Category: Absolutism

The formation of the early modern state in Scandinavia during the period c.1500-1800 is relatively similar between the two blocks Denmark-Norway and Sweden while it get in conflict with each other and go through the same steps. What are the main steps and influence that leads to the formation of the state in Sweden? In what way Denmark diverse ?

The first step in the emergence of modern state in Scandinavia is the dissolution of the Kalmar Union in 1523. Originally wished by the Swedish aristocracy to balance the influence of the Hanseatic league in the region (Kent p.31), the Union is gradually considered as an illegitimate supremacy of the Danish kings supported by the archbishop of Uppsala (Voltaire p.12) by the same aristocracy and by the early 16th century start to rebel and follow its own national course (Helle p.768-770).

Member of the rebel Swedish aristocracy, Gustav Vasa will manage to take the control over Sweden and is elected King and coronated hereditary monarch in 1528. Thus bringing not only stability to his position but to the state as well. (Kent p.51)

But the remarkable turning point of this period in both Sweden and Denmark is the separation with the Pope authority and the later proclamation of the national reformatted churches. The Lutheran reformation of 1517 had already made adepts in Scandinavia but for the monarch it became a skilful manoeuvre to recover the Church property (21 per cent of landed estates and one third of all arable land in 1521 (Kent p.55)) to the benefit of the State and the nobility to inspire their loyalty. (Kent p.53) This reform reaches its peak in 1540 when Gustav Vasa is able to have himself proclaimed king by Divine Right By that time Gustav Vasa also expended the administration and centralized the country increasing the state’s wealth and authority. By strengthening the state like that he became even able to play on equal level in the diplomatic game with the different cities of the Hanseatic League (Kent p.51) and face to the great kingdoms of Europe.

The descendent of Gustav Vasa will consolidate his work and turn Sweden as a highly centralized and militarized country. (Kent p.70) This open a constant war era with an aggressive attitude towards its neighbours around the Baltic Sea. (Kent p.72) It is during the 30 years war that Sweden extend its territories, officially to protect the Lutheran German princes it profits from the help of the Pope and the France of Richelieu (Voltaire p16) all profiting from the reduction the Habsburg family’s power. Sweden acquires valuable territories in Pomerania, Bremen and Baltic region (Kent p.72) and becomes what is then called the Swedish Empire and remain in a resourceful alliance with France.

At the opposite Denmark is during this time ruled by a powerful aristocracy which induce a slower state formation, during the Reign of Gustav II Adolf we see a permanent change in the order of power between the two Scandinavian kingdoms.

This superpower was still insecure and extremely expensive to maintain, (Kent p.76, 87) and invite enemies as Russia and Denmark to attack Sweden. Under the Reign of Karl X the state formation will get a step further simultaneously for Denmark and Sweden when in 1660 Sweden is again victorious and integrate Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and Bohuslän in its realm after a second attack to invade all Denmark he is stopped and made peace with all states involved. (Kent p.77) The Scandinavian states get at the end of this war, borders they still have today on the Kattegat and Öresund coast.

This mark as well a big turn in both interior and exterior politic in Sweden and Denmark. This is the time Denmark change its institutions and will proclaim absolute monarchy and a series of reform of the military system to be able to face the advanced military power of Sweden and secure themselves as a modern country after a major loss of land.

Karl XI in Sweden will turn his interest towards its subjects. He puts an end to the bellicose attitude, to expensive, secures the new borders, (for example in Skåne, Swedish law is introduced and Swedish language made obligatory (Kent p.87)) and changes the alliances, France and its subsequent financial support in war time is laid back in favour of maritime powers (England and the Netherlands). All over Europe it is the time of absolutism and Karl XI following the wish of his predecessor will be proclaimed absolute monarch by the Riksdag in 1693 after the “reduction” reform that hands over 80 per cent of the land transferred to the nobility back to the crown (Kent p.88), which gives back money quickly and increase tax revenues to and makes all nobility dependent of the state then even more centralized around the person of the King.

The aristocracy accepts this situation and give their support to the new regime under Karl XI and Karl XII reign because they both benefits from their prestige at war first and in making Sweden prosperous with the decade of peace during the years 1680 and 1690.

This situation with reverse during the great northern war. A coalition of all hereditary enemies, (Russia, Poland, Prussia and Denmark) attacks Sweden. After a series of victories, the war gets too expensive to be supported and as the war fatigue grows in all society layers, aristocracy gets disabused face to absolutism and could lead them to catastrophe and is then a menace for Sweden. (Kent p.94)

While Absolutism will remain stable in Denmark through the 18th century, In Sweden after the death of Karl XII on the battlefield, will mark the end of the great northern war and reduce the power and the land of Sweden drastically to the today Sweden and Finland, the new king is forced to accept the abolition of absolutism by aristocrats. (Kent p.102) This open the era of a rather weak monarchy under the control of a bicameral political system, the Age of Liberty. The House of Estates, in the hand of the nobility and clergy, and the Riksdag where all layers of society are represented, share the power. There will fight the Hats and Caps, two different opinion on the future of Sweden. The domination of the Hats at the Riksdag will lead Sweden in a rather similar foreign policy which consist on regain lost territories in Russia and Pomerania in the frame that provide alliances (Kent p.106) but without success and leading to chaos again.

