Category: 20th Century

Introduction

One of the greatest notorious groups during the 20th century were the Beatles because they revolutionized rock and rock as to how we know it today. Not only were they known to be talented musicians, but they also wrote and composed their own music. The Beatles proved to many out there that they were well liked and excited large mass of people at each of their public performances.

It all began in the city of Liverpool, England, with four lads which names are notorious in the history of music: Stuart Sutcliffe, Pete Best, John Lennon, and Paul McCartney. At some point throughout time George Harrison and Ringo Starr replaced Sutcliffe and Best. The band originated as a common British teenage rock band/group, but with time they worked their way to becoming one of the well-known and powerful groups in Rock history. The first hit of the Beatles initiated back in the country, Germany, which kept going on for around two years. Not long after that an individual who goes by the name ‘Epstein’, a store of records administrator, found them. During the time they were discovered, they were simply a rock band with no fame but later with time, they became the one of the main famous rock musicians in the history of rock music. For the rock group the drummer was Pete and the bass player, who was a friend of John’s, was Sutcliffe. This individual left the rock band behind because of love and later died of a brain hemorrhage. As a result, Ringo Starr replaced Pete Best as a drummer instead. However, the band was not happy with the drumming skills of Pete, so they found themselves in the need to get a new drummer. They mainly felt the skills of Best did not compile with the talents of the group. After coming across many debuts and searching for a deal that was adequate for them, the Beatles at last they acquired a spot in EMI records until the supervision of the producer, George Martin following by the management of Brian Epstein. From there their fame began to grow faster than a storm.

Initially the music was delivered in the United States, but it did not catch the attention of people at the time. People were not interested in their music how they had imagined so it was unsuccessful. It was not until they released their second American single that they started to get noticed by the population. The song that began to rise their popularity was ‘I Wanna Hold Your Hand’. Because of this song, they were able to land a spot in a show, which as a result set off the beginning of ‘American Beatlemania’ during the year of 1964. After the introduction of the Beatles out in TV due to their appearance on live, the group’s fame increased tremendously all around the world.

The Beatles like mentioned primer were one of the greatest bands to exist throughout the course of history. Based off their experience as a rock group, they thought it was smart to help others achieve their music careers or dreams as well. Once they gained the fame they dreamt of, they began to help young individuals, performers and artists, so as a result they built their own record company known as Apple Records.

Just like any band out there, the Beatles had their own set of problems. Just like the saying states all good things must come to an end. The Beatles had six years full of successes and achievements, however at some point during their music career things began to take a toll and go downhill. At some point during their conflicts, they decided it was preferable to disband. The disbandment of the rock group led many people to be sad by the news. The first member of the group to leave the group was John and then followed by Paul. Every one of the four members of the top-notch rock group made their own records and sold many of their solo collections, yet none of them ever recaptured the popularity they once had when they were together as a group.

The notorious rock band group for the Beatles play a crucial role in the history of the world and shaped in one way or another. These individuals brought the affection for English rock and roll music to the American population and many more British groups followed and became famous as well. The period of time in history is known as ‘The British Invasion’. An interesting fact about the Beatles is that during the time they were famous the Vietnam War was taking place in the other side of the country, so they used the lyrics in their music in order to express social, spiritual and political views and beliefs. Their music brought a whole generation together and that became an impactful moment in history. As a result, the music caused individuals to change their style of dressing, even to the point where they changed how they looked or how they felt about one another. At the end of the day, that is what they music was all about, creating a change to humanity and making it a better society.

Even till this day, the Beatles are a legendary group who continue to influence the world. For instance, the passing of John Lennon not only showed individuals but also taught that how significant life is, and how individuals have unexpected ways of thinking about situations. Their music influenced famous individuals such as: Queen of England, future musicians, teenagers as well as their parents. As for the remaining members of the Beatles, would still write music and perform their music live and are some of the most respected people in the music industry.

Just listen, to people talk about these individuals as you will see forever that they are still be mentioned with great honor. The band was composed of three guitarists, of singers, songwriters, however they did not have someone who could work with the bass nor drums. All four of these individuals attend the same school called Quarry Bank Grammar School. The school was situated in the city of Liverpool, England. After having tryouts to see who the potential new member of the band could be, they settled with have Pete Best as a drummer. Sutcliffe was recruited to play the bass, and even though he was a talented individual who had the soul of an artist and met John during middle school, he hardly knew how to play the instrument. Originally, when the band started, they did not have a name for themselves and their main inspiration was Buddy Holly following by the Crickets. The band was once known as Black Jacks and then they decided to change the name to ‘The Quarrymen’. They called the group that because they wanted to represent their school. When they were going by this name, the group consisted of Pete Shotton, Eric Griffiths, Rod Davis, John Lennon, Colin Hanton and Bill Smith. It was John, who created the name for the group and that is where the birth of the Beatles came to be. He stated that the name became to be because of the word ‘crickets’ which meant two things. From the Crickets he went to the Beatles because when people said the word they would think of crawly things and that the music had some form of beat that give people this type of amusing vibe.

During the year of 1963 ended up being the year in which the start of the Beatles took place with the arrival of their hit ‘Please Me’. This hit blew the charts in Britain during the beginning of 1963 and it lasted for around 30 weeks roughly. The Beatles kept evolving their rock music as time progressed by adding their own extraordinary style and consistently attempting to try new ideas and adding new flares to make their music more amusing to the public. Each of the albums they produced and worked on demonstrated their progress as artists. They wanted to please the public by making music that was appealing to difference races, genders, and generations.

Beatlemania broke out of its barrier in Britain during the year of 1963 following the release of the notorious songs that the name referred to the person wanting to hold a hand and the girl loving someone. Every song sold more than a million copies. As for what is known as the ‘British evasion’, it began to take place late in the year of 1963 after Capitol Records released the song that was called ‘I Want to Hold Your Arm’. In such a short period of time, the song blew the charts at begin among the top songs in the U.S. The song was a big hit in the States in other words. Many people say that Beatlemania officially started when the Beatles made their first appearance in a show in the year 1964. Once they made their appearance in the Sullivan show, it did not take long for their popularity to soar across the United States along with the best-selling singles and albums.

The strength the music industry gad was unparalleled by any artist at the time and even until this today it still is.

In the twentieth century, the Old Continent was marked by the effects that the First and Second Global Wars had brought on it. Poverty, destruction, technological and cultural backwardness were concepts which hit the mind of Europeans who believed in America as a chance to improve the quality of their lives and the lives of their families: “Europe was rotten and stinking. In America a fellow can get ahead. Birth don´t matter, education don´t matter. It’s all getting ahead” (Dos Passos, 1925: 21). As a result of that, the emigration from Europe to America generated a lot of changes in the concept of city as it had been known before. Dos Passos in ‘Manhattan Thansfer’ (1925) shows how the new cities were featured and helps the reader to understand and get and image about them.

The most direct consequence of the emigration from Europe to America was the increase of population in the cities, as Dos Passos expressed in some fragments of ‘Manhattan Thansfer’ (1925): “Men and women press through the manuresmelling wooden tunnel of the ferry-house, crushed and jostling like apples fed down a chute into a press” (Dos Passos, 1925: 3), or in “The world´s second metropolis…And dad wanted me to stay in his ole fool store in Onteora” (Dos Passos, 1925: 12). The crowd of people who lived in cities had a lot of necessities, and cities had to be modified to satisfy them. New and cheaper materials were used, such as, concrete or bricks, to build edifices with more capacity: “It was a narrowwindowed sixtory tenement” (Dos Passos, 1925: 13). The huge demand of space to build was resourceful and media class citizens began to obtain benefits of the inversion in lots, seeing it as a way of life: “…opportunity knocks but once on a young man´s door. In six months I can virtually guarantee that these lots will have doubled in value” (Dos Passos, 1925: 15).

Furthermore, new means of transports began to gain importance in that period in American cities, and then in the rest of Europe, “An L train was rumbling past the end of the street” (Dos Passos, 1925:13). Additionally, it was a moment in which America experiment a huge development of the technologies and a lot of inventions appeared to make easier humans lives. It was the beginning of an unstoppable process which still nowadays continues. This is reflected in the fragment: “We are caught up Mr. Perry on a great wave whether we will or no, a great wave of expansion and progress. A great deal is going to happened in the next few years. All these mechanical inventions-telephones, electricity, steel bridges, horseless vehicles – they are all leading somewhere” (Dos Passos, 1925: 15).

However, not all were advantages in the city, the increase of people was directly related to the worsening of the hygienic conditions: “Three gulls wheel above the broken boxes, orange rids, spoiled cabbage heads that heave between the splintered plank walls , the green waves spume under the round bow as the ferry” (Dos Passos, 1925: 3), “Bud walked down Broadway, past empty lost where tin cans glittered among grass and sumach bushes and ragweed, between ranks of billboards” (Dos Passos, 1925:23), or in the extract “…West Side, where there was a smell of stables and the sidewalks were littered with scraps of garbage and crawling children” (Dos Passos, 1925:51).

