prestigious or elitist. From his standpoint, media reports portraying the ugly side of binge drinking can considerably diminish the consumption of alcohol among college students (Dowdall, 143). This source can be of great assistance to be used by educators in order to increase learners awareness of those dangers, social campaigners can employ while tailoring anti-alcohol campaigns. Perhaps, every undergraduate student should be acquainted with this work as this will immensely alter his or her attitude towards alcohol abuse.

Similar ideas have been expressed by Paul Candon who believes that counseling can help to transform college drinking habits. His audience is also rather diverse as this magazine article can be of some interest for medical workers, educators and average people. He draws statistical data showing that a number of abusive drinkers changed their behavior after going through therapy sessions. During the sessions behavior change was discussed and after six months the students had reduced their alcohol intake level (Candon 1). Yet, we can say that Paul Candon is not as persuasive as George Dowdall. He only strives to make the most cursory survey of prevention methods. But he hesitates to choose any particular one.

On the whole, the journalist is the supporter of institutional or even community interventions. In this opinion, increasing police patrols can also help to reduce college drinking. The policing can make students more responsible and more apprehensive of drinking on the territory of campus or its neighborhoods (Candon 1). He claims that the presence of the police would deter students from drunken driving. In turn this will diminish the mortality rate associated with drunken driving or violence. Students would also be discouraged from misbehaving outside campus as they know doing so would result in arrest. This is a strategy that requires the cooperation of the community and the colleges to work. Two studies on the effect of police presence on college drinking done at the University of Rhode Island and the other one at the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation in Berkeley, CA found out that the police presence led to less students incidents outside campus and fewer cases of heavy drinking (Candon 1). Still, it has to be acknowledged that legal restrictions are seldom of any avail unless they are not supported by parents, educators and media. Moreover, it should be mentioned that his presentation of facts is slightly distorted: policing reduces the number of drunken binges only in public places but it does not affect crime rate (DeJong et al, p 10). We should evaluate the quality of this magazine article according to academic standards because it is written for most for uninformed readers. The author is not quite sure whether his data is valid or not this is why he prefers only to make an overview rather than to propose recommendations.

The most recent study conducted by William DeYoung and other scholars aims to evaluate the effectiveness of various intervention strategies and their findings indicate that interference of the state may be of some assistance; at least it can reduce the level of misdemeanor in the community (DeYoung et al, 8). This article is intended primarily for educators, social workers, psychologists, and probably governmental officials. Again, we have to emphasize the fact that the researchers do not propose clear and concise solution, but they at least help people make informed decisions.

The authors maintain that the community should also be involved in the reduction of college drinking. This can be done through the enforcement of minimum drinking age laws. The police should be vigilant and the parents should educate their children about alcohol and be observant of their behavior. This will help them to notice when their children start consuming alcoholic beverages. An increase in price will make alcohol less affordable..

Yet, this is not sufficient; the researchers are in agreement with George Dowdall concerning the origins of college drinking. In particular they say that mere prohibition is not enough because students will always be able to break or evade the law. College drinking must no longer appear attractive or glamorous to them. This can be done by limiting the marketing of alcoholic beverages to students. The abundance of alcohol advertisements should be reduced to a minimum. From their perspectives, students will always indulge themselves in binge drinking unless they see different and more promising options (DeYoung et al, p 9). The educators must change their perceived norms of a typical student and this may eventually reshape their attitude towards drinking. The date from this investigation may lay the foundations for further prevention of alcohol abuse.

Conclusion

Naturally, these sources are similar in terms of the persuasiveness, accuracy, themes etc. Nonetheless, all the authors strive to help students overcome dangerous dependence on alcohol. They try to warn young generation against this dangerous habit. Yet, we can say that George Dowdall is the most helpful because it is written for a wide range of readers. The author examines a wide range of questions and most importantly proposes more or less prudent strategies. The study conducted by William DeYoung and his co-authors may be of some assistance, but they only overview different prevention strategies, yet they do not suggest any action plan. The same goes for Paul Candons article.

Works cited

Candon, Paul Dangerous College Drinking: Prevention Is Possible, Studies Suggest. 2009. Web.

DeJong, W., Larimer, M.E., Wood, M.D., and Hartman, R.NIAAAs Rapid Response to College Drinking Problems Initiative: Reinforcing the Use of Evidence-Based Approaches in College Alcohol Prevention. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 16 (2009): 5-11.

Dowdall. G. W. College Drinking: Reframing a Social Problem Greenwood Pub Group, 2008.