This version of power system did not prove of a better administration for the country, and furthermore did not succeed in giving more power to layers of society that still could be in Riksdag and have access to information through freedom of press (Kent p.106)

In the years 1770, under the influence of enlighten philosopher like Le Mercier and the physiocrats the future king Gustav III and his mother Lovisa Ulrika prepared his future as an “hereditary sovereign with unlimited power conducting the good of each class” (Barton p15-16). Which he achieved progressively for both personal thinking and absence of full support to his coup. Starting by giving Sweden a new constitution in 1772, (Barton p.21) support came later in 1789 by using the social conflict between the commoners and the nobility. Supporting that by giving more rights to the first group he was rescuing the second one. Peasants also allied with the new autocrat and got the right to become self holders.(Kent p.130) By that time the Danish king has only abolished serfdom recently.

While taking the leading role (the act of union and security), he introduced partial freedom of religion that would stimulate the economy with immigration. He also consolidated national production notably in architecture and arts and encouraged all facets of cultural life stimulating national pride. (Barton p.25)

French Revolution inspire the Swedish nobility for the assassination of Gustav III as overthrow of royal despotism. (Barton p 119) a process ending with the deposition of his successor in 1809 after the loss of Finland to Russia. The aristocracy managed then to take power again reintroducing a more balanced power between the parliament and the king.(Kent p.153)

Introduction

Abortion should remain legal in Australia. For many people, abortion is essentially a morality issue, concerning the legal rights of a women’s body and the rights of the fetus. Pro choice and pro life have seen to be the compelling arguments of this issue and will be expressed in this essay. Early Priests of the Catholic church and Early church councils have expressed their views against abortion taking the “pro life” stance. However it is recognised that today there are priests of the Catholic Church who have a deeper understanding of the desire to get an abortion like Father John of Sacred Heart Church. This essay will explain the ethical perspectives and contributions made by different individuals and groups to the debate. Research will be conducted on decision making methods like moral absolutism and Utilitarianism and their strengths and weakness in the debate.

Paragraph 1

The debate in Australia’s society about the ethical issue of abortion has created an impact on many people and has seen a range of viewpoints expressed by both religious and non-religious individuals and groups. Father William Saunders expresses how the Church has always condemned abortion. This action in a religious view is seen as the direct and purposeful taking of life of the unborn child. Catholic Christians are guided to believe that all life is sacred from conception until natural death, and the taking of innocent human life, whether unborn or born is morally wrong, however Adrianne Walters lawyer and women’s activist, argues that it is JUST as morally wrong to take away her own right to decide what to do with her foetus and her body. Walters wrote an article in the Age newspaper outlining how her grandmother was forced to keep her baby not only based on legal laws in NSW but based around the morals and values of her family. She explained how she felt unloved, discriminated and ultimately scared that she wasn’t able to make this decision for herself. Walters states in Victoria that within 150 meters of a clinic harassment, protests and obstruction of patients is illegal to protect freedom of political communication.

In Victoria, the laws prohibit a range of behaviours within 150 metres of a clinic, such as filming patients and staff and harassing, obstructing or threatening them. They also prohibit a person communicating in a way that is likely to cause anxiety or distress, which the High Court said is a necessary and reasonable restriction on the constitutionally protected freedom of political communication. Walters describes how she understands the views of the Catholic church but how she simply doesn’t agree with them. The Old Testament states “Blessed be the fruit of your womb, the produce of your soil and the offspring of your livestock”, Father Saunders uses this as an example to highlight the word “live”. He explains how murdering someone living is against the law in Australia and against majority of peoples beliefs, so why isn’t abortion classified the same In people’s minds as he explains it’s the exact same concept applies.

Paragraph 2

Within the issue of abortion ethics and morality arises, where there are methods of ethical decision making which explores ways ethical problems can be examined and evaluated. An example of an ethical decision-making method is moral absolutism which identifies the idea that moral and ethical principles are universally collective. Religious traditions like Catholicism apply to everyone, regardless of an individual’s personal beliefs and values. Some advantages of this research method are that it gives supportive universal laws exploring individuals’ human rights and privileges, giving a clear moral guidance allowing decision making to be made quickly. However, a negative aspect of this research method that is a dominant factor is that the law has to be obeyed no matter the consequences to the individual, this can be seen as condemnatory and harsh to the individual. Regarding the issue of abortion, not everyone of the Catholic Church will share the same opinions and beliefs, moral absolutism explores that no matter your beliefs it is a requirement to follow laws that have already been made for the individual.

Another decision-making method is Utilitarianism, this research method suggests that actions are defined as being right or correct based on the ability it has to promote happiness. Something is then considered wrong if it creates the opposite reaction. An advantage of this method is that it is a universal concept that everyone can understand, the goal of reducing personal harm while increasing happiness is something that every person pursues at some point. Abortion legally can simply create happiness or unhappiness for an individual, for example a young 16-year-old who “accidently” falls pregnant and wishes to abort her child is made to feel like her wishes and desires are wrong if abortion in Australia were made illegal. Abortion being legal in Australia allows for the mother to choose her decision, ultimately, choose her happiness.