Despite that, the cities began to enrich of the diversities of cultures and ethnicities which Immigration had given to it. In the first pages of the book, we could see a lot of people who belonged to different nationalities, “He´s an Italian. His wife´s in that building” (Dos Passos, 1925:14), or “He could see beyond the stripped sheet littered with sandy hair the bobbing hammerhead of the colored boy shining his shoes” (Dos Passos, 1925: 16), and how the author used the resource of the dialogue to make the reader participant of the air filled of the exchange of languages that was characterizing the cities in that moment: “J´te dis mon vieux, moi j´fou l´camp à New York…” (Dos Passos 1925: 20) or “Congradulade me, congradulade me; mein vife has giben birth a poy” (Dos Passos 1925: 8). The majority of times, those ‘new citizens’ tried to obtained the American nationality, because it was a good way to start the ‘American dream’, “You want to make yourself an American citizen? Why not?” (Dos Passos 1925:20) and to being hired “I´m going to get a job and work” (Dos Passos 1925: 20), because that would symbolize the equality between them and the rest of Americans. Nevertheless, there was a feeling of xenophobia and racism in some sectors of the society of the cities, as it is reflected in the fragment “He´d thought we were Jews and wouldn´t have rented us the apartment” (Dos Passos 1925: 42), “New York is no longer what it used to be when Emily and I first moved […]In ten years a Christian won´t be able to make a living” (Dos Passos 1925:101) or “After all we built up this country and then we allow a lot of foreigners, the scum of Europe , the offscourings of Polish ghettos to come and run it for us”(Dos Passos 1925:102).

New York and America as extension began to open to the rest of the world. It was a process called globalization, and it is reflected in the text in different aspects such as the importance that advertisements and slogans were gaining in the daily life and the way in which it incited people to acquire and test the products. The most illustrative example of that is the moment when Mr. Thatcher stared at a face in a green advertising card, and finally he bought the shaver which was announced on the advertisement. Furthermore, Dos Passos employs a few lines in the book trying to depict with a lot of details the consumerist desire which invaded Mr. Thatcher in that scene, he wanted to be successful as the man in the advert: “It was a highbrowed cleanshaven distinguished face with arched eyebrows and a bushy neatly trimmed mustache, the face of a man who had money in the bank, poised prosperously above a crisp wing collar and an ample dark cravat” (Dos Passos, 1925, 11). This was joined to the importance that personal image was obtaining in this period, because people began to take care of their external image and it was relevant in different aspect of city life, such as applying for a job: “…You go an git a shave and a haircut and brush the hayseed out o yet suit a bit before you start lookin” (Dos Passos 1925, 5).

Another aspect about the city which we should have in consideration is the growth of new ideas and concepts. Women began to be concerned about the capacity which they had of breaking the role that society had gave them, taking care of the children and trying to be the perfect wife, whose most relevant aim was satisfied his husband and children. Dos Passos in ‘Manhattan Transfer’ develops this idea in a dialogue between a mother and her daughter, in which the mother reflected the traditional concept of wife and the daughter showed the individualist term of wife, a woman could live without being dependent of a male figure. The mother told to her daughter: “But Rosie, married life ain’t all beer and skittles. A wife must submit and work for her husband” (Dos Passos 1925, 22). And Rossie, the daughter, replied: “I won’t. I can’t help it. I won’t go back to the dirty brute” (Dos Passos 1925, 22). Furthermore, a male voice represents the same concept about women in page nine: “I´d like my girl to be a quiet home girl, not like these young women nowadays, all frills and furbelows and tight lacings” (Dos Passos 1925, 9).

Following that trend of new ideas, we reach to position of God in humans’ lives. It had been the pillar of human faith. But in the twentieth Century that image had been replaced by the power of money, “The day that we stop believing in money and property it will be like a dream and we will be like a dream” (Dos Passos 1925, 38), and more explicitly in the lines “It´s all the same, in France you are paid badly and live well; here you are paid well and live badly” (Dos Passos 1925, 36). This fragment shows how money was more important than a good live quality, so he decided to go to America to enrich. In the same way, different kinds of faith began to coexist with Christianity, the main religion which had characterized the previous centuries in Europe and was brought to America when the first Europeans came to the ´New World´: “‘What, did you say Bob Ingersoll had been struck by lighting?’, cried Olga shrilly. ‘Serve him right the horrid atheist’. ‘No not exactly, but it was scared him into a realization of the important things of life and now he´s joined the Methodist church’” (Dos Passos, 1925, 31).

To sum up, this novel created by John Dos Passos in 1925 has been able to capture the new concept of cities that appeared in the twentieth century. The author reflects the anxieties of the population, their dreams and how they turned off the majority of the times. The hope of a better life, in a new continent, which is frustrated by the ineffective job search and feelings like xenophobia which began to rise in some citizens minds. Dos Passos, is very successful trying to be a kind of photographer of the city life of the moment. He uses a lot of details to make the readers understand how the new technologies, kind of transports, different ideas and ways of thinking were adapted to the heterogeneous image that immigration had created in cities. Furthermore, he employs dialogues in a lot of languages to make the reader participant of the situation that marked daily life in cities, even he depicted the image of the streets, the flats, the lots, which are the background of the story which is being told.

Music is seen and heard anywhere and everywhere in the world. It is rooted deep into cultures, families, online, and even at peoples very own fingertips. For some, music has even made its way into their careers. In 2019, there have been more upcoming artists than ever before and the one thing they all have in common, is generating a profit and a following. The essay ‘Making Cents’ by Damon Krukowski was successful because of his explanation of how upcoming artists are treated as well as how big companies deal with money. Throughout music’s many ups and downs in history, it’s created quite a controversy with big businesses like Pandora and small artists like Damon Krukowski himself.

Often times in a music artists’ life, they work countless hours devoting their lives to create a piece of work for other listeners to enjoy. This is true for all artists in the past and present, though now in the present-day times have changed. The author Damon Krukowski touches down on the topic of how artists are treated now versus how they were treated in the past. Back then, all that was needed for an artist to generate a profit off their work was just to price it higher than it cost to make and they were able to make a bigger earning. Nowadays, the tool of streaming is widely popular and is the main way a music artist puts their work into the world. But the issue with this new use of streaming, is that the big companies do not treat the artists with the respect they deserve. “Pandora in fact considers this additional musicians’ royalty an extraordinary financial burden…” (Krukowski, 173). It’s simply easy to agree with what the author has to say because big companies such as Pandora and Spotify they make it extremely difficult for an upcoming musician to make anything back after they spent a long amount of time making a piece.

It is no secret that many companies in the modern-day society can deal with money in a multitude of ways. But it has been discovered in the music industry just how corrupt it can truly be. Kutkowski explains how difficult it is for a musician to gain a profit, as well how hard it is for a company such a Pandora or Spotify to keep themselves afloat so they don’t go bankrupt. It’s been told that for every sale made approximately 21 cents from Pandora and 35 cents from Spotify after thousands of streams. These two companies solely rely on capital. They want to attract more and more everyday listeners to use their radios to keep a steady rate or growth because they barely generate their own profit. “Our focus is all on growth. That is priority one, two, three, four, and five” (Krukowski, 175). This shows just how problematic yet successful these streaming companies are because although they cannot financially support an upcoming music artist, they help project their music out into the world for everyone to listen to an enjoy.

The music industry changes constantly with time. There are so many artists that have had to live with the repercussions as well as the advantages that the evolution that the industry brings. One of the biggest changes in the industry was the change between CDs and vinyl to the new modern-day use of online technology and all the streaming apps it has brought. This change has been both positive and negative, though both in two different and drastic ways. For artists themselves, they took a bit of hit on trying to make a living off their work as their profit isn’t as much on streaming devices as it was with the distribution of CDs. Krutkowski touches on this topic explaining how different it has become. “…the music industry seems to have done everything it could to screw up that simple model of exchange; today it is no longer possible for most of us to earn even a modest wage through our recordings” (Krutkowski, 172). Without the act of people going into a store and picking out their favorite song on record, artists have started losing their profit and began a never-ending competition with the streaming devices like Spotify and Pandora. Money has single handedly created the base of most artists lives, as their only way to gain money is if their work sells.

The use of big music streaming businesses isn’t always negative, though. They have created a way for people to easily find and stream artists from all levels of skill, whether they may be big or small. With the touch of a few buttons, anyone can begin listening to music by whomever they desire. While the artist may not be generating a large profit or even a profit at all, they gain exposure from hundreds of thousands of listeners from all around the world. “As for sharing our music without a business model of any kind, that’s exactly how I got into this— we called it punk rock. Which is why we are streaming all of our recordings completely free” (Krukowski, 175). The author explained how even though they do not gain any profit for having their work posted on streaming devices, they still have the capability to expand who is able to listen to their music. Making money isn’t always going to be the soulful purpose of a music artists music, rather that they have loyal fans who genuinely want to stream and listen to their hard work.

In conclusion, the music industry is never guaranteed to always be 50/50. It has been made clear that no matter the artist and no matter the company, there are going to be differences between the two. Artists are going to have to look in other places to create a profit rather than solely on their number of streams on big companies like Spotify and Pandora. Krutkowski provided many examples just how corrupt these companies can be with how far money can go, but that doesn’t stop the love and passion each music influencer has. The biggest payoff for the artists is that they have a new platform to share their work worldwide and gain a new perspective on just how easy it is to make a change in a stranger’s life with their work. Music is woven into everyone’s life, and having a streaming device available 24/7 to listen to is absolutely extraordinary. At the end of the day, as long as the artists know they are able to have their music that they spent endless hours on, they are perfectly content.

There were many rapid changes in America in the 20th century, some of which shaped entire generations. One of the major historical events that had a significant impact on how Americans redefined themselves during that century is the Civil Rights Movement. Minorities, specifically black Americans, had always been kept inferior. This movement reinvented the way they were seen as a result of them actively fighting for their equal rights; which created a foundation for the next generation. The Civil Rights Movement was the most influential movement in the 20th century because Americans redefined themselves politically and educationally by transforming race relations which created equality, diversity, and racial integration.

‘Brown v. Board of Education’ contributed to the Civil Rights Movement by introducing the privilege of an education. “Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment” (U.S. Supreme Court, paragraph 5). This shows how Americans redefined themselves educationally by transforming race relations.