Summar

There are a number of factors of social, economic, environmental, biological and psychological factors that are recognized as the most common determinants of substance abuse. Among them, there are homelessness, incarceration, the level of income and education, gender, age and sexual orientation (Substance Abuse across the Life Stages, 2015). Besides, the internal atmosphere of households and communities is known to contribute to the rates of substance abuse. Drugs of various kinds are widely used by both adults and youth. For example, daily use of marijuana among middle and high school students has increased by over 6 % in 2009 and 2010 (Substance Abuse across the Life Stages, 2015). Marijuana use is especially widespread among young adults (18 to 25 years old), over 40% of whom also report binge drinking. Alcohol abuse is also a serious issue for people of 26 to 34 years old (36% of heavy drinkers), and for people older than 35 (19% of drinkers). Drug abuse is not only a public health and criminal issue; it is also an economic problem. By 2011 the financial cost of illicit drug abuse was estimated at over 193 billion dollars (The Economic Impact of Illicit Drug Use on American Society, 2011). The components of the economic cost of substance abuse include the funding of rehabilitation centers and hospitals, work directed at the investigation of drug abuse and trafficking, the support of incarcerated individuals, and general loss of productivity due to addictions. Moreover, substance abuse is extremely costly to addicted individuals. For example, among the psychological effects of drug abuse, there is an obsession with the substances and cravings that are accompanied by hallucinations, anxiety, paranoia and depression, dissatisfaction with ones life, risky behaviors (Tracy, 2014). Among the physical effects of substance abuse, there is exposure to HIV, cancer and hepatitis, vomiting and diarrhea, excessive pressure on the liver and kidneys, brain damage, heart diseases to name a few (Tracy, 2014). In addition, substance abuse leads to criminal activity, provoking aggression and violence. In fact, in the United States, 80% of all arrested criminals are known to be drug and alcohol abusers, 60% of whom were under the influence of various substances while arrested. Finally, substance abuse has an immensely negative effect on interpersonal relationships breaking up marriages, leading to domestic violence and child abuse. One substance abuser in a family causes a ripple effect that directly affects the other family members (a spouse or a partner, children, parents). Besides, drug and alcohol abuse increases the likeliness of suicidal behavior by six times affecting females more seriously than males.

Defense Mechanisms

Denial

Denial is the kind of defense mechanism that is associated with rejection of the existing problem or unwillingness to admit that it is present. Substance abusers who are in denial tend to disagree with those who attempt to confront them about their issues. Denial occurs when an individual is psychologically incapable of coping with particular problems; this is why it becomes easier and more convenient for them to reject the mere fact of the presence of this issue. Substance abusers in denial tend to become aggressive and angry when directly told about their addiction. The aggression often has to do with the fear that the discussed issue may actually be real.

Repression

Defense mechanism known as repression is very widespread. Repression occurs when an individual who has a particular issue will not admit its existence by forcing the evidence of its presence out of their conscious awareness. Staying unaware of a serious issue is safer for the psychological wellbeing of an individual, this is why repression appears. Repression is similar to denial, yet it is believed that repression may happen unconsciously when unwanted or traumatic memories are removed from an individuals memory.

Projection

Projection is similar to denial. This defense mechanism makes an individual ignore their own issues and at the same time recognize them in other people. Often, a projecting individual will ascribe their own behaviors to those who do not practice them. For example, an alcoholic father would punish his son for binge drinking which in reality does not occur.

Displacement

Displacement is an individuals method of coping with painful frustration caused by negative experiences or emotions. In a case of displacement, the outburst of negative emotions is transferred to an area different from where they actually belong (Niolon, 2011). For example, an individual displacing his frustration about a substance addiction may be unreasonably aggressive at their workplace or mistreating their close ones such as family members and friends.

Sublimation

Sublimation is the deliberate alteration of problematic behavior that helps an individual to stay within socially acceptable situations. For example, in substance and drug abuse, the individuals may direct the effects of the substances they use to the areas of work or entertainment. This way, a person influenced by a drug who dances around alone in the street will be noticeable, while the same individual dancing in a club is within a socially acceptable frame.

Reference List

Niolon, R. (2011). Defenses. Web.

Substance Abuse across the Life Stages. (2015). Healthy People. Web.

The Economic Impact of Illicit Drug Use on American Society. (2011). U. S. Department of Justice. Web.

Tracy, N. (2014). Effects of Drug Addiction (physical and psychological). Web.

Group and family cognitive behavior therapy for adolescent depression and substance abuse: A case study

Adolescent depression has in recent times been identified to be a major psychological disorder the world over. Various approaches have been experimented yet most have been shown to have limited efficacy. The study employs group and family cognitive behavior therapy as an intervention for adolescent depression. In addition, the study brings forth the efficacy of CBT as an intervention method in those adolescents with comorbid states especially those with substance abuse issues (Curry, Lochman, Wells, Nagy & Craighead, 2001). The researchers designed a study that encompassed the two disorders and developed CBT management protocols. The research is of importance as it lays emphasis on one of the modalities demonstrated to be effective in the treatment of a myriad of substance abuse disorders among adolescents. The researchers designed a case study to elaborate their findings and as such, shed a light on the effectiveness of this approach in the management and treatment of substance use disorders among adolescents.

An overview of controlled studies of adolescent substance abuse treatment

This is a review of the various current approaches employed in management of adolescents with substance use disorders. The study focuses on five fundamental approaches currently employed by various practitioners in the management of adolescents with substance use disorders. These include cognitive-behavioral therapy, family-based and multi-systemic interventions, behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy, and twelve-step modalities (Deas & Suzanne, 2010). The researchers found out that the cognitive behavioral therapy approach and the family-based or multi-systemic approaches were more effective as management modalities for substance use disorders in adolescents. Even though these approaches are promising, the researchers are cautious since they observed that there is a failure in properly utilizing the tools in other approaches in the management of substance use disorders among adolescents. The study is of importance as it acknowledges the role played by the family and support groups in the management of substance abuse disorders among the youth.

Treating adolescent drug abuse: A randomized trial comparing multidimensional family therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy

The study is a randomized controlled trial that aimed at establishing the differences in efficacy of two main approaches utilized in the management of substance use disorders among adolescents. The study compared outcomes of multidimensional family therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy in the management of substance abuse among the adolescent population. The researchers observed that there was no statistically significant difference in the outcomes of the two methods in the management of substance use disorder in adolescents (Greenbaum, Turner, Henderson & Howard, 2008). The researchers acknowledge that more research needs to be carried out to determine the appropriate and highly efficacious approach in the management of substance abuse in adolescents. This results from the fact that no single method up to date has been used singly in the management of substance abuse disorder with promising outcomes.