Paragraph 3

Throughout this essay the key individuals that are identified are Father William Saunders and lawyer Adrianne Walters. These individuals express a religious and non religious view on the act of abortion.

It is clear that Father William Saunders is influenced and driven to be “pro-life” (anti-abortion) due his career and where he sits in society. Father Saunders is a practising Christian who preaches the word of God for. He expresses the need to stand by not only his beliefs but what his colleagues believe and value, his colleagues being other priests, council men and ultimately God. His passion for his career and for the work he does drives his beliefs about abortion in general, he uses the Bible (New and Old Testament) as a guide and rule book to how he should go about his day to day life and about his working life. It is clear that Father Saunders values and beliefs towards abortion are not influenced through by others. I believe that he is influenced by his own passions and what he truly values. He values the word of God and preaching that, therefore is heavily influenced by his dedication to his career which includes him dedicating himself to God.

However Adrianne Walters used a personal story from her passed about her Grandmothers pregnancy to convey her views on abortion. This demonstrated that her views came from another place, a personal matter that was strong enough to impact her when she was only 12 years old. You could also say that Walters was impacted by family and family values. She states her grandmother faught for womens rights and that she is overly grateful that she has the choice and freedom to do what she feels is right for her body. Walters highlights that she understands there is still judgment but can cope with that. It is fair to say that Walters isn’t overly influenced by her religion. She is a Catholic Christian who believes in a number of Bible scriptures and religious miracles, however the Catholic Church opposing to abortion is not a factor that influences Walters beliefs to the matter.

Conclusion

The strongest arguments expressed during the debate of abortion were the “pro-life” and “pro-choice”. Pro life arguing against abortion where Father Saunders expressed his beliefs towards this stance. The pro choice side argued the importance of freedom and choice for an individual’s decision. When researching Utilitarianism, it appeared that that decision making method was most useful when applying the ethical problem to theory. The decision making method explored the importance of happiness and how ultimately if the decision made you happy it was correct. The strengths of this method included are its pragmatic focus on the consequences of an action and its ability to identify that everyone wants happiness. This debate highlights a number of complexities that explore religious beliefs, family values and personal experiences. It can’t be determined whether one complexity is stronger than the other, it can just be noted that they influence individuals differently and to different extents.

Anything taken to an extreme leads to profound effects and repercussions, the likes of which is usually more negative than positive. There are instances though when convergence, information censorship and dissemination of culture can benefit a country or society as a whole; however, this is only acceptable to the extent where lives are not lost in the process. Throughout history, societies, ideologies and cultures have evolved.

The role of French Salons during the Age of Enlightenment demonstrates the positive effects of convergence and dissemination of culture. This time period in Europe (1685-1815) was characterized by a rational way of thinking in regards to philosophy, ideologies about the state government, and the Church, a prevalent entity during that time. It was a time when there was increased access to information and reason and logic were advocated. This reorientation of ideas ultimately led to the French and American Revolutions. The oil painting by A.C. Gabriel Lemmonier (Document #1) displays a painting of a French salon in session. French salons were private social gathering where intellectuals, artists, philosophers and politicians met to discuss concepts such as human nature, social structure, and philosophies. The french salons helped to break down the social and intellectual barriers between the nobles and the common people, as well as between the two sexes. In these salons, women played a particularly prominent role. As the hostess, it was up to them to decide on the agenda (topics of discussion) and regulate the conversation. These intellectual gatherings played a huge role in the rapid dissemination of new ideas and rational thinking, paving the way for a newly reoriented European civilization.

During Germany’s Third Reich (better known as the Nazi regime), the state attained and retained power through extreme censorship by controlling the media and the strategic use of propaganda. Germany’s Third Reich (1933-1945) refers to the period when Hitler and the Nazi Party took over the state and assumed a totalitarian rule, where Hitler was the dictator and the state controlled virtually all aspects of everyday life. During this time, the state’s use of propaganda posters and media to spark antisemitism against Jewish people resulted in the devastating event known as the Holocaust, where roughly 6 million Jews were annihilated. Hitler believed that Germans were the superior race. Combined with his idealistic vision of “the blonde Aryan race” and his belief that Jews were inferior, he effectively used propaganda and control over the media to aid him in carrying out his vision of an ethnically cleansed, “pure” Germany. The Poisonous Mushroom (Document #2) is a children’s propaganda book written by Ernst Heimer which demonstrates the essence of anti-Jewish propaganda. This book shows the extent to which the state attempts to influence the citizens, going so far as to educate the children about Jewish people, depicting them as swindlers and criminals. Propaganda such as this book, as well as posters and media ensured that all the Nazi ideals were glorified and convincing to the people of the country. Basically, freedom of information was nonexistent. To sum up, the systematic use of propaganda and the state control of the media promoted and achieved the state goals of Nazi supremacy and anti-semitism, which led to the mass genocide known as the Holocaust.