‘Theme for English B’ is related to the Civil Rights Movement because the author shows his views connecting the two cultures together. “I guess being colored doesn’t make me not like/ the same thing other folks like who are other races” (Hughes, lines 25- 26). “Yet a part of me, as I am a part of you./ That’s American” (Hughes, lines 32- 33). This shows how Americans redefined themselves by transforming race relations including equality and diversity.

The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom aimed to draw attention to continuing challenges and inequalities faced by African Americans a century after emancipation. “In 1963, in the wake of violent attacks on civil rights demonstrators in Birmingham, Alabama, momentum built for another mass protest on the nation’s capital” (History, 7). “With Randolph planning a march for jobs, and King and his Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) planning one for freedom, the two groups decided to merge their efforts into one mass protest” (History, 8). This text evidence supports my claim by showing how the movement reinvented the way African Americans were seen as a result of them actively fighting for their equal rights, which created a foundation for the next generation.

And finally, the Montgomery Bus Boycott. On June 5, 1956, a Montgomery federal court ruled that any law requiring racially segregated seating on buses violated the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Integration, however, met with significant resistance and even violence. “While the buses themselves were integrated, Montgomery maintained segregated bus stops. Snipers began firing into buses, and one shooter shattered both legs of a pregnant African American passenger. In January 1957, four black churches and the homes of prominent black leaders were bombed; a bomb at King’s house was defused” (History, 16-17). This text evidence supports the opposing side’s claim by giving examples of the violence that took place after the boycott, which represents the negative effects of the movement. The Montgomery Bus Boycott prospered far beyond the integrating of public buses. It inspired activism and participation in the national Civil Rights Movement. “The Montgomery Bus Boycott was significant on several fronts. First, it is widely regarded as the earliest mass protest on behalf of civil rights in the United States, setting the stage for additional large-scale actions outside the court system to bring about fair treatment for African Americans” (History, 18). “The boycott also brought national and international attention to the civil rights struggles occurring in the United States, as more than 100 reporters visited Montgomery during the boycott to profile the effort and its leaders” (History, 21). This text evidence supports my rebuttal to the opposing side’s claim by showing the positive effects of the movement that go beyond integration.

The Civil Rights Movement, the most influential movement in the 20th century, helped break racial barriers which helped America as a whole. Also, the movement helped future generations have the privilege of equality.

The United Nations came into existence as a result of the worst war known to man, World War II. Around 85 million people died during the course of World War II. That is nearly 3% of the 1940 world population. The creation of the United Nations was an American-led effort to replace the failed League of Nations. Even the name, ‘United Nations’, was first suggested by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, along with several other major combat nations agreed there was a need for a world organization to keep peace in future years. These founders of the United Nations had a clear vision of its roles as a facilitator of cooperative action among sovereign nations to prevent more global conflict. In 1945, 50 nations met in San Francisco, completing the Charter of the United Nations. The preamble to the United Nations Charter states, “We the peoples of the United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetimes has brought sorrow to mankind”, reinvigorates the ideals of cooperation and peace. The founders of the United Nations had more hopes than to solely prevent war. The United Nations was meant to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination, as well as achieving international cooperation in solving international problems. These problems could be economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian. To accommodate all these ideals the United Nations must be more than one group. The most powerful organization in the United Nations is the Security Council. The Security Council is a permanent council in the United Nations with the primary goal of maintaining peace and security. Consequently, the Security Council has the power to deploy troops from United Nations member countries, as well as place economic penalties on countries. The United Nations also include well known organizations such as the World Trade Organization and North Atlantic Treaty Organization, as well as small organizations such as the International Seed Testing Association and International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The extensive list of organizations and groups contributing to the idea of a united group of sovereign nations shows the support placed behind the United Nations. The United Nations had an impact on history, and the world would be very different today without it, however they didn’t succeed in their goals. Today we have seen the United Nations fail in their efforts to prevent ‘the scourge of war’, ‘achieve friendly relations’, and ‘become the center for harmonizing the actions of nations’.

The United Nations had 60 members in 1950. They now count 193 members among their ranks. The goal has always stayed the same, to create a just and prosperous world through common action. This could hardly be simpler, yet after half a century we still live amid global insecurity and, in many places, injustice and suffering. The United Nations continues with no reform and an ever-increasing budget. Reform has been on the table ever since the United Nations founding in 1945, however it has yet to occur. This is due to the inflexibility and strong beliefs of many members, specifically in the Security Council. Many developing countries are underrepresented in the Security Council. Latin America and Africa have never experienced a permanent membership in the Security Council. Five states were also granted permanent membership in the Security Council due to their actions in ending World War II. These five nuclear powers: France, Russia, the United States, China, and the United Kingdom’s, are often called the ‘nuclear club’, and are left unchecked, leading to the failure of full worldwide representation. The United Nations peacekeeping budget in 1984 was 141 million dollars for 5 missions and about 1,200 personnel. Today the UN’s Department of Peacekeeping Operations directs and supports 18 current peace operators involving 12,000 personnel and an annual budget of more than 7 billion dollars. Despite this, the past 60 years have seen the United Nations struggle to meet expectations. There have been hundreds of wars since the founding in 1945, resulting in millions of deaths. The United Nations, despite their unity and backing, have only authorized force in the face of aggression twice. In 1950 after North Korea’s invasion of South Korea, where it was declared that North Korea’s actions were a breach of peace, and asked for U.N. members to aid South Korea. As a result, 41 countries sent equipment or provisions, and 16 sent troops, with the United States sending 90% of the total troops to South Korea. The other instance was Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1991. Kuwait contains about 20% of the world’s oil reserves, which nearly every country heavily relies upon. The U.N. demanded the withdrawal of Kuwait’s forces and denounced the invasion. The United Nations, first and foremost, would prefer to solve problems peacefully and without force. They have been successful, however, in conducting peacekeeping operations in dozens of countries through their Security Council. Such as the U.N.’s operation in Mozambique in 1992, where the operation aided in securing a lasting peace following a civil war between their government and a resistance due to the region’s chronic poverty. Shortly after, the United Nations aided Tajikistan in monitoring a peace agreement during and after a civil war, as well as aiding their ability to withstand natural disasters their region is prone to. A few achievements don’t outweigh the many failures the United Nations has experienced when attempting to resolve conflicts. An extreme example of this would be one of the most notorious modern genocides, the Rwandan genocide. The U.N. has stated they are still ashamed of their failure in this matter. The U.N. struggled with poor leadership and management, as well as a selfish corruption fearing an operation that could potentially damage future peacekeeping. This genocide totaled over one million deaths after the United Nations lack of involvement, and failure to even provide equipment to African countries who had promised soldiers.

The United Nations has also shown their struggle to ‘achieve friendly relations’. The U.N. is meant to be a center to develop friendly relations among nations based upon the equal rights of peoples. From those with disabilities, to minorities, to women, and to children, the United Nations promotes the respect for human rights. This pushed the creation of a body of international human rights law, which contains 10 human rights treaty bodies. These bodies monitor the creation and implementation of any human rights laws or treaties. These bodies and the U.N. have failed, however, to protect thousands of people such as women, those displaced by war, and immigrants. In states of emergency that required immediate action, the U.N. is known to struggle in sending relief and forces. This spurred the creation of the UNEF, or United Nations Emergency Force. The Suez Crisis marked the first use of the UNEF in 1956. The Suez Crisis was caused by Britain and France’s invasion of Egypt to gain control over the Suez Canal. The United Nations providing an international presence in the canal, and Britain and France experiencing pressure from the U.S. and U.S.S.R., caused their retreat after many casualties and damage to Egyptian war making potential. The Suez Crisis was a complete disaster, but marked the beginning of the UNEF. The UNEF wasn’t without its problems. The United Nations struggled with the budget for expeditionary forces. The only way to pay for these was through voluntary assessments, which small powers weren’t always able to pay. This caused the small powers to send the majority of the troops while the greater powers sent little to no troops, but paid the costs of the UNEF. Even with the UNEF, however, the United Nations was completely useless in peacekeeping during the Cold War. The Cold War stretched from 1945 to 1991, creating a global economic, cultural, and ideological battle between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The United Nations became a battleground for Western powers, against communism, and communist powers led by the Soviet Union. Security council members are given the power to veto UN actions. The use of this caused much of the U.N. to fail, with no way of taking any action. Peacekeeping operations were impossible, unless there was a unanimous vote from the security council, and the entire organization was frozen. The U.N. was based on complete impartiality and couldn’t take a side in the conflict. After the Cold War ended the landscape of the United Nations was radically altered. Both the U.S. and the Soviet Union agreed to pay any financial debts they had to the U.N. The United Nations was also accepted and realized by the U.S., and other countries, as an opportunity to maintain national status, and international cooperation over violence. With the Soviet threat gone, the alliance between the U.S. and the Western world weakened. New ambitions and tasks emerged under the mistaken belief its inadequacies were a reflection of the Cold War. Smaller, developing countries began to band together and make the U.N. more efficient to their necessities. They used their numerical advantage to focus on their priorities, while overlooking the option to reform the U.N. in order to make it more effective. The Cold War demonstrated a situation where the United Nations was helpless in solving a worldwide problem.