Can 12-step group participation strengthen and extend the benefits of adolescent addiction treatment?

Failure rates of various interventions for substance use disorders among adolescents have been of concern to many researchers and healthcare providers. Relapse has been shown to be on the increase even after successful intervention strategies have been put in place. The study identifies the importance of support groups but sets out to determine the clinical effectiveness of such groups to adolescents with substance abuse disorders. The study follows a randomly chosen set of adolescents with substance abuse disorder to elucidate the efficacy of support groups in the promotion of recovery from substance abuse. The researchers observed that only a small percentage of the adolescents referred to specific support groups managed to attend over a period of three months. It was observed that those adolescents with less severe forms of the disorder were less likely to attend support group sessions as compared to those with more severe forms of substance abuse disorder. In addition, the researchers observed a dramatic increase in the rate of recovery in those adolescents that maintained a steady rate of attendance (Kelly, Dow & Yeterian, 2010). Based on this, the researchers recommended a review of the importance of such support groups in the management of substance use disorder among the adolescent population.

An overview of the effectiveness of adolescent substance abuse treatment models

The study is a review of the current treatment modalities employed in the management of substance abuse among adolescents. The researchers outline the importance of family based approaches in management of substance abuse in adolescents and children. In addition, the study lays emphasis on multidimensional approach in treatment of substance abuse in adolescents rather that the utilization of monotherapy modalities. The researchers employed a wide range of studies carried out prior to the year of publication and carried out a systematic review of the relevant literature pertaining current approaches in treatment of substance abuse disorder. The review reveals flaws I certain approaches that extrapolate data from adult based studies to adolescents leading to failure of laid down strategies in the management of the substance abuse disorders (Muck, Zempolich & Titus, 2001). In addition, the authors outline the approaches that have demonstrated efficacy in the management of substance use disorders among adolescents. Modalities such as cognitive behavioral therapy in conjunction with family/multidimensional provide promising results in the management of both new-onset and relapsing substance abuse disorders in both adults and adolescents.

The effectiveness of the Minnesota Model approach in the treatment of adolescent drug abuse

The study aims at reviewing the current approaches in the management of substance abuse among adolescents. Furthermore, the study reviews the effectiveness of each approach in the treatment and management of substance abuse among children. The researchers also outline the relationship between these approaches with the main approaches used in the mainstream justice system (Winters, Stinchfield, Opland, Weller & Latimer, 2000). Based on this, the study recommends a blanket cover in designing of modalities for management of substance abuse among adolescents to ensure achievement of set goals. In addition, the study outlines the limitations associated with the Minnesota model approach in treatment of adolescent drug abuse.

References

Curry, J. F., Lochman, J. E., Wells, K. C., Nagy, D. P., & Craighead, E. (2001). Group and family cognitive behavior therapy for adolescent depression and substance abuse: A case study. Cognitive and Behavior Practice, 8(4), 367-376.

Deas, D., & Suzanne, T. E. (2010). An overview of controlled studies of adolescent substance abuse treatment. The American Journal on Addictions, 10(2), 178-189.

Greenbaum, P. E., Turner, M. R., Henderson, E. C., & Howard, L. A. (2008). Treating adolescent drug abuse: A randomized trial comparing multidimensional family therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. Addiction, 360-444.

Kelly, J. F., Dow, S. J., & Yeterian, J. D. (2010). Can 12-step group participation strengthen and extend the benefits of adolescent addiction treatment? A prospective analysis. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 110 (2), 117-125.

Muck, R., Zempolich, K. A., & Titus, J. C. (2001). An overview of the effectiveness of adolescent substance abuse treatment models. Youth and Society, 33(2), 143-168.

Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. D., Opland, E., Weller, C., & Latimer, W. W. (2000). The effectiveness of the Minnesota model approach in treatment of adolescent drug abuse. Addiction, 95(4), 601-612.

The research article being critiqued in this paper is titled as Pathways to PTSD, Part II: Sexually Abused Children coauthored by Julie B. Kaplow, Kenneth A. Dodge, Lisa Amaya-Jackson and Glenn N. Saxe. The objective of the paper was to build and analyze a probable model of posttraumatic stress symptoms in sexually abused juveniles, which include pre-trauma, trauma, and disclosure related pathways. A qualitative approach was used in this article to carry out the research, which was well coded and analyzed statistically to arrive to conclusions.

The paper elaborately explains the background of the research at the onset of the document. It states that child sexual abuse is a common happening and can lead to rigorous psychological harm both in the short and long term. Various previously conducted researches highlight the materialization of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in sexually abusive cases given that the symptoms of this disorder are observed quite often in children who undergo this traumatic experience. The paper notifies that although long-term effects and later symptoms of PTSD have been subject to wide research by means of retrospective of adults, there has been a significant lack of research on the more instantaneous PTSD fallouts. The authors consider their research to be the earliest examination of pre-traumatic exposures, trauma attributes, and nervous tension responses at the time of disclosure as pathways to PTSD symptoms in sexually abused children. It discusses about the various factors that put the children in jeopardy, which had been observed as the immediate repercussions of the traumatic experiences. Significantly notable in that context was the demonstration of dissociation during the disclosure, which could be an indication of long-term PTSD. Apart from dissociation, observations revealed that anxiety/arousal could also be a determining factor in PTSD forecasting. The paper lists Avoidance coping as a vital aspect of anxiety/arousal. Cognitively restraining from disclosing information and other avoidance strategies could habitually lead to crisis in various domains in due course. However, they testify that evaluating such strategies could be problematical. Thus, a strategy employing behavioral coding system to mark the respondents avoidant conduct during interviews was adopted to overcome the complication.