The infamous Reign of Terror (1793-94) and the promotion of a republic of virtue during the French Revolution (1789-1799) manifests an example of convergence among the people . The French Revolution was a period of social and political upheaval in France that spread to, and affected the rest of Europe. One of the most notable events was known as the Reign of Terror, where, massacres and executions took place daily. The republic of virtues was a political theory devised by one of the leaders of the Revolution, Maximilian Robespierre, who advocated for the use of terror to achieve democracy. The following quote by Robespierre (Document #3) captures the essence of the Reign of Terror: “If the basis of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the basis of popular government during a revolution is both virtue and terror; virtue, without which terror is baneful; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice; it is thus an emanation of virtue; it is less a principle in itself, than a consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing needs of the patrie [country].” From Robespierre’s point of view, the idea that terror was needed to achieve the goals of the Revolution justified the 30,000-40,000 executions that took place from 1793 to 1794. However, most people who were executed were guillotined simply due to the fact that they were not supportive enough of the Revolution. Moreover, these executions were often carried out without a trial. It was after Napoleon Bonaparte took power and the Revolution ended that political reforms took place and led to what is now modern day France: a democratic republic with a Legislative Assembly. On the whole, the French Revolution brought an end to absolute monarchy and feudalism in France and more power to the people, but it came with a hefty human price.

A modern day example of information censorship taken to an extreme is the Stalinization of the Soviet Union and the cult of personality. Stalinization refers to the governing policies and ideologies of the Russian dictator Joseph Stalin. During his rule over Russia, he imposed his theory of socialism in one country by transforming Russia into a totalitarian state. Like Hitler, Joseph Stalin understood the power of propaganda and used it to his advantage accordingly. He orchestrated the cult of personality, a false persona which praised him as a perfect leader in the extreme by utilizing methods such as control of the mass media, propaganda, patriotism, and government based rallies. Like many of the propaganda posters created during his rule, the poster designed by Boris Feoktistovich Berezovsky (Document #4) portrays Stalin as the hero with the people of Russia supporting him with worshipful adoration. Media was restricted and manipulated so that the people believed what the state wanted them to believe: that their leader was all powerful and therefore the only one capable of making important decisions for the greater good of the nation. Under Stalin’s rule, Russia accelerated towards rapid industrialization, urbanization, and transformed into a major economic and military power. Joseph Stalin was also instrumental in helping defeat Nazi Germany during WWII. On the contrary, Stalin committed numerous crimes against his own people to achieve his doctrine, including the utilization of state violence to purge the bourgeoisie (upper middle class), forced deportations, and executions and murders of millions. As shown, the fact that Russia became a predominant entity thanks to Stalin counteracts against the evidence that he accomplished it all with extreme censorship, oppression of his people and the crimes that he committed.

The development and dissemination of scientific culture during the Age of Absolutism (approx. 1643-1715) challenged the supreme power of the monarchs. Scientific culture, also known as the Scientific Revolution was a series of events when there was significant development in virtually all areas of science: mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry and biology which changed societies’ views about nature. There was great emphasis on the recovery of the old, which refers to the technological and scientific accomplishments of the Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. The Age of Enlightenment consequently followed the development of scientific culture. At the time, Europe was ruled by absolute monarchs who had unquestionable authority. In fact, it was believed that the ruler was granted divine powers by God. Louis XIV’s famous quote (Document #5), L’etat c’est moi (I am the state), demonstrates the all-encompassing power that the monarchs possessed. However as society became exposed to new scientific ideas, they began to question absolutism and its oppressing factors.

Although the five documents are from different locations and time periods in history, they all share the concept of convergence, information and dissemination of culture taken to an extreme. Firstly, the development of scientific culture during the age of absolutism is closely related to the Age of Enlightenment. In both cases, new intellectual and scientific ideas were discussed and logic and rational thinking were emphasized. Both represent the dissemination of culture, as the ideas spread across Europe. This can be thought of as a chain of events: scientific culture led to the Enlightenment, which in turn sparked the French Revolution. The Enlightenment and scientific culture are both cases where the effects were widespread but did not cost human lives. Therefore, it is safe to say that these two events are positive developments that benefited Europe as a whole. On the other hand, Stalinization of the Soviet Union and The Third Reich in Germany both constitute the negative repercussions of information censorship taken to an extreme. In both cases, information censorship was used to achieve state goals wherein the people had limited freedoms and millions were forcefully exterminated. Most importantly, all of these events transformed governments and reshaped societies, for better or for worse. The lasting effects of the extremities taken at the time are still felt today.

Lewis Mumford had composed the book ‘The City in History’, and he had won a national book grant for verifiable in the year 1962. Mumford accepted that there is more than a contrast among creatures and people; it is the possibility of the imagery of the language. Lewis Mumford depicts his translation of culture through the historical backdrop of urban areas. Throughout this essay, it will discuss the innovations that truly impacted history and the world itself like the Roman Empire’s Aqueducts, the Medieval Guilds and Palace of Versailles.