After World War II the United Nations was founded. Led by the USA and many other major powers in the world, an organization meant to help keep the peace and gain positive foreign relations was created. An organization meant to prevent the future generations of the world from experiencing the ‘scourge of war’, too many had been forced to live through already. Throughout the late 20th century, the United Nations achieved many accomplishments in aiding foreign relief and peacekeeping between nations. This is present in countries such as Mozambique and Tajikistan. The United Nations Emergency Force was also created in order to aid in the United Nations response to emergency situations. This group was demonstrated in their first deployment during the Suez Crisis, and were major contributors to the end of the invasion. Despite this the United Nations has failed to ‘prevent the scourge of war’, which is apparent in the millions of lives lost during the Rwandan genocide. The goal to ‘achieve friendly relations’ among nations was backed by the ideals of equal human rights. This was pushed by a body of international human rights law. They have failed however, to protect the minorities they were created to assist many times. One of the greatest failures of the United Nations is the Cold War. The United Nations was split between the anti-communist and communist regime. With no way to begin a peacekeeping operation due to the necessary neutrality of the U.N., both parties were left unchecked, and the United Nations turned into a battleground between parties for years. The United Nations experienced many successful peacekeeping operations and relief efforts, however they have failed many operations and allowed millions of lives to be lost, minorities to suffer, and relations among countries to fail.

African American women authors have become dominant forces in creating and contributing to the larger tradition after many decades of being virtually silenced by outright neglect from publishers who considered them irrelevant. As with so much literature by and about women, that silence has been broken, giving voice to the infinite complexities of African American women’s lives, including women’s role as leaders, creators of culture, mothers, and lovers, among many others.

-Dickson- Carr

The twentieth century has proved to be a period of intense literary activity for African-American women writers. African American women writers such as Zora Neale Hurston, Ann Petry, Paule Marshall, Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, Gloria Naylor, and many others have created a deep impact on African-American writing. These writers are known for their self-expression. They work for canonical status. While doing so, these writers write not only about themselves but also for the sake of African-American women. Mary Helen Washington observes African-American women in the following manner:

When I think of how essentially alone black women have been—alone because of our bodies, over which we have had so little control; alone because the damage done to our men has prevented their closeness and protection; and alone because we have had no one to tell us stories about ourselves; I realize that black women writers are an important and comforting presence in my life. Only they know my story. It is absolutely necessary that they be permitted to discover and interpret the entire range and spectrum of the experience of black women and not be stymied by preconceived conclusions. Because of these writers, there are more models of how it is possible for us to live, there are more choices for black women to make, and there is a larger space in the universe for us. (p.9-21)

African-American writers work undoubtedly to project their struggle, growth, and accomplishment through fiction, non-fiction, poetry, stories, essays, and autobiographies. Also, these writers express themselves truly with their minds of creativity. According to Traylor:

It explores first the interiority of an in-the-head, the heart, the gut region of a discovery called the self. It tests the desires, the longings, the aspirations of this discovered self with and against its possibilities for respect, growth, fulfillment, and accomplishments. (p.71)

The hallmark of African-American writers can be seen when they give the readers powerful insights into issues such as race, gender, and class. At this point, it is apt to quote Margaret Walker, who says:

It is necessary as always when approaching Afro-American literature in any form-poetry, prose, fiction, or drama-to give a background of the socio-economics’ and political forces and the historical context before proceeding to literary analysis or synthesis. Then we will have the necessary tools with which to examine the strange phenomena found in American and Afro-American literature. (p .02)

While writing African-American women writers try to bring their unhappy past. In fact, the predecessors had been brought to America from Africa as slaves. As a result, African-American men and women were tortured, brutalized, oppressed, and exploited beyond imagination in America. So African men, women, and children have been ‘robbed of their humanity’. Especially, African-American women in America have been the worst sufferers, when they lose their respect, dignity, and identity. The violence at the hands of the white master has been very severe coupled with sexual harassment. The raping of these women by white masters adds to their woos. This scenario is observed by Harihar Kulkarni when he puts it in the following manner:

The brutal treatment that black women received during slavery invariably left profound scars on their psyche. Their physical bondage ultimately turned into psychological bondage, causing mutation and mutilations of their world. The external forces operating at the socio-economic levels came to bear an unmistakable relationship to the internal fears, worries, anxieties, and feelings of inadequacy and frustration. The poisonous fangs of slavery manifested themselves in innumerable ways and finally determined the behavioral pattern of black women. (p.59)

The slavery system of the American on African women has a bad effect on them, which has an impact on their psyche also. Based on this, HariharKulkarni further writes:

“ The peculiar institution that exploited black women for productive and reproductive ends viewed them not as human beings, but as mere objects. The black woman was not a person, but a thing-a thing whose personality had no claim to basic human dignity. She was a household drudge, a means of getting distasteful work done. She was an animated agricultural implement to augment the services of mules and plows in cultivating and harvesting cane and cotton crops. Then she was a breeding machine, a producer of human livestock, and potential laborers, who on being bred and brought up, would be lynched, flogged, branded, and even murdered at the will and pleasure of the master. (p.57)

One of the most important themes in twentieth-century African-American women‘s literature is that of growing up black and female. Major women writers have delved deep into this issue. For example, Toni Morrison in The Bluest Eyes, Maya Angelou in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Louise Meri Whether in Daddy Was a Number Runner, Paule Marshall in Brown Girl, Brownstones, and many other works all deal with the experiences of a black girl growing up in a hostile environment. These writers show how African American girls develop a self-resilient spirit in order to cope with the adverse external environment.

Color theme is another important theme that can be found in the works of twentieth-century African American women writers. Wishful thinking about white beauty can be found in many major works of these writers. Mary Helen Washington comments:

“If the stories of these writers are to be believed then the color/hair problem has cut deep into the psyche of the black woman. It is that particular aspect of oppression that has affected, for the most part, only women. I could not find a single piece of fiction written by a black male in which he feels ugly or rejected because of the shade of his skin or the texture of his hair. In contrast, the color almost always plays at least a peripheral role more often a significant one in the lives of the women characters created by women writers. (xvii)

By delving deep into the psyche of a black woman as well as out of their own personal experience, these writers have created one of the most poignant characters and stories in American literature. For example, Pecola in Toni Morrison‘s The Bluest Eye wishes for blue eyes as a way to redeem herself. Similarly, the character Mary Ginia Washington in Gwen Brook‘s Maud Martha, emphasizes that black women seem to be offended by their black color. Maya Angelou in her autobiography, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, divulges her childhood fantasy of being a blonde and a white. Thus, the parameters of beauty as defined by white American society have scarred the psyche and souls of black women, which is often reflected in their works.

The twentieth-century African-American women writers have broken new grounds, created new literary canons, and paved the way for twenty-first-century writers. Today young and dynamic writers, are creating a new upsurge in the literary world. Who are in one way or the other most indebted to these twentieth-century African-American women writers, it would be apt to quote Dana E. Williams who writes about these phenomenal African American women writers:

“Clearly, even as contemporary African American women authors Write to distinguish themselves, they also inevitably enhance the grand tradition of American letters. And they do so by telling their multifaceted stories…What we find in contemporary African American women writers are many ‘black girls’ singing their own songs, and they sing them bravely, boldly, and remarkably”. (p.85)

Amidst silent suffering, African-American women have been haunted by the thought of their self-respect and self-identity. For African American women, racism, sexism, and classism, the triple oppression, have their celerity on them by atrophying their spirit. Maya Angelou, a Womanist, highlights the plight of African American women in the following lines. She says:

“African American women caught in the tripartite crossfire of masculine prejudice, white illogical hate and Black lack of power” (p.65).

The ignominious African –American women face racism from white masters, and gender discrimination by the white, and these have placed them at the point of nadir in society. Gloria Wade Gayleshas brought out the nonplussed existence of African –American women in the following manner:

“America is an oppressive system that divides people into groups on the basis of their race, sex, and class, creating a society in which a few have capital and reality in American society, which reflect degrees of power and powerlessness. There is a large circle in which white people, most of them men, experience, influence, and people regardless of sex, experience uncertainty exploitation, and powerlessness. Hidden in this second circle is a third, a small, dark enclosure in which black women experience pain, isolation, and vulnerability”. (p.3-4)

The oppression of white masters on African –American women has put them on the brink of exploitation, which deteriorates them to the level of ill-will. In spite of this, African and American women tend to be confident. Patricia Collins highlights this when she says:

“Women‘s existence is structured along three interdependent dimensions which all operate through oppression-economy, polity, and ideology. Society has often used the economy as a means to force black women into all-consuming activity so that they have almost no or very few opportunities to do any kind of intellectual work. Similarly, through the dimension of polity, black women have often been excluded from rights and privileges which are readily available to male citizens. Finally, ideology represents the process by which black women have often been associated with certain qualities and it is used to justify the ongoing oppression (p.6-7).

In American society, African-American women have been impaired by disempowerment and disenfranchisement. Along with these, racism is the most powerful oppression they face also. The triple disadvantage has put them as slaves and this continues till today. The color of African –American women has brought them to a level of degradation. In this context Sidney. Mints write:

“The word ‘slave’ still brings the visual image of blackness to North American minds. This association of forced labor and degradation with peoples of a particular physical type is a powerful symbol of the extent to which social perceptions are historically conditioned. (p.34)

The historical records of America show that the African-American has been emancipated after the commencement of the thirteenth amendment during the Civil War. In spite of this enactment, sexism and racism still continue in American society. These social disadvantages have put African American women as invisible beings. African American women are branded as ‘black pictures, and ‘niggers’. This theory shows that in a racist society, African- American women have become an ‘epitome of abhorrence and detestation’, and contrary to this white women have become a symbol of purity. This mongrel idea is observed by Thomas S. Szase in the following manner: ‘Americans have used this blackness and madness as their standards and transcendent symbols of evil, and whiteness and sanity as their standards and transcendent symbols of good'(p.68).