The 156 children constituting the sample for the research purpose were aged between 8 to 13 years and belonged to state of North Carolina. They were clinically examined, interrogated, and the interviews were video recorded for forensic reasons. The event of sexual abuse for the interviewed children was marked by an assessment team comprising of members from multiple disciplines as confirmed, probable, suspicious, unknown or else no evidence. Each of these interviews was well documented for subsequent evaluation. The reliability of the research was greatly enhanced by the method of research approach. It research was conducted in two phases. During the first phase, a number of procedures were adhered to, in order to examine pre-trauma variables, trauma variables and then the responses of the 156 children were carefully scrutinized during disclosure of the experience. During the second phase, ranging from seven to 36 months consequent to the preliminary interview, the observation concentrated on examining the symptoms of PTSD, which might have occurred in the children. A statistical modeling was carried out to prepare the obtained data from various interviews to facilitate analysis.

A maximum likelihood estimation approach was adopted for dealing with the issue of missing data. A path analysis approach was adopted for data analysis. A sequence of hierarchically nested ordinary least square multiple regression analysis were employed to approximate the direct as well as indirect impacts of the various categorized variables.

After a thorough analysis, the authors reached a conclusion that the threat of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is greater in children who demonstrate symptoms of averting, anxiety/arousal or dissociation while or just after the disclosure of the abusive experiences. Thus, they suggest that it is imperative that the response of the children post disclosure should be analyzed with immediate effect. The research brings out that dissociation is the most significant predictor of PTSD. Thus, the authors carry out a detailed discussion with relation to dissociation and the impacts it may cause. The paper also provides appropriate references to other relevant works in the field.

The research article also boldly goes on to state the limitations of the study, which was carried out. Although it brought out various significant revelations, the article highlights that the generalization of the sample selected for the study is subject to ambiguity. In addition to that, the authenticity of the fact that the disclosure during the interviews was the first instance when the child talked about their traumatic experiences is unconfirmed.

The article further goes on to list the clinical implications of the study. It states the identified group exhibiting avoidance, anxiety or dissociation faces a greater risk of developing PTSD symptoms later on and thus requires immediate clinical attention. It also identifies demonstrators of coping strategies as an intervention targets in need of therapy.

Overall, it is a comprehensive and well-structured research document, which ventures out to a much under researched subject of study. The research design, although exposed to a few limitations, is consistent with the research philosophy. The concepts of reliability and validity of the research are taken care of with utmost concern by the authors. Finally, it might be said that the article would act as an important literature for future researches, provide essential guidelines, and aid for the same.

Works Cited

Kaplow, J, Dodge, K, Amaya-Jackson & Saxe, G; Pathways to PTSD, Part II Sexually abused children; Psychiatry; 2005, 162; pp-1305-1310.

Introduction

The federal government has established correction facilities in various parts of the United States. These facilities are used for correcting convicted individuals. Criminal justice refers to the system of justice and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts (Schmalleger, 2010).

Correction facilities have been fairly successful in mitigating crime in society. However, they have been experiencing some challenges which have affected their efficiency. Drug abuse has been one of the major challenges facing correction facilities (Mc Vie, 2001). The drug problem can be discussed as follows.

Drug abuse in Correction Facilities

Drug abuse is a common vice in our societies and this problem has been extended to the correction facilities. Drug abuse refers to a maladaptive pattern of use of a substance that is not considered dependent (Mc Vie, 2001). Substance abuse is prevalent in so many correction facilities found in different countries, and it is therefore raising international concern. The federal correction facilities have also been adversely affected by drug abuse-related challenges. The drugs abused in these facilities range from alcohol to hard drugs like cocaine and heroin (Schmalleger, 2010).

Causes of Drug abuse in Correction Facilities

Several factors account for drug abuse in the prisons and they include the following. Correction officers have noted that most of the individuals who have been incarcerated had been using illegal drugs for some time. Upon admission to federal custody, almost seventy percent of the federal offenders are assessed as having some level of substance abuse problem requiring intervention (Mc Vie, 2001). Many people always go to these facilities and this makes it very complicated to curb the flow of drugs into the facilities.

Criminal gangs have now extended their presence in prisons. This has enhanced the coordination of drug deals within the facilities. Drugs fetch good returns to the dealers who supply their inmate clients. Hence they try to safeguard their deals to stay in the business. The high demand for drugs has been created by many inmates who rely on drugs. It has also been noted that some staff members serving in these facilities aid the distribution process by providing immunity to the dealers. This further aggravates the whole situation hence it is difficult to solve this problem (Mc Vie, 2001).

Effects of Drug Abuse in Correction Facilities

Drug abuse in the correction centers has led to so many problems within and outside the facilities. For example, there have been many cases of fights among individuals who supply the inmates with drugs. This is because they all want to dominate the chain of drug supply to the prisons. Many inmates have been engaging in violence because of drug abuse.