The roman empire was one of the largest empires and had lasted a long time. Roman empire had controlled Europe, North Africa and parts of Asia Many innovative ideas came from roman culture and it had impacted our present-day lives. The Romans invented urban areas all through their immense domain. Roman Empire has efficiently governed the land vanquished; they were the first to present Democracy, rule by chose people which comprised of educated and visionary individuals. The fall of the western roman realm made a goliath power vacuum that the congregation moved into, hardening Christianity as the religious power in Europe for the following thousand years. Rome is presumably exaggerated for world history because the greater part of its enduring repercussions is in Europe, and Europe is a disproportional measure of world history, however, it’s as yet a significant realm that affected culture and domains all over Europe, Africa, and Asia. When they invented other cities, they normally utilized a similar kind of city plans. The lanes were straight and on a network. Encompassing the town was a tall invigorated divider to help keep out intruders. These dividers were particularly significant for towns close to the outskirts of the domain; based on lectures it was called pomerium. Throughout the lecture, it discusses that the aqueducts conduits worked outside of the town to carry new water to the wellsprings and open bathes. The Aqueducts and Cloaca were one of the best innovations the Roman Empire had developed, in Lewis Mumford’s novel he discusses the Cloaca Maxima; which was one of the first sewer systems. ‘ The Cloaca Maxima antedated the piping of water from distant springs and streams, perhaps because the local water supply from wells remained adequate till 109 A.D., when the Trajan aqueduct brought water for the first time to the right bank of the Tiber to satisfy the thirst of a growing population…In all three examples, sewers, water mains, and paved roads, royal engineering innovations not unknown in more ancient towns and regions were converted into great collective forms, serving the urban masses…In short where the need was greatest, the mechanical facilities were least…In sum, in the great feats of engineering where Rome stood supreme, in the aqueducts, the underground sewers, and the paved ways, their total application was absurdly spotty and inefficient.'( Mumford, 1961, p. 215-216) The Roman toilets, sewers and water frameworks were developed in light of our equivalent present-day sterile objectives. The roads of a Roman city would have been jumbled with waste, upchuck, pee, poo, trash, dingy water, spoiling vegetables, creature skins and guts, and other deny from different shops that lined the walkways. We moderns consider urban sewers as the way to expel such foulness from boulevards – and flush away human waste that goes down our toilets. This innovation while it did mold the beginning of the sewage framework; particularly for sterile reasons; it had likewise indicated class contrast. The framework wasn’t at it’s best as it is currently in the present day that being stated, they indicated a bias towards the high society instead of the genuine individuals who frantically required it.

A guild is defined as ‘an association of craftsmen or merchants formed for mutual aid and protection and the furtherance of their professional interests. Guilds flourished in Europe between the 11th and 16th centuries and formed an important part of the economic and social fabric in that era.’ (Dictionary) Every Guild had its specific job, where they specialized in during the Middle Ages assumed a significant job in the public eye. They gave an approach to exchange abilities to be taken in and go down from age to age. Individuals from a guild had the chance to ascend in the public eye through diligent work. Guilds secured individuals from multiple points of view. Individuals were bolstered by the guilds on the off chance that they went onto harsh occasions or were wiped out. ‘Such unions and brotherhoods had existed, we have seen, among urban craftsmen of the Roman Empire, indeed earlier in third century Greece; and they lingered on in Byzantium. Though the connections remain obscure for lack of written documents, we know that the memory of a remote event, Alexander’s spectacular conquests, remained alive in popular myth among the illiterate during the long Romanesque inter-regnum; and the idea, even the example, of such craft brotherhoods may not have quite vanished.'( Mumford, 1961, p. 270). From the lectures and Mumford’s understanding, it demonstrates that guilds helped something other than their individuals. They had various standards that kept the nature of work and estimating steady. This helped shoppers to realize they were getting a decent item at the right cost. They controlled working conditions and long periods of work. Guilds had additionally counteracted non-guild individuals from selling focused items. Some individuals who were part of the guild were even absolved from making good on high regulatory obligations from the masters and lords.

Louis XIV ruled France for a long time, and in that time changed Versailles by enveloping Louis XIII’s estate with a castle that contained north and south wings, just as close-by structures lodging services. The Palace of Versailles is the image for Absolutism during the Ancient Régime. Through the lectures it describes the intelligence of Louis XIII and it stated the fact that initially the palace was supposed to be a little chasing cabin under Louis XIII, it had completely turned into a genuine royal residence during the rule of Louis XIV, the Sun King; where he proclaimed himself as the Greco-Roman Apollo, that he was a God. ‘When the plan for Versailles was laid down, the new palace itself was set on the site of the old hunting lodge where Louis XIV had first wooed his mistress, Mme. De la Valliere. But in the plan of a royal capital, the meeting place now served another purpose: the palace gathered to itself the new avenues of the city as the ruler himself gathered to itself that had been dispersed among a multitude of feudal families and municipal corporations.'( Mumford, 1961, p.389) The purpose of developing this castle was to show off his riches. He had the option to develop this enormously complex and he had the option to move it to the regal court, they realized who was the best. This displayed his riches and his influence over the nobility. Versailles was a significant piece of the governmental issues of Louis XIV. It was a spot utilized as a political stage where most notable individuals of Europe met. Lastly, Versailles was a showroom of the extravagance of his realm. The garden center is committed to workmanship diversion and water, there are numerous references to the French waterways that carry flourishing and fruitfulness to his domain. Inside the palace generation of his makes are underscored, glass, woven artwork. The French transformation denotes the finish of Versailles as a focal point of intensity, the power moved to Paris. To accomplish absolutism, one must first improve oneself as being ground-breaking and definitive, at that factor the person ought to assume accountability for any person who may also preclude supreme power. The Palace of Versailles helped King Louis XIV satisfy each of those destinations. Versailles utilized promulgation by using advancing Louis with itself importance and liberal representations that all radiated a feeling of matchless quality. Versailles likewise helped Louis expect responsibility for the respectability by giving an adequate house to keep them under his cautious gaze. The Palace of Versailles upheld absolutism at some stage in King Louis XIV’s rule thru publicity, and control of respectability.