Further, the subjugated existence of African –American women, due to their color and gender, has been explained by Loraine Bethel in the following manner, in order to put their plight of them in a pellucid manner. Bethel says:

“Black women embody by their sheer physical presence two of the most hated identities in this codified into states of being and world views. The codification of Blackness and femaleness by whites and males are contained in the terms ‘thinking like a woman’ and ‘acting like a nigger’, both based on the premise that these are typically negative Black and female ways of acting and thinking. Therefore the most pejorative concept in the white male worldview would be thinking and acting like a ‘nigger woman’. (p.178)

The repeated raping of the white masters, though the emancipation proclamation exists, shows the outrage still in its prevalence on hoodoo African American women. Also the phallocentric attitude of African- American women have impaired their psyche. This damaging effect is highlighted by Eldridge Cleaver in the following manner:

“I love white women and hate black women. I‘d jump over ten nigger bitches just to get one white woman… A white woman is beautiful, even if she is bald-headed and only has one tooth… There is a softness about white women, something delicate and soft inside. But a nigger bitch seems to be full of steel granite hard and resisting, not soft and submissive like white women. Ain‘t nothing more beautiful than a white woman‘s hair… She is like a goddess, a symbol. (p.159.)

It is clear that the tyrannical attitude of African American men toward African American women has the same intensity as that of white masters, which is in the form of aversion and mutilation. In such a scenario, the beginning of the twentieth century has become a groundbreaking era for African –American writers. In this era, African American women have tried to come out of the shadows of racism and sexism. In fact, the earlier African –American writers had erected a platform, which has been conducive for twentieth-century writers. This is observed by Foster and Davis, who have observed in the following lines:

“It was something that should not have happened, but did. Almost from descent were creating literature. Before the United States came into being, African American women were published in a variety of genres and on many topics”. (p.15)

Frances Author has been the first African- American, who challenged white masters for their repression of African women. Alice Ruth Dunbar Nelson, along with her, has spoken vociferously for their equal right. They have created a strong background for twentieth-century African –American women writers, who have been taken to the path of ‘new self-awakening. Their new insight breaks the barriers of racism, sexism, and classism in a white patriarchal society. Barbara Christian discusses the twentieth century African –American women’s literature in the following lines:

“One, of course, might say that any literature, at the core, is concerned With the definition and discovery of self in relation to the society in Which one lives. But for Afro-American women, this natural desire has been powerfully opposed, repressed, and distorted by this society‘s restriction. For in defining ourselves, Afro-American women writers have necessarily had to confront the interaction between restrictions of racism, sexism, and class that characterize our existence Yet the struggle is not won. Our vision is still seen, even by many progressives, as secondary, issues or women‘s complaints, our stance is sometimes characterized by others as divisive. But there is a deep philosophical reordering that is occurring in this literature that is already having its effect on so many of us whose lives and expressions are an increasing revelation of the intimate face of universal struggle. (p.159-163)

The twentieth-century African-American women’s literature has been divided broadly with unique themes and approaches. The early few decades of the twentieth century have been called the Harlem renaissance, which has its characteristic based on cultural phenomena. Sharon L. Jones writes about the Harlem renaissance in the following manner:

The Harlem Renaissance, also known as the New Negro Movement, began in the early 1900 and ended around 1940. Coinciding with modernist trends, the Harlem Renaissance was an interdisciplinary cultural movement that reflected literary, musical, dance, artistic, and dramatic developments in African American expression. Additionally, the civil rights movement and the rise of organizations for social justice also brought much to bear upon the Harlem Renaissance. This movement would have a wide-ranging impact on American literature, changing the growth and direction of what was valued and what was not. (p.227)

Writes like Jessie Fauset, Nella Larsen, Zora Neale Hurston, Marita Bonner, Angelina Weld Grimke, Ann Spencer, and Georgia Douglas Johnson have been the commanders of the Harlem renaissance. These writers have done their best to break ‘stereotype images of black women prevailing in mainstream white American society ’. Among Harlem renaissance writers Jessie Fauset, who has been known as the midwife of the Harlem Renaissance, has shaped other writers like Nella Larsen, Jessie Fauset, and Zora Neale Hurston. Through her four novels entitled” There is Confusion (1924), Plum Bun (1929), The Chinaberry Tree (1931), and Comedy American Style (1933, Faucet has explored the theme of identity for African –American women in terms of race and gender. Nella Larsen has been another important novelist of the Harlem renaissance. Her two novels Quicksand (1928) and Passing (1929) have helped to break negative stereotype images of African –American women. She discusses ‘mulatto women and their dulosis due to racism, sexism as well as classicism in American society’. However, Zora Neale Hurston has been the most influential artist of the Harlem renaissance through her works Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937). Hurston has brought out the aesthetic sense of the black folk with the backdrop of southern black culture. Katie Geneva Cannon writes about Hurston:

Of all the women in the Black women‘s literary tradition who have contributed to the concrete depiction of Black life, Zora Neale Hurston (1901-1960) is -a par exemplar. As an outstanding novelist, journalist, folklorist, anthropologist, and critic, Hurston possessed a sharp accuracy in reporting the positive sense of self that exists among poor, marginal Blacks, – the Negro farthest down. The primary impetus for all her writings was to capture the density of simple values inherent in the provincialism of Blacks who worked on railroads, lived in sawmill camps, and toiled in phosphate mines, earning their keep as common laborers Hurston‘s extreme closeness to the sensibilities of her unlettered characters along with her meticulous collection of folklore, legends, superstitions, music, and dance of the common people, enabled her work to serve as a rich repository of resources helpful in delineating the moral counsel cultivated throughout the various periods of Black history in the United States.

Capital punishment, moreover referred to as the dying penalty, is a government-sanctioned exercise whereby a person is placed to death with the resource of the nation as a punishment for a crime. The sentence ordering that someone be punished in such a manner is known as a loss of lifestyles sentence, at the same time as the act of sporting out this kind of sentence is referred to as an execution. A prisoner who has been sentenced to loss of lifestyles and is looking in advance to execution is referred to as condemned, and is said to be on dying row. Crimes which can be punishable with the aid of demise are known as capital crimes, capital offences or capital felonies, and range relying on the jurisdiction, but generally include critical offences consisting of murder, mass murder, irritated times of rape, infant rape, baby sexual abuse, terrorism, treason, espionage, sedition, offences towards the State, along with seeking to overthrow government, piracy, aircraft hijacking, drug trafficking, drug dealing, and drug possession, warfare crimes, crimes in opposition to humanity and genocide, and in some cases, the most critical acts of recidivism, irritated theft, and kidnapping.

Etymologically, the time period capital on this context alluded to execution thru beheading.

Fifty-six countries hold capital punishment, 106 nations have absolutely abolished it de jure for all crimes, eight have abolished it for ordinary crimes, and 28 are abolitionist in exercise.

Capital punishment is a matter of lively controversy in numerous nations and states, and positions can range within a single political ideology or cultural location. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits using capital punishment. The Council of Europe, which has forty seven member states, has sought to abolish using the death penalty by means of its individuals absolutely, via Protocol 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights. However, this most effective affects the ones member states that have signed and ratified it, and they do no longer encompass Armenia, Russia, and Azerbaijan.

The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, if you want to eventual abolition. Although most international locations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the arena’s population live in international locations where the demise penalty is retained, collectively with China, India, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and among almost all Islamic international locations, in addition to being maintained in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Sri Lanka. China is thought to execute more humans than all extraordinary international places combined.

History

Execution of criminals and dissidents has been used thru almost all societies seeing that the begin of civilizations on Earth. Until the nineteenth century, with out developed prison systems, there was often no workable opportunity to ensure deterrence and incapacitation of criminals. In pre-contemporary times the executions themselves often concerned torture with merciless and painful techniques, along with the breaking wheel, keelhauling, sawing, striking, drawing, and quartering, brazen bull, burning at the stake, flaying, sluggish slicing, boiling alive, impalement, mazzatello, blowing from a gun, schwedentrunk, blood eagle, and scaphism.

The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history. Most historical statistics and diverse primitive tribal practices indicate that the loss of life penalty was a part of their justice machine. Communal punishments for wrongdoing normally included blood coins compensation with the aid of the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment and execution. In tribal societies, reimbursement and shunning had been regularly considered enough as a form of justice. The response to crimes dedicated through neighbouring tribes, clans or agencies blanketed a right apology, reimbursement, blood feuds, and tribal struggle.

A blood feud or vendetta occurs while arbitration between households or tribes fails or an arbitration device is non-existent. This shape of justice was commonplace earlier than the emergence of an arbitration gadget based totally on state or organized religion. It may moreover end result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour. ‘Acts of retaliation underscore the functionality of the social collective to shield itself and demonstrate to enemies that damage to property, rights, or the person will not move unpunished.’

In maximum worldwide places that training capital punishment, it is now reserved for murder, terrorism, struggle crimes, espionage, treason, or as a part of military justice. In some global places sexual crimes, together with rape, fornication, adultery, incest, sodomy, and bestiality carry the loss of lifestyles penalty, as do spiritual crimes which include Hudud, Zina, and Qisas crimes, which includes apostasy, blasphemy, moharebeh, hirabah, Fasad, Mofsed-e-filarz and witchcraft. In many countries that use the dying penalty, drug trafficking and frequently drug possession is likewise a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and extreme cases of corruption and monetary crimes are punished by using manner of the death penalty. In militaries around the arena courts-martial have imposed loss of lifestyles sentences for offences collectively with cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.

