Category: 19th Century

In glancing back at the times, we have considered we see that normal examples of thought with respect to gender orientation have run however the course of history, so we shouldn’t be amazed that despite everything we are impacted by and experience the impacts of these convictions. Women life has been better and changed during the 19th to 20th century than before. The main changes in women’s life were women in the military, more job opportunities, birth control, and flappers.

Women’s life changed a lot during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. During this period, the most important thing every person wanted was to get employed and earn money. At the time of WWII, women’s life changed by 50% of them being employed and their manufacturing jobs grew by 141 percent. They got new job opportunities and women being employed made them work and take care of their own self and their family. Numerous ladies ventured in to fill their shoes working in industrial facilities, factories, and different spots. This was the first run-through ladies had the capacity to fan out in the workforce and attempt their hand at physical work.

Flappers is an in-vogue young lady goal on having a good time and mocking traditional principles of behavior. In other words, the new women are the contemporary term for what flappers are called. Flappers advanced slim, innocent designs. Figures were leveled with underpants. Hemlines, straight or uneven, step by step crawled up, and waistlines dropped. High-design evening wear in cylindrical, sleeveless styles highlighted beading and periphery. Day dresses duplicated the night lines, if not the trims. Short skirts were supplemented by tissue-shaded tights worn with enhancing shoes. Hair was trimmed near the head and secured outside by the skintight cloche cap. It ended up decent to wear cosmetics. Somewhere in the range of 1920 and 1930, women’s appearance changed totally.

During WWII, women also had started working in military service. They played a really important role during that time. Nearly 350,000 women served in uniform on tier name for things like Women’s Army Artillery Corps which is later renamed as Women’s Army Corps and Navy’s Women reserve. There was also Women’s Air force Service Pilot or Wasps, Army Nursing Corps, and Navy Nursing Corp. At the time of WWII, General Eisenhower also felt that with the help of women they could win the war and also get help with the aid of women during that time.

In the late nineteenth and mid-twentieth hundreds years, women joined national associations in extraordinary numbers. Margaret Sanger was one of the most important people who helped in the movement of birth control. Sanger set out on a deep-rooted mission to give women data about techniques for contraception. Birth control which has been criticized as negative and destructive is really the greatest and most truly eugenic method. Birth control has been accepted by the clearest thinking and far-seeing of the eugenists themselves as