Overall throughout this essay; it truly explored the innovations of history and how it shaped our present-day lives. With Lewis Mumford’s novel and Lewis Code’s lecture it gave a better understanding of how a city works and the city within that city. Lewis Mumford depicts his translation of culture through the historical backdrop of urban areas. Throughout this essay, it will discuss the innovations that truly impacted history and the world itself like the Roman Empire’s Aqueducts, the Medieval Guilds and Palace of Versailles.

In past years, a democratic nation where autocracy has been recently on the rise is Turkey. The reason for this is the fact that the Justice and Development Party (now the AKP) and Turkey’s President Recep Tayyip Erdogan have worked together to implement various laws and innovative strategies in order to gain power. Erdogan rose to power in 2002, when he became president of the newly formed AKP party, and after winning the general elections, slowly he became more and more powerful until being elected as prime minister, replacing Abdullah Gül. Soon after in 2014, he became the 12th president of Turkey, and that is when his rule of absolutism began, where he created many laws in favor of his political party (AKP). These laws have been used to subdue democratic oppositions and to centralize the supreme power of the newly elected president. As well as slowly removing checks and balances on the president’s power, and separation of powers.

Because of Erdogan’s authority over time, the country has become more conservative and less tolerant of diversity, feeling as if liberty and democracy are not as important anymore. The government of Turkey, now overrun by the AKP has banished and expelled thousands of political opponents opposing Erdogan, to ensure that he stays in office. Journalists, writers, activists, civil society groups have all been removed from their jobs, freeing up over one hundred thousand jobs in Turkey. After an attempt for a coup d’etat and a overthrow of the government to protect democracy from the president in 2016, it only resulted in Erdogan to enhance his powers and to justify law and order based on his own beliefs, creating unprecedented powers during a state of emergency. These examples convey that the Turkish government only continues to follow a trend of absolutism, where one ruler has full control over the government. This is a problem and a continuing trend, but not only seen in Turkey.

Romania’s government is also showing signs of a rising autocrat. One major reason as to why the Romanian government is in shambles is because it is under the influence of the Social Democratic Party, or otherwise known as PSD. The PSD rules the government in an absolutist manner, by constantly attacking the European Union, a political and economic union located primarily in Europe, and altering the rule of law. This political party is strongly against democrats and are very closed off to the public, as journalists and writers have often reported being attacked for investigating the government and the PSD. Party leader, Liviu Dragnea, has led his political party to corrupt, reform, and create new laws in order to favor the PSD. One example of this is how Dragnea and the PSD have been trying to change the law to offer greater protection for party members sentenced to jail or who were being investigated for corruption.

Introduction

Absolutism and democracy represent two distinct forms of governance that have shaped the course of history in different eras. Absolutism is characterized by centralized power in the hands of a single ruler, while democracy emphasizes the participation and representation of the people in decision-making. This essay aims to compare and contrast the key features, strengths, and weaknesses of absolutism and democracy, shedding light on their implications for individual rights, governance, and societal progress.

Thesis Statement

While absolutism concentrates power in the hands of a monarch, democracy distributes power among the people, allowing for representation, accountability, and the protection of individual rights.

Power and Decision-Making

Absolutism is characterized by the concentration of power in the hands of a single ruler, often a monarch, who exercises unchecked authority. The monarch possesses absolute control over legislation, governance, and decision-making, resulting in swift and decisive actions. In contrast, democracy distributes power among the people through elected representatives. Decision-making involves the participation of citizens, allowing for diverse perspectives and collective decision-making.

Individual Rights and Liberties

In absolutist systems, individual rights and liberties are often subordinated to the will of the ruler. The monarch’s authority may suppress dissent, limit freedom of speech, and curtail personal freedoms. Conversely, democracy places a strong emphasis on individual rights and liberties. Constitutions and legal frameworks safeguard citizens’ freedom of expression, assembly, and protection from arbitrary rule. Democracy fosters a system of checks and balances, ensuring that the government respects and upholds the rights of its citizens.