Ancient history

Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds protected peace settlements often done in a religious context and repayment machine. Compensation became based totally on the principle of substitution which might include cloth reimbursement, change of brides or grooms, or charge of the blood debt. Settlement policies could permit for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of belongings or blood cash or in a few cases a proposal of a person for execution. The character presented for execution did not should be an original culprit of the crime because of the truth the social device changed into primarily based on tribes and clans, now not individuals. Blood feuds is probably regulated at meetings, which includes the Norsemen things. Systems deriving from blood feuds may stay on alongside extra advanced jail structures or be given popularity thru courts . One of the greater modern-day refinements of the blood feud is the duel.

In sure components of the arena, international locations within the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged. These international places had been frequently united thru not unusual linguistic, non secular or own family ties. Moreover, expansion of those global locations regularly happened by using way of conquest of neighbouring tribes or international locations. Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slaves emerged. Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration have been submerged into a more unified device of justice which formalized the relation many of the distinctive ‘social lessons’ in preference to ‘tribes’. The earliest and most famous example is the Code of Hammurabi which set the wonderful punishment and reimbursement, in line with the precise class/group of victims and perpetrators. The Torah, also called the Pentateuch, lays down the loss of life penalty for murder, kidnapping, training magic, violation of the Sabbath, blasphemy, and a vast sort of sexual crimes, in spite of the truth that proof suggests that real executions were rare.

A in addition instance comes from Ancient Greece, where the Athenian criminal machine replacing commonplace oral law modified into first written down through Draco in approximately 621 BC: the loss of life penalty come to be implemented for a particularly huge variety of crimes, even though Solon later repealed Draco’s code and published new laws, keeping capital punishment handiest for intentional homicide, and only with victim’s own family permission. The word draconian derives from Draco’s laws. The Romans also used loss of existence penalty for a considerable variety of offences.

Tang dynasty

Although many are achieved inside the People’s Republic of China every 12 months within the present day, there has been a time inside the Tang dynasty when the dying penalty modified into abolished. This come to be in the year 747, enacted via Emperor Xuanzong of Tang . When abolishing the death penalty Xuanzong ordered his officials to consult the nearest law by using analogy whilst sentencing the ones determined responsible of crimes for which the prescribed punishment have become execution. Thus depending at the severity of the crime a punishment of excessive scourging with the thick rod or of exile to the a long way flung Lingnan area would probable take the region of capital punishment. However, the death penalty modified into restored best 12 years later in 759 in reaction to the An Lushan Rebellion. At this time within the Tang dynasty only the emperor had the authority to sentence criminals to execution. Under Xuanzong capital punishment emerge as exceptionally infrequent, with only 24 executions in the yr 730 and fifty eight executions inside the year 736. A in addition form of execution called Ling Chi, or dying by using/of one thousand cuts, grow to be used from the close to of the Tang dynasty to its abolition in 1905.

When a minister of the 5th grade or above received a death sentence the emperor would likely offer him a unique dispensation permitting him to dedicate suicide in lieu of execution. Even whilst this privilege changed into not granted, the law required that the condemned minister be provided with meals and ale by using his keepers and transported to the execution ground in a cart as opposed to having to walk there.

Nearly all executions underneath the Tang dynasty happened in public as a caution to the population. The heads of the accomplished were displayed on poles or spears. When local authorities decapitated a convicted criminal, the pinnacle have become boxed and despatched to the capital as evidence of identification and that the execution had taken region.

In early modern-day Europe, a large moral panic regarding witchcraft swept for the duration of Europe and later the European colonies in North America. During this period, there were massive claims that malevolent Satanic witches have been running as an organized hazard to Christendom. As a end result, tens of hundreds of girls have been prosecuted for witchcraft and done via the witch trials of the early present day-day period .

The loss of lifestyles penalty also targeted sexual offences together with sodomy. In England, the Buggery Act 1533 stipulated placing as punishment for ‘buggery’. James Pratt and John Smith were the remaining Englishmen to be finished for sodomy in 1835.

Despite the extensive use of the death penalty, requires reform had been now not unknown. The 12th century Jewish legal scholar, Moses Maimonides, wrote, ‘It is better and greater awesome to acquit a thousand guilty human beings than to put a single harmless man to dying.’ He argued that executing an accused criminal on something much less than absolute actuality would cause a slippery slope of lowering burdens of proof, until we might be convicting merely ‘in line with the judge’s caprice’. Maimonides’s scenario modified into retaining popular recognize for regulation, and he observed errors of fee as much more threatening than mistakes of omission.

The Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad, along with Al-Mu’tadid, have been frequently merciless of their punishments.

Modern era

In the closing numerous centuries, with the emergence of current United States of America states, justice came to be more and more related to the idea of natural and jail rights. The period noticed an increase in status police forces and everlasting penitential institutions. Rational preference theory, a utilitarian approach to criminology which justifies punishment as a shape of deterrence in preference to retribution, can be traced lower back to Cesare Beccaria, whose influential treatise On Crimes and Punishments become the number one detailed evaluation of capital punishment to name for the abolition of the loss of life penalty. In England Jeremy Bentham, the founder of current-day utilitarianism, referred to as for the abolition of the loss of life penalty. Beccaria, and later Charles Dickens and Karl Marx stated the prevalence of improved violent criminal activity on the times and places of executions. Official popularity of this phenomenon induced executions being accomplished inner prisons, faraway from public view.

In England inside the 18th century, while there was no police force, Parliament drastically expanded the type of capital offences to greater than 200. These had been especially belongings offences, for example cutting down a cherry tree in an orchard. In 1820, there had been 160, including crimes at the side of shoplifting, petty theft or stealing cattle. The severity of the so-known as Bloody Code became often tempered by way of manner of juries who refused to convict, or judges, within the case of petty theft, who arbitrarily set the value stolen at under the statutory stage for a capital crime.

Twentieth century

In Nazi Germany there have been three styles of capital punishment; striking, decapitation and demise via shooting. Also, present day-day army corporations hired capital punishment as a method of retaining army discipline. In the past, cowardice, absence with out leave, desertion, insubordination, shirking below enemy fire and disobeying orders have been regularly crimes punishable by means of the use of dying . One approach of execution, due to the reality firearms came into common use, has moreover been firing squad, even though a few worldwide places use execution with an unmarried shot to the pinnacle or neck.

Various authoritarian states—as an instance humans with Fascist or Communist governments—employed the dying penalty as a potent approach of political oppression. According to Robert Conquest, the leading expert on Joseph Stalin’s purges, more than a million Soviet residents have been completed at some point of the Great Terror of 1937–38, almost all by using manner of a bullet to the lower back of the pinnacle. Mao Zedong publicly stated that ‘800,000’ people had been carried out in China in some unspecified time in the future of the Cultural Revolution . Partly as a response to such excesses, civil rights groups began to place increasing emphasis on the idea of human rights and an abolition of the loss of lifestyles penalty.

INTRODUCTION

The 20th century, the first things to cross one’s mind when the word is given is certainly not anything concerning advanced technology nor world changing biotechnology. The technology might have been below average at the time but a lot of the world’s most important biotechnological advancements were discovered in this era. Although there still is no dictionary definition that has gained universal acclaim; Biotechnology is defined simply by as technology that is based of biology. “Biotechnology harnesses cellular and bio-molecular processes to develop technologies and products that help improve lives and health of the planet” (Biotechnology Innovation Organization, 2019). Biotechnology has been used throughout time without consciousness of using the process; it is documented in the Bible where grapes were turned into wine, and there are scientists that still study and still discovering new ways Biotechnology can change lives. As prior mentioned the 20th century contributed largely to the comfort and simplicity of most hardships of the world to date, their discoveries shaped everyday experiences and even educated the world on its existence.

AN ACCIDENT THAT CHANGED THE COURSE OF MEDICINE

If years where accidents that changed the face of the world were being documented, 1928 should be amongst the top great years. In 1928, Alexander Fleming, a 20th century biologist discovered a substance that would steer medicine and the way bacteria causing infections were viewed. Alexander, who by the time never understood the importance his discovery would be, was investigating staphylococcus- a bacteria that can cause disastrous infections in patients (Science History Institute, 2017[a]). His big discovery which led him to be one of the worlds’s recognised names in biological science can be argued to be credited to his negligence and poor lab practices. Fleming stumbled upon his gold by not placing one of the Petri-dish containing the culture he was investigating- staphylococcus- in an incubator. The bacterium left on his laboratory bench was then introduced to a Penicillium pore from the outside environment, the pore was found to have destroyed the staphylococcus bacteria (Science History Institute, 2017[b]).

After years of studying the antibacterial substance and trying to synthesize it, Fleming concluded that penicillin is produced naturally and cannot be synthesized my chemicals, (Science History Institute, 2017[c]) but scientists after his time did learn to grow the antibiotic in controlled environment (encyclopedia, 2019). The discovery has been a major breakthrough in medicine because this substance destroys certain bacteria like the staphylococcus. Penicillin is used till to date; it’s used to treat many infections that are caused only by bacteria including pneumonia, scarlet fever, ear, skin, mouth infections and rheumatic fever which causes swelling of the heart valves (Medline plus, 2018)

THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

Humans have been living on this earth for more than 200,000 years, evolving with time and trying to understand the world and themselves. There are different beliefs of where humans come from and why humans have the characteristics they have. In 1990 an initiative was taken to understand the genetic inheritance of human beings (NHG Research Institute, 2018[a]). The project, led by Dr. James Watson (NHG Research Institute, 2018[b]) took place over a period of 13 years and it required a large number of scientists from all across the globe, support from major countries and funding (Your Genome, 2016[a]). This project, which was and still is the largest biology project ever conducted required great minds from all aspects of science; Chemists, biologists, engineers, and physicists (Your Genome, 2016[b]). The goal of this project as explained by The Genetic Home Reference (2019) was to provide a complete and accurate sequence of the 3 billion DNA base pairs that made up the human genome and find the correct number of protein coding genes.