For example, some of them have tried to kill their colleagues and this is closely associated with the use of drugs. The dramatic rise in the number of prisoners suffering from infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis in the past decade is linked in large measure with substance abuse practices (Mc Vie, 2001). Correction institutions are also becoming quite unsafe due to the issue of drugs. Last but more importantly, the issue of drugs has crippled the capacity of these institutions to fully rehabilitate the convicts.

Recommendations and Implementation

The following recommendations can be used to solve this issue. The inmates should be allowed to use some contraceptives. This can help in reducing the spread of communicable diseases (Mc Vie, 2001). This can be implemented by regularly supplying them with items such as bleaching kits. Counseling sessions should be enhanced in these facilities.

This would help in educating the inmates about health issues associated with drug abuse. In this case, properly organized seminars can be used regularly to teach the inmates. Security is another area that should be given serious consideration (Schmalleger, 2010). Some correction facilities still use poor security systems and they need to adopt modern security management strategies. For example, they should install modern security equipment that would enhance surveillance. They can use drug dogs to check on the presence of drugs in the facilities.

Urinalysis tests should be introduced in many prisons. This can be done to help in identifying the inmates who use these drugs. The inmates who are found guilty through this process should be interrogated for them to give more information about the drugs. ION scanners are very effective in helping to detect the presence of or exposure to drugs (Mc Vie, 2001).

It can therefore be used for screening purposes especially when people enter the correction facilities. Such checks should be conducted on everyone including the staff members. Correction facilities should work closely with other institutions to help in solving this problematic issue.

Conclusion

The correction facilities are likely to lose their role of correcting inmates if serious measures are not adopted to make them effective. The government should therefore be very keen on ensuring that high standards are maintained in correction institutions. This can only be achieved through proper strategies and long term commitment (Schmalleger, 2010). Some people argue that these facilities should be rehabilitated before they can be used for rehabilitation. I tend to concur with them because of the above-discussed issue.

References

Mc Vie, F. (2001). Drugs in federal correction-The issues and challenges. Forum on corrections research: Focusing on alcohol and drugs, 13, 1-4.

Schmalleger, F. (2010). Criminal justice today: an introductory text for the 21 st century. New York: Prentice-Hall.

Substance abuse refers to the total dependence on drugs that may result in very adverse effects on the individuals health both physically and mentally. Substance abuse leads to addiction to the substances involved such that the individuals cannot be able to cope without their use. Substances that are normally abused include alcohol and other illicit drugs. These drugs are very addictive and the proprietors of such substances find it very difficult to distance themselves from their use. There is always a strong desire to take the substances due to the effects and this makes it very difficult for them to control their intake. Addiction to such substances usually has very adverse effects on the individuals lives especially their health conditions. Other effects include social and environmental effects. Despite their effects, most substance users prefer tolerance of these effects. Substance abuse does not only affect the individuals but its consequences spill over to society especially the community and also the workplaces (Cherry, 2003, p17). This paper examines the most immediate effects and consequences of substance abuse to the families of such individuals and how it may lead to violence within the family setup.

Substance abuse by the parents in the family will have a very great effect on the children. In the early stages of development, a mother who is addicted to substance abuse will most likely give birth to a child with a condition referred to as the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (Davis, 2001, p21). This is because substances such as alcohol in a pregnant woman will have adverse effects on the unborn baby. This condition may lead to the birth of children with a lot of birth defects. Babies born with this condition will normally be shorter and have very low weights as compared to normal children. Most of them have deformed skulls and effects on brain development. Other physical features may also be affected. A woman who can not be able to give birth to normal and healthy children within the family system will attract a lot of controversy within the family. This eventually leads to a lot of violence in the family since the spouse will automatically not be able to cope with this condition. Violence can also result from substance abuse effects on normal children. Children who are raised by parents with addiction to drugs and alcohol will have very low self-esteem; have fear of being abandoned and also loneliness which may eventually lead to depression (Kelleher, 2006, p26). Such children may result in violence within the family due to the pressure and stress that is in their daily lives. Studies have indicated that children of alcoholic parents are most likely to result in alcoholism and other drugs which pose a greater risk of violence.

Substance abuse is a great threat to intimacy within the family system. Alcoholism and addiction to drugs may lead to the spouses developing a hatred for each other. This may also result in a lot of self-pity and loss of social ties which may eventually lead to stress and depression for such spouses (Rugh, 2005, p10). Within the family setup, if one parent gets addicted to alcohol or drugs the other parent has to perform both roles of parenthood. Most of the family responsibilities shift to only one parent. As a result, the parent who is not engaged in the substance abuse may not be in a position to handle all the responsibilities resulting in child and family neglect. The demands to the parent become too much to handle. Alcoholism and other drug addiction result in many marital problems as the burden becomes too heavy on one parent. Intimacy between the two parents dies very fast and most individuals will result in extramarital affairs (Hampton, 2004, p18). On the other hand, most men who are involved in the addiction to alcoholism have high rates of incest within the family. Most children who are reported to have been raped and sexually harassed by their parents result from the effects of substance abuse. The major reason is that most of the individuals who are addicted to drugs are not able to reason and make sound decisions. They end up performing very weird acts within the family and this leads to a lot of violence now and then. Children from such families lose the love and trust of their parents. They seem not to trust anyone else in their lives due to fear of being hurt and most of them actually end up with fellow alcoholics and very abusive relationships.