Governance and Accountability

Absolutism lacks the checks and balances that democracy provides. The ruler’s decisions are not subject to scrutiny or accountability, which can lead to corruption, abuse of power, and decisions that may not serve the best interests of the people. In contrast, democracy promotes transparency, accountability, and the rule of law. Elected representatives are accountable to their constituents, and mechanisms such as separation of powers and independent judiciary provide checks on executive authority.

Societal Progress and Stability

Absolutist regimes can provide stability and efficient governance, as decisions are made swiftly and without extensive debate or negotiation. However, this stability often comes at the expense of societal progress and innovation, as dissenting voices and alternative ideas are stifled. Democracy, on the other hand, encourages innovation, diversity of thought, and societal progress. The involvement of citizens in decision-making leads to more inclusive policies and greater responsiveness to societal needs.

Conclusion

The comparison and contrast between absolutism and democracy highlight the fundamental differences in power distribution, individual rights, governance, and societal progress. Absolutism concentrates power in the hands of a single ruler, limiting individual rights and potentially leading to unchecked authority. Democracy, on the other hand, distributes power among the people, prioritizing individual rights, accountability, and societal progress. While absolutism may provide stability and efficiency in governance, democracy offers a more inclusive and participatory system that safeguards individual freedoms and promotes societal advancement. The ongoing debate between these two ideologies continues to shape the political landscape and influence the aspirations of nations worldwide.

The topic of exploitative pricing has been a long-standing theme irrespective of the world situation. However, due to the recent Covid-19 pandemic, the controversy of excessive pricing on unforeseen circumstances has become a central debate again. According to OECD (2020), attributable to the coronavirus, the business environment has been subjected to instability resulting in the disruption of supply chains. The insufficient production and difficulties in product distribution, simultaneously, with increased demand, has led to shortages in certain products (ibid). As a result, price gouging occurred. Accordingly, this leads us to consider the notion of fairness, just and ethicality. In this way, the following essay will define exploitative pricing with a highlight on particular examples in the times of Covid-19. Subsequently, evaluating on the ethicality of price raising during a pandemic with the justification of various ethical theories.

As defined by Snyder (2009), exploitative price, also known as price gouging, refers to the sudden price increase for necessities after disasters. Using the case of Covid-19 as an example, a significant price rises can be observed in a number of essential products among the world. For instance, in most European and African countries, there is a sudden surge in sanitary products and protective equipment such as surgical masks, gloves and hand sanitizers (OECD, 2020). Besides, an overcharging price is also reviewed in the coronavirus tests and even funeral services. In order to minimize exploitative abuses, competition authorities have announced different actions as a response.

From the presented example, the first theory to be discussed is the ethical relativism. According to Frederick (1999), ethical relativism demonstrates the impossible existence of universalism. In other words, it articulates the difference in culture within countries as what is considered right and moral in one might be illegal and wrong in another. This theory can be applied to exemplify the difference in excessive pricing regulations among Europe and the US. With regard to the EU competition law, it is stated that irrespective of the circumstances, it is unfair and unmoral to impose unreasonable price on products (Giosa, 2020). However, in countries such as the US, Australia, Canada and Mexico, there exists no prohibition of excessive pricing (OECD, 2020). The phenomenon is simply a reflection of the outcome in a free-market system and is completely not unlawful. Hence, to determine whether price raising is ethical during a pandemic, ethical absolutism, which depicts a ‘whenever, whoever and wherever’ universal truth, might be an appropriate application (Frederick, 1999). This theory reviews a consistency when confronting the pandemic which is demonstrated by Cary et al. (2020) recognizing that sudden and significant price hikes should be investigated and prohibited despite this is an inevitable situation occurred with rapid soar in demand. The acknowledgement can be presented by the launch of actions to pursue price gouging and protect consumers’ welfare. In the US, there is a price gouging law which avoids excessive pricing for essential products during abnormal supply chain disruptions, whereas the European competition authorities have enforced a series of tasks forces such as temporary price controls on hygiene products and investigating overpricing of face masks among online platforms (OECD, 2020).

However, although the word ‘exploitative’ is denoted as an unethical behavior in its nature, one may argue that ethical absolutism does not explain whether the ethical view is morally justifiable. Nevertheless, while ethical absolutism summarizes an unethical behavior in exploitative pricing during pandemic, ethical relativism does not provide a clear ethical guideline in price gouging behavior under normal circumstances.

The topic of exploitative pricing has been a long-standing theme irrespective of the world situation. However, due to the recent Covid-19 pandemic, the controversy of excessive pricing on unforeseen circumstances has become a central debate again. According to OECD (2020), attributable to the coronavirus, the business environment has been subjected to instability resulting in the disruption of supply chains. The insufficient production and difficulties in product distribution, simultaneously, with increased demand, has led to shortages in certain products (ibid). As a result, price gouging occurred. Accordingly, this leads us to consider the notion of fairness, just and ethicality. In this way, the following essay will define exploitative pricing with a highlight on particular examples in the times of Covid-19. Subsequently, evaluating on the ethicality of price raising during a pandemic with the justification of various ethical theories.