The project ended in 2003 and the Science Museum (2000) reports the scientists were surprised by the complexity of genes. Although scientists were able to find more than 1,800 disease-causing genes and allowed researchers today to locate a gene suspected of caring a disease very early on rather than years, they also found sad surprises. Before the project began it was thought that there was about 80,000 to 100,000 protein coding genes in the human genome and they found less than 30,000 genes. The other surprise was that not only do humans have fewer genes, only 2% make up their genome and the rest was termed “non-coding DNA”. Although the project discovered a lot about the human genetic makeup and how some diseases can be prevented, the project still have not been of help cure some major diseases like cancer (SciShow, 2012).

BANTING’S DISCOVERY THAT STILL SAVES LIVES

Insulin, one of the many hormones naturally produced by the human body is a very vital hormone. It is produced by the pancreas and it allows one’s body to use glucose from the food eaten and use it for energy or to store it for later use (Endocrineweb, 2019[a]). The cells need the sugar taken as carbohydrates to function and keep a human healthy, once carbohydrates is consumed the body produces insulin so to convert the carbohydrates to glucose so the cells could use it or store it for later use. This process keeps a balanced sugar level in the body, but sometimes the body cannot produce this insulin hormone or not enough insulin is produced, this in turn causes the blood sugar levels to rise. The person who has this insufficiency is then said to have a disease called Diabetes mellitus (Diabetics UK, 2019[a]). There are two main types of Diabetes; type 1 where the pancreas produces little to no insulin, and type 2 is commonly genetically inherited or caused by a poor lifestyle (Endocrineweb, 2018[b]). In 1921, a Canadian physician named Fredrick Banting discovered the same hormone in the pancreas extracts of a dog and had the same purpose to that of a human. Banting began working with another scientist Charles H. Best to further learn how the substance could be used to help human lives. It is said after the two scientists where able to purify the insulin, they injected it into themselves and found that it lowered their blood sugar levels. They further experimented by injecting the serum to diabetic dogs (Vox 2016, cited in Banting et al, 1922). Their experiment was a success and later was used to successfully treat a boy with diabetes (Encyclopaedia Britannica blog, 2011).

Insulin is now used globally by type 1 diabetes patients all over the globe; it can be administered by a doctor and also by a patient at the comfort of their own home.

CONCLUSION

It’s no doubt the 20th century discoveries have enriched and elongated human life. Many of the disastrous inheritable genes can be eradicated or dealt with before they multiply. Of the three discoveries discussed above I believe the Human Genome Project was more impactful to science. It might have cost billions of American dollars and might have had disappointments but if the 13 year project wasn’t conducted there would be a lot more confusion when it comes to genetics. Mutations would not be detected in time to be fixed or removed, there would be people living in fear and isolation due to their misunderstood mutations. So I believe the Human Genome Project was a necessity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Biotechnology Innovation Organization. (2019)Biotech to improve lives. [Online] Available at: https://www.bio.org/what-biotechnology
2. Encyclopaedia Britannica Blog. (2011) First human treatment. [Online] Available at: https://blogs.britannica.com/2011/07/discovered-insulin/
3. Diabetics UK. (2019[a]) Causes of diabetes. [Online] Available at: https://www.diabetes.co.uk/diabetes-types.html
4. Endocrineweb. (2019[a]) What is Insulin. [Online] Available at: https://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/type-1-diabetes/what-insulin
5. Endocrineweb. (2018[b]) Types of diabetes. [Online] Available at: https://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/type-1-diabetes/what-insulin
6. Encyclopedia. ( 2019) Synthetic production of Penicillin. [Online] Available at: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/discovery-and-importance-penicillin-and-development-sulfa-drugs
7. NHG Research Institute. (2018[a]). Available at: https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/what
8. NHG Research Institute. (2018[b]) Who led the research. [Online] Available at: https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/what
9. The Genetic Home Reference. (2019) Goal of the research. [Online] Available at: https://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/hgp/goals
10. Medline plus. ( 2018) Uses of Penicillin. [Online] Available at: https://www.medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a685015.html
11. Science History Institute. 2017[a]) Staphycoccus. [Online] Availabele at: https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/alexander-fleming
12. Science History Institute. (2017[b]) Penicillium Pore. [Online] Available at: https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/alexander-fleming
13. Science History Institute. (2017[c]) Production of penicillin. [Online] Availabe at: https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/alexander-fleming
14. Vox. (2016) Insulin Experiments. [Online] Available at: https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2016/11/14/13622212/fredrick-banting-diabetes-insulin-doodle
15. Science Museum. (2000) Results of the project. [Online] Available at: https://www.whoami.sciencemuseum.org.uk/whoami/finoutmore/yourgenes/whatwasthehumangenomeproject
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18. (ScieShow. (2012) Surprises to the results. [Online] Available at: https://youtu.be/F5LzKupeHtw

War has been a part of the world since the dawn of time and continues to be at war for a number of reasons, however, wars of today are very different from a war fought in the 17th century. The change in strategy over time directly correlates to the change in wartime technology, nevertheless, there is a brief period of time in which the strategy and technology users do not align, leading to an unbelievable amount of lives lost. This is the case of the First World War as the introduction of new military technology led to one of the bloodiest conflicts in history. World War One can be described as a 20th-century conflict fought with a 19th-century strategy when the technology utilized during the conflict is compared to the strategy used in preceding wars. Upon analyzing the strategies used, one can determine that the strategy of the conflict does not match the available technology, leading to a large loss of human life over the course of four years.

Before it is possible to analyze the strategy used in the First World War, the advancements in military technology must first be analyzed. World War One marked the worst human conflict the world had seen since the beginning of time. Previous wars had seen the use of breach loading rifles and artillery years before the start of the First World War, however, there was still much to learn from using the new technology that had much more to offer than its previous version. In the trenches, the typical infantry soldier donned a bolt-action repeating rifle. The repeating rifle offered much higher rates of fire than their predecessors as the rifle could hold more than a single round, decreasing the frequency at which the gun needed to be reloaded. The new rifles also were accurate to upwards of 1500 meters, whereas the rifled muskets that were used throughout the 19th century were only accurate to about 500 meters and took significantly longer to reload. With the increase in accuracy, rifles became considerably more effective at attacking smaller more dispersed units than the rifled musket. This meant that the rifle no longer could be distributed to the undertrained soldier as had been possible with both the smoothbore musket and rifled musket, but instead required each soldier to undergo sufficient training with their weapon to ensure the individual understood how to properly adjust the sights of the rifle to take full advantage of the range and accuracy. Another advancement in weapons technology was the addition of the belt-fed machine gun. The machine gun reigned terror across the battlefield firing an astonishing six hundred rounds per minute. The machine gun offered an impressive advantage over incoming troops as the operator did not have to take the time to accurately aim each shot, but could instead sweep his fire across the battlefield slowing the hostile advance much faster than could be accomplished with a bolt action rifle. On top of handheld rifle advancements, developments in artillery also led to an increase in casualties along both the Western and Eastern Fronts. Previous technology was in the form of muzzle-loaded rifled canons, whereas World War One saw the use of breach-loaded artillery, again allowing for increased range and accuracy. This new artillery allowed both the Central Powers (Triple Alliance) and the Allied Powers (Triple Entente) to fire exploding artillery shells above their advancing troops, onto their enemy’s position, creating large amounts of destruction in the process.

Another terrifying advancement in the maiming of humans came in the form of chemical warfare. Chemical warfare came in the form of atomizing toxic liquid, releasing the toxins into the air as a gas. Several types of gas were used by both sides during the war, often releasing multiple types of gas at once. Tear gas was among one of the first gases used during the Great War although it had little effect on the enemy as symptoms usually wore off after about thirty minutes of contact. Aside from tear gas, both chlorine and phosgene proved to be deadly, however, each having its own drawbacks. Chlorine as gas is denser than air with a pale green color and district odor making it very easy for an enemy to spot and apply a gas mask. On the other hand, phosgene, though difficult to detect, could take up to 48 hours for symptoms to appear. By far, the most commonly used gas was mustard gas. Mustard gas was not as lethal as chlorine or phosgene, but on contact caused chemical burns and left those affected with long hospitalizations, if they recovered. In conjunction with the aforementioned gases, other irritants that could bypass the gas mask were used such as chloropicrin and. The intention with gases such as these was to irritate the eyes or lungs of the individual wearing the gas mask, forcing them to remove the mask resulting in exposure to another potentially fatal gas. Regardless of the type of gas, the most used method to deliver the toxins was through artillery. The artillery shells would contain a glass bottle filled with the toxin in liquid form, which upon impact would break, releasing the poison into the air and forcing those in the nearby area to apply their gas mask.

With a basic understanding of the technological advancements, one can begin to explore the notion that World War One was fought with inadequate tactics derived from the 19th century. Many of the technological advancements had already begun to change the way in which wars were fought. For instance, during the Franco-Prussian War, the French used their early version of the machine gun, the mitrailleuse (cite), to adopt a defensive strategy, digging in and forcing the Prussians to attack the French fortifications. This allowed the French to use the combination of automatic fire, the increased rifle range, and canon artillery to attack the advancing Prussian Army. Unfortunately for the French, the Prussians had both superior artillery and greater numbers allowing them to outflank the French positions and prevail over the French Army. Similarly, lessons in warfare were learned from the American Civil War which “highlighted the increased importance of entrenchments and fortified positions on the battlefield” (Cite, Technology, Tactics, Military Transfer, Page 172).