Families that are affected by the problems of substance abuse are likely to have a lot of emotional problems. The family lacks ways of expressing their emotions and feelings in the right manner. The parents themselves will result in denial of these effects and any attempt to address the problems within the family result in a lot of arguments since they believe they have no problem in their drug intake. This results in a mood of negativity within the family. The communication methods of the family change from well-organized discussions to other forms of communication such as complaints, expressions of displeasure, and criticism. Most of the family members lose positive thinking and the overall mood of the family is filled with ignorance and anger (OFarrell, 2006, p31). In the families that are affected by the substance abuse the only language to get attention from others becomes creating a situation of crisis. This makes the instances of violence be very many within the family since everyone in the family has a negative mood and attitude. With such attitudes prevailing there are very many instances of wife battering and other forms of physical violence since the man may be feeling that the family is undermining his authority. The woman on the other hand may turn her anger on the children and the family becomes a den of violence. This breaks all the bonds within the family and eventually a family breakup (Hampton, 2004)

The most adverse effects of substance abuse on the family are the economic and financial hardships (Hampton, 2004). Individuals who are addicted to substance abuse are likely to affect the work environment where they may be getting their daily bread. The individuals become very unproductive both in the work environment and also in the family. Many employers on getting fed up with such individuals will lay them off. These results in job loss by such individuals and financial crises will start taking course especially if such individual was the sole provider of the family. On the other hand, if such individuals do not lose their jobs, any income that is generated by the family is directed towards the purchase of drugs. The substances are very addictive and they are costly and this, therefore, affects the family resources. This makes the other family members suffer since such an individual cannot be able to provide adequately for the family. Purchase of simple household basic needs becomes a great problem. The children will suffer from neglect since most of their needs cannot be met.

On the other hand, the family may spend a lot of finances to put such individuals under rehabilitation programs for a solution. Substance abuse may also result in a lot of serious health conditions that may require specialized treatment. This again diverts the family resources to medical treatment. The family is now forced to look for other means of supporting themselves and this increases the levels of dependency on non -family ties (Kelleher, 2006, p36). Financial crises may result in the selling of the familys assets and also depriving other available resources. Over time, the family may find itself languishing in poverty and this may lead to more reasons for depression within the family. Attempts to sort the financial gap may lead to crimes such as theft.

To illustrate the effects of substance abuse in the family system, a case study was carried out on various patients and their families who had fallen victims to substance abuse. The study builds on the social cognitive theory of substance abuse. The theory seeks to examine substance abuse as a social problem and the case study focuses on the effects of substance abuse in the family set up besides efforts initiated to achieve desired changes. The sample included women, men, and adolescents patients who had were under the addiction to various drugs such as alcohol, heroin, marijuana, and other drugs. The main aim was to find out how addiction to such drugs had influenced their families. 67% of the women interviewed expressed their willingness to abort their pregnancies on realizing the complications they would pose to their children. Most of them have tried to withdraw from the drugs had found it impossible and this resulted in more than 25000 babies being born with FAS complications.

The women still wanted to maintain their spouses which were very difficult especially for those seeking to have children. This was one of the major reasons they sort help. Some women also admitted having fallen victims to prostitution and this had exposed them to many diseases and a sequence of abortions. 80% of men interviewed had already lost their jobs to the drugs and many of their families suffered a lot of financial difficulties. A couple of them were also involved in extramarital affairs, family neglect, crime, and violence. The teenage sample indicated a family history of drug addiction which resulted in frustration and loss of family ties. Some resulted in drug abuse due to the inability to cope with pressure at home and being unable to help their suffering parents. 74% of the total sample admitted to having been involved in various forms of crime and violence with some having to face the authorities (Swanson 2008).

Social workers related to substance abuse have different roles to play to arrest the situation. The most immediate role is to counsel the family members affected either in a group or individual sessions. This plays a big role in assisting individuals to deal with the effects of substance abuse such as physical and mental illness, poverty, unemployment, and physical abuse (Kaufmann 2007). Social workers coordinate with other physicians, counselors, and nurses in ensuring the individuals get the appropriate treatment. They also have a duty of carrying out various interviews on the clients and keeping records that are used for reviewing the extent of the problem within the society by other professionals. They monitor, evaluate, and keep records of the progress of patients who are recovering from substance abuse.

The social workers also play a role in referring the patients to the community resources which assist families affected by substance abuse to recover. They play a very important role in counseling other family members in a bid to assist them to understand and deal with the members involved in substance abuse. Other roles of the social workers involve conducting programs that educate the community on the effects of substance abuse. Such programs are useful in preventing the effects of drug abuse, reduce the social and family problems resulting from substance abuse, and promote health and also enhancing the role of counseling services in the community. Social workers also develop and advise the authorities on amendments to social policies in order to ensure families affected by substance abuse benefit from the community development programs (Harrison 2008).

In conclusion, substance abuse affects every member of the family even if it is practiced by only one member. The costs that are brought to the family and society are significant and immeasurable. It results in loss of productivity within the family, impairment of both physical and mental health, crime, violence, neglect of family members, and dependence on other people for survival. Families that are affected by the effects of substance abuse, therefore, live under many hardships and suffer different degrees of trauma. An approach to solving the effects of substance abuse within the family system requires a lot of family therapy for the members. This calls for various programs of social work which address such issues. The programs should have a framework of counselors who offer education and different sessions of family therapy (Kaufmann 2007). They should also educate the families on the different forms of treatment and recovery from substance abuse.

References

Andrew L. Cherry (2003). Substance abuse: a global view. Greenwood Publishing Group.

DI Davis (2001). Substance abuse and family interaction. US, McGraw Hill Press.

Douglas Rugh (2005). Effects of Parental Substance Abuse on Current Levels of Domestic Violence. Journal of Family Violence. Springer Netherlands.

Gary L. Fisher and Thomas C. Harrison (2008). Substance Abuse: Role of Social Workers, Therapists, and Counselors. Allyn & Bacon Publishers.

JW Swanson (2008). Mental disorder, substance abuse, and Domestic violence. The University of Chicago Press

M Chaffin and K Kelleher (2006). Onset of physical abuse and neglect: Substance abuse and social risk factors. Elsevier Publishers.

PA Fazzone (2000). Substance abuse treatment and domestic violence. Diane Publishing.

P Kaufmann (2007). Family therapy of drug and alcohol abuse. Halsted Press.

Robert L. Hampton (2004). Substance Abuse, Family Violence and Child Welfare: Bridging Perspectives. Sage Publications

Timothy J. OFarrell (2006). Behavioral couples therapy for alcoholism and drug abuse. U.K, Guilford Press.

Introduction

Drug abuse is a major challenge in the contemporary world because it leads to grave social and economic consequences (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). According to research findings, the United States of America has the highest percentage of drug abuse globally (Warner, 2008). Drug abuse mainly begins during teenage (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). The first part of this essay discusses social and cultural determinants of substance abuse. The second part focuses on the dynamics of addiction.

Social and Cultural Determinants of Drug Abuse

Most cases of drug abuse are linked to the social context in which an individual lives. Peer influence is one of the social factors that lead to substance abuse. Peer influence mainly affects teenagers because they undergo psychological challenges (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). For instance, many teens cannot make rational decisions because they lack mental maturity. Consequently, they can be influenced to abuse drugs.

Lack of cultural ethics contributes to drug abuse. For example, in the US, many people abuse drugs due to the absence of stringent cultural norms (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). Lack of proper parental guidance also encourages children to abuse drugs. For instance, in some families parents smoke and drink in the presence of their children. Furthermore, some parents share drugs with their children.

Widespread Use of Drugs

The following factors contribute to the prevalence of drug abuse in the society. First, easy access to drugs encourages many people to misuse them (Rassool, 2008). For instance, many people smoke and drink in the US because alcohol and cigarettes are sold near learning institutions and in residential areas. Second, lack of proper enforcement of drug laws encourages drug abuse (Rassool, 2008). Third, social and cultural challenges, such as peer influence and poor parental guidance leads to increase in substance abuse.

Impacts of Substance Abuse

The following are some of the consequences of substance abuse. Drug abuse affects the financial status of an individual directly (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). Substance abuse leads to addiction, which makes a person to crave for drugs.

A drug addict is compelled to spend many resources in buying drugs. Over expenditure on drugs directly affects the financial status of a person. Drug abuse also leads to indirect financial costs. In the US, drug abuse leads to wastage of billions of dollars annually because it increases the demand for healthcare (Warner, 2008). It also leads to damages, poor productivity and increase in crime (Rassool, 2008).

Substance abuse leads to physical and psychological side effects. For example, an individual who misuses cocaine and marijuana is susceptible to psychological disorders because these drugs impair the brain (Nakken, 2009). Consequently, a drug addict can easily cause an accident. Many cases of suicide and homicide are linked to drug abuse. For example, majority of people who misuse guns in the US are drug addicts (Rassool, 2008). Moreover, drug addicts find it difficult to socialize with people because they have emotional challenges.

Dynamics of Addiction

Drug addiction refers to a person who is dependent on drugs (Kuhar & Wrobel, 2010). Addiction denies addicts natural comfort; hence, they experience extreme discomfort in the absence of drugs. Drug addiction is an intricate challenge because it affects people differently. The following are the main dynamics of drug addiction.

Denial refers to the failure of a person to accept truth. Drug addiction can lead to a serious perversion of acuity (Nakken, 2009). Majority of drug addicts usually deny their social, economic and health status. For instance, a person who breaks the law due to drug abuse may fail to admit his mistake because he cannot make proper decisions. Indeed, many drug addicts often fail to accept that they have a serious mental and physical illness.

Regression refers to moving back to a previous phase of human growth during difficult moments. For instance, a teenager who is devastated with challenges of drug abuse may demonstrate previous infancy behaviors (Nakken, 2009). A grown-up can regress when seriously stressed by drug addiction.

Reaction formation refers to altering undesired thoughts, judgments and impulses into a desired behavior. For example, a drug addict who is thinking of stopping substance abuse may be extremely motivated to continue using drugs. A drug addict is unable to express negative feelings of annoyance and disappointment with his addiction (Nakken, 2009).

Fantasy refers to the inability of a person to accept his social status. For instance, individuals who have lost all their wealth because of drug addiction cannot easily come to terms with their condition because they have psychological problems.

Rationalization is a common behavior among drug addicts. It refers to a situation in which drug addicts try to justify drug abuse. Additionally, they blame others for their problems and mistakes.

Conclusion

This essay has revealed that substance abuse is a serious problem that has pervaded the American society and other parts of the world. It has also pointed out the consequences of substance abuse in the society. Therefore, various measures should be adopted to curb substance abuse.

References

Kuhar, M., & Wrobel, S. (2010). The Addicted Brain: Why We Abuse Drugs, Alcohol, and Nicotine. London: SAGE.

Nakken, C. (2009). The Addictive Personality: Understanding the Addictive Process and Compulsive Behavior. London: Palgrave.

Rassool, H. (2008). Alcohol and Drug Misuse: A Handbook for Students and Health Professionals. London: Routledge.

Warner, J. (2008). U.S. Leads the World in Illegal Drug Use.

Sociocultural determinants of substance abuse

Drug and substance abuse is caused by many factors that include environmental, age, race and ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, income level and socioeconomic class (Howinson, 2005). Socioeconomic determinants that determine substance abuse include peer pressure, family influence, social networks, and societal attitudes towards substance use.

Research has shown that social networks and peer pressure are key determinants of substance abuse among teenagers. Many young people are exposed to drugs and illegal substances from their interactions with peers and family members who use drugs (Page, 2012). In many cultures, substance abuse is determined by prevailing attitudes towards the use of certain substances.

For instance, in certain cultures, marijuana is widely accepted as a substance that helps individuals to relax and meditate (Howinson, 2005). Addiction to substance abuse is widespread in America. It has been identified as a challenge among young people, athletes, and adults. The main causes of the substance abuse and addiction include poor housing, high rates of unemployment, lack of proper health care, and inadequate education opportunities.

Direct and indirect costs of substance abuse

Substance abuse is a major public health issue in the United States that has far-reaching financial costs. Direct costs of substance abuse include health care expenditures and lost earnings due to absenteeism from work (Meara & Frank, 2005). On the other hand, indirect costs of substance abuse include expenses related to accidents and crime as well as treatment of diseases caused by substance abuse.

These diseases include heart disease, HIV/AIDS, and cancer (Meara & Frank, 2005). Other problems that cause indirect costs include stress, violence, and child abuse. Psychological costs of substance abuse emanate from treatment of disorders such as depression, anxiety, antisocial personality disorder, stress, and paranoia (Page, 2012).

Physical effects of substance abuse include intoxication, liver damage, lung damage, and kidney damage. These effects are mitigated using treatments that are very expensive. Long-term substance abuse creates tolerance to drugs, which results in increased use. This exposes victims to risks of overdose that could cause death.

Link of addiction to crimes and accidents

Criminal activities that result from substance abuse include domestic violence, robbery, assault, rape, and prostitution (Page, 2012). Drug addiction causes mental illnesses and poor perception of social support (Page, 2012). These effects motivate addicts to commit crime in order to finance their addictions.

Others commit crimes such as rape and assault due to personality disorders and interactions with other addicts. Research estimates that between 40 and 80 percent of prostitutes use drugs (Howinson, 2005). Prostitutes are major victims of rape and assault. Many accidents are caused by drivers who lose consciousness due to intoxication from drug use (Page, 2012). On the other hand, driving under the influence has been cited as a major cause of accidents.

Implications with suicide, homicides, and interpersonal relationships

Drug addiction has been associated with suicide and homicide. Many addicts commit suicide after they develop depressive disorders that make them feel hopeless and helpless (Page, 2012). According to research, substance addiction is the second major cause of suicide in the United States.

Individuals with substance use disorders are at higher risks of committing suicide than individuals who do not use drugs. Many victims decide to commit suicide after failing in their attempts to eradicate substance abuse habits (Page, 2012). Suicide is also fueled by risk factors associated to addiction such as financial and social challenges. Substance abuse makes individuals prone to high-risk behaviors that affect their relationships with other people and increase their likelihood of harming other people (Page, 2012).

Dynamics of addiction

It is important to differentiate between individuals who can control their substance use habits and those who can. Drug users usually find reasons to rationalize their habits especially when they fail to eradicate their addictions. Substance addiction results from continued use of illegal substances with disregard to their negative effects on health and financial wellbeing.

Addiction is characterized by four key stages that include compulsion, continued use regardless of negative effects, craving, and denial (Miller, 2011). It affects the social, psychological, and biological wellbeing of individuals. Examples of defense mechanisms used by addicts include denial, rationalization, avoidance, intellectualization, regression, acting out, dissociation, projection, and reaction formation (Miller, 2011).

Defense mechanisms

Common defense mechanisms applied by addicts include denial, regression, dissociation, rationalization, and intellectualization (Miller, 2011). Denial refers to the act of ignoring the existence of a problem that has dire consequences. Many addicts act in ways that enable them to avoid dealing with reality and painful consequences of their addiction. Regression refers to embracement of past behaviors that were overcome during earlier stages of development.

Dissociation refers to loss of touch with time, people, and self (Miller, 2011). Many addicts experience disconnect in their relationships with themselves and other people. Rationalization refers to the act of justifying ones behavior or unwillingness to eradicate destructive habits. Addicts usually justify their substance abuse habits in order to avoid denigration from other people.

Finally, intellectualization refers to overreliance on thinking as a way of handling impulses or instincts that are likely to cause destructive behaviors (Miller, 2011). It disregards the importance of feelings and emotions in making decisions. For instance addicts focus on reasons why they cannot overcome their addictions instead of focusing on how they can use emotions of pain and regret to initiate change.

References

Howinson, J. H. (2005). Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Meara, E., & Frank, R. G. (2005). Spending on Substance Abuse Treatment: How Much is Enough? Addiction, 100 (9), 1240-1248.

Miller, G. (2011). Learning the Language of Addiction Counseling. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Page, K. (2012). A parents Guide to Substance Abuse and Addiction. New York.