As defined by Snyder (2009), exploitative price, also known as price gouging, refers to the sudden price increase for necessities after disasters. Using the case of Covid-19 as an example, a significant price rises can be observed in a number of essential products among the world. For instance, in most European and African countries, there is a sudden surge in sanitary products and protective equipment such as surgical masks, gloves and hand sanitizers (OECD, 2020). Besides, an overcharging price is also reviewed in the coronavirus tests and even funeral services. In order to minimize exploitative abuses, competition authorities have announced different actions as a response.

From the presented example, the first theory to be discussed is the ethical relativism. According to Frederick (1999), ethical relativism demonstrates the impossible existence of universalism. In other words, it articulates the difference in culture within countries as what is considered right and moral in one might be illegal and wrong in another. This theory can be applied to exemplify the difference in excessive pricing regulations among Europe and the US. With regard to the EU competition law, it is stated that irrespective of the circumstances, it is unfair and unmoral to impose unreasonable price on products (Giosa, 2020). However, in countries such as the US, Australia, Canada and Mexico, there exists no prohibition of excessive pricing (OECD, 2020). The phenomenon is simply a reflection of the outcome in a free-market system and is completely not unlawful. Hence, to determine whether price raising is ethical during a pandemic, ethical absolutism, which depicts a ‘whenever, whoever and wherever’ universal truth, might be an appropriate application (Frederick, 1999). This theory reviews a consistency when confronting the pandemic which is demonstrated by Cary et al. (2020) recognizing that sudden and significant price hikes should be investigated and prohibited despite this is an inevitable situation occurred with rapid soar in demand. The acknowledgement can be presented by the launch of actions to pursue price gouging and protect consumers’ welfare. In the US, there is a price gouging law which avoids excessive pricing for essential products during abnormal supply chain disruptions, whereas the European competition authorities have enforced a series of tasks forces such as temporary price controls on hygiene products and investigating overpricing of face masks among online platforms (OECD, 2020).

However, although the word ‘exploitative’ is denoted as an unethical behavior in its nature, one may argue that ethical absolutism does not explain whether the ethical view is morally justifiable. Nevertheless, while ethical absolutism summarizes an unethical behavior in exploitative pricing during pandemic, ethical relativism does not provide a clear ethical guideline in price gouging behavior under normal circumstances.

Both Louis XVI and Peter the Great were robust and influential leaders of their time. Louis XVI served as France’s last king between the years 1774 and 1992 in the era correspondent to the time of revolution in France. On the other hand, Peter the Great was a Russian emperor ruling between 1685 and 1725. As rulers, Louis and Peter were focused on achieving remarkable things, and as a result, the two had significant similarities in their goals, although their policies to achieve the goals also depicted some differences.

The leadership of both leaders can get regarded as autocratic, whereby they both perceived that decision making about their countries rested on them. Additionally, they were both interested in the expansion of their respective countries aiming to expand physically, acquire more land, and raise stronger armies to raise the prestige of their countries. In this regard, they both made considerable investments in such developments especially Versailles for Louis and St. Petersburg for Peter the Great. Therefore, as rulers, they took absolutism as a weapon of gaining power, although while Peter the Great mostly focused on making improvements on Russia to institute change, Louis XVI aimed at expanding the territories of France.

The nobility held incredible control in limiting both status and power in controlling the government and larger societies at both the reigns of Russian Peter the Great and France Louis XIV. As autocrats, they placed the nobles at distinct and separate positions from the community so that they could be able to watch happenings at a closer point. Also, their ideas on religion had a remarkable impact on the power and position of the nobility. Considering that the two had deep roots in the protestant faith, although it never gained positivity in the long run for Louis. The two rulers took numerous measures in subduing both their governments and nobility since they chose to despise them.

Self-sufficiency rose as an achievement to both Louis XVI and Peter the Great’s countries. The success was triggered by favorable outcomes in the cultural and economic trends facilitated by the absolute monarchs. For instance, Louis XVI utilized the incentives acquired from taxes and funds from the government to raise production rapidly. Besides, Peter the Great utilized the immense knowledge acquired about Europeans’ reforms, and successfully applied them to improve Russia (Platonova, 2009). As a result, he introduced a voyage school with improved education systems and St. Petersburg port, which had an outstanding convenience fr travels to the western region by sea.

Restriction of nobility powers bore consequences on both France and Russia. When the two rulers restricted these powers, Louis made efforts to make the aristocratic movement weak by exempting the aristocrats from the national assembly. On the other hand, by Peter the Great building the port, Moscow was able to settle within the capital. Moreover, Louis constructed a capital in Versailles for aristocrats to serve he princes as they depended on him exclusively, thus attaining more power (Mansel, 2019). Also, as aristocrats were used by Peter on his port, Louis made aristocracy inferior as it was already weak.

In a nutshell, both Peter the Great and Louis Xvi utilized absolutism significantly in their leadership. However, they used different methods of detaining nobility, but they both acquired self-sufficiency. Also, they employed diverse methods in making developments in their countries while utilizing absolute monarchy. It is thus evident that although absolutism took root in the two rulers, it was used for different aims and in diverse methods.