The First World War used Similar tactics to those mentioned above. At the start of the war, the forces of the Triple Alliance were advancing across the Western Front toward Europe. Eventually, the Western Front came to a stopping point in France where trench warfare began. Trench warfare was an extremely deadly method of fighting a modern battle. Trenches and fortifications proved useful in wars taking place in the late 19th century, mainly the American Civil War where both sides would dig in defensive positions in order to maximize their firepower while reducing the number of casualties suffered. However, the use of trenches in the First World War led to a virtual stalemate as both sides sat in their respective trenches watching the section of land that separated the two enemy armies. This section of land, dubbed No Mans Land, was riddled with craters left behind by artillery, barbed wire to slow down any offensive, and the bodies of those that weren’t fortunate enough to make it back to the relative safety the trenches had to offer. The strategy seen in trench warfare was to attack at night when darkness helped to conceal the advancing troops. Before an assault could begin, artillery was first fired at the enemy trench in an attempt to weaken the enemy fortifications. This artillery offensive would often result in the opponent returning artillery shells leaving the soldiers in both armies waiting in fear for the armaments to cease-fire allowing for a temporary moment of relief. Next came the assault of the enemy trench. When the orders were given, soldiers would climb out of their trenches and push through the artillery craters toward the incoming machine gunfire. This style of advance allowed the defending trench to use the rapid fire of the machine guns to their fullest potential by sweeping the battlefield with thousands of rounds slowing the enemy assault. If the assault was successful, the advancing army was able to occupy the enemy trench and move to push the front line forward by a couple of hundred meters. If the assault proved unsuccessful, the assaulting army had to retreat back across No Man’s Land while still being targeted by the enemy’s machine gun and artillery fire. Those that were lucky made it back to the trench safely. Those that weren’t so lucky either had to crawl back to their trench while trying to remain undetected by the enemy, but also trying to navigate through the disorienting pattern of craters and bodies that riddled the strip of land dividing the battlefield. This technique of rushing the enemy was not a new strategy at the time. This tactic had been used throughout history, predating the use of gun powder in warfare, but dating back to when armies would charge each other on the battlefield carrying a variety of weapons ranging from swords and shields to pitchforks and clubs. More recently, in the century before the First World War, this tactic was referred to as a bayonet charge. This is a strategy in which the attacking army would charge the enemy using the blade attached to the end of their musket to neutralize their opponent. The difference separating the bayonet charge from the advance across No Man’s Land is the accuracy of the firearm used. During the 19th century, smoothbore muskets were highly inaccurate, allowing the offensive charge an opportunity to advance. Additionally, both smoothbore and rifled muskets took several seconds to reload, allowing the advancing troops to get even closer before an additional shot was fired. One advantage offensive forces gained during World War One, as opposed to previously use of the bayonet charge, was that the attacking forces had repeating rifles, allowing them to not only fire one shot as they advanced towards the fortified enemy, but to fire several shots, and to reload their empty firearm in a considerably shorter amount of time.

The First World War was the bloodiest conflict the world had seen upon its completion when the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28th, 1919. With the technological advancements of the early 20th century, it is very clear that The Great War was fought with a strategy that was successful in the 19th century but proved to cause extremely high casualties over the course of the four-year conflict. As a result, the strategy had to be reexamined by members of both the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente to determine how to better use the new technology developed during the war to increase their effectiveness but decrease the number of casualties received from an offensive. The knowledge gained from the strategies used in The Great War can still be seen when analyzing military strategy in the modern age as military strategy continues to shift as technology continues to improve.

Throughout the centuries of human exploration in the Arctic, the Arctic encompasses sea ice throughout the entire year up to the last few decades. However, satellite observations indicate that the extent, thickness, and volume of Arctic sea ice has declined since 1979. The average extent of the Arctic sea ice has been the lowest since 1850 (Climate). (Frischmann) Acknowledges that global warming affects us all, but the issue is not climate change. The representation of this issue is climate change. It is the feedback from the planet’s system that tells us what happens. The major issue is global warming precipitated by the escalating levels of human activities in greenhouse gasses. The Arctic-Boreal Vulnerability Experiment (ABoVE) in the northern regions of the world, one of NASA’s programs, explores climate change. People in the circumpolar territories have seen how dramatically in such a relatively compact period of time the environment has changed, especially those of us who still spend time out there.

The climate became more erratic and ice melted faster, rendering farming in spring tougher. Climate change has helped decrease caribou, important to both spirituality and survival of Dene people in the north. Studies such as ABoVE may help to explain why and how such changes occur. In addition to traditional knowledge acquired from northern communities, the data that ABoVE collect could help our peoples and future generations protect the environment.

The author (Buis) Several conclusions have been interpreted to indicate that the results of the study were indicative of a slowdown and cessation in global warming. The truth actually represents a different scenario, which is demonstrated in a quick summary of the main results of the research. To recap: The recent changes to Jakobshavn on Greenland’s west coast have been linked to the 2016 refrigeration, probably due to the 2015 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) switch, in which an ocean current carries water to the ocean head. The NAO is an oceanic weather phenomenon that induces temperatures between hot and cold in the North Atlantic air every five to twenty years. The spectacular retardation of the glacier corresponded that summer with cooler waters coming in the vicinity of Jakobshavn.

The temperature of the waters near the glacier has now been colder than since the mid-80s. The cooler temperatures do not melt ice as easily as the warmer water does at the front and underneath the glacier. Changes from Jakobshavn are provisional. When the NAO change again, it is most probable that the ice will continue to accelerate and shrink as cold waters start to melt. More studies indicate that Jakobshavn developed 22 and 33 yards (20-30 meters) thicker every year from 2016 to 2019 following the publication of the report.

The narratives from the globe over were illustrated: Aparachia, Northwest Africa, Australia, Cambodia, Kenya, Mexico, the Amazon region, Kenya, Nepal, Northwest Pacific, Russia, Wisconsin, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Arab Emirates and Utah. Students, teachers, scientists, government officials, organizers, commoners, teachers, journalists, and influenced parents wrote the essays. They are also published. Also, define extremely hard work for a more prosperous private life and comment on creative initiatives of sustainability. Perceptive, educated and passionate essays sent to Creative Nonfiction are combating the deplorable and harmful absence of reliable, clear, and conscientious corporate media environmental reporting. The foregoing is a partial list of subjects covered: insects, bees, bikes, kids, tea, illness, famine, health, energy, family farming, water, gleaning, waste person, indigenous culture and languages, biodiversity, alienation, invasive species, nuclear waste, organic agriculture, economics, emissions, environment, quality of life, reuse, plants, urban gardens, waste & wetlands

When I read, I was stunned, angry, intrigued, angry, entertained, and humbled by the tremendous array of environmental, social, and moral inquiries and spiritual enlightenment. It was a battle to earn so many varied and dignified responses to the articles that you are going to read I am thankful for the involvement of every submitting writer in the Earth’s most important subject. It is critical and the writing is therefore complex, concise, and powerful. Such stories include both passion and inestimable knowledge and literary delicacy.

The nine articles presented provide straightforward and insightful viewpoints. Many face unexpected losses due to their reliance on oil and energy. Matthew Ferrence walks through the farm of his family in Pennsylvania, which is being investigated in order to prepare the fracking, in the ‘depredation,’ a work of hard lyricism. The ‘Seep’ of Mieke Eerkens goes back to 2007 when the writer served for a Marine Rescue Center in California, and the container ship Cosco Busan hit the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, culminating in an oil spill. Ana Maria Spagna, in’ What happened in the Humbug valley,’ tells the story of the trib’s attempts to recover her ancestral land to traditionally tend her, in the conversation with Maidu Elders in Northern Sierras.

The stinging essay by Sarah Gilbert: ‘Trapped,’ begins with the following line: ‘I boil their water.’ In the busy streets of Portland, Oregon, she drives her branded bike with her young boys. Throughout ‘Regeneration’ Nicole Walker’s pithy and amusing narrative is an episodic portrayal of her bat’s terror and of our angry and misguided hope with respect to global warming. Michelle Lanzoni explains in ‘No Thirst’ a dramatic analysis of a vulnerable network of irrigation in Sudan.

Children with terrible consequences of the detectability of the sea of hazardous chemicals, Wendy Rawlings and Mary Heather Noble galvanized in us. Rawlings relates the story of a young girl who almost died of E with the name ‘Health and Staff Security All around the World: A Nerve and Inaccurate Case Report’ (this issue’s essay ‘Pushing Boundaries’). Coli disease, and that of the staff who died in the Chinese factories where iPads were produced by an on-the-spot virtual pet. A recipient of a $10,000 Human Face of Sustainability award, funded by the Sustainability Festival of the Arizona State University, the environmental scientist Noble’s strong investigation, ‘Acts of Courage’ was an outrage at the discovery that carcinogenic chemicals had been sprayed in the areas surrounding her daughter’s school shortly before the first day of lessons.

In reality, it is expected to cost about $29 billion over 30 years to implement all 80 solutions. It’s a trillion a year just about that. Okay, I understand that it sounds quite like that, but we must keep in mind that world GDP is over 80 billion each year, with an annual profit of 74 trillion dollars, almost twice the value. That’s 44 trillion dollars in net savings.

Therefore, if we recognize the whole food system, when we introduce all the industrial approaches such as regenerative agriculture when we follow a plant-rich diet, and when we reduce food waste, our research shows that we produce sufficient food in current agricultural land to feed the increasing population of the world to a balanced, nutrient-rich diet by 2050 and ahead.

Many other researchers reported similar results from various strategies. This national geographical work from 2014 reinforces a five-stage plan for world feed to 2050 based on Jonathan Foley’s research. Throughout our work on the food system as a whole, a recent study released throughout 2018 in Nature shows a similar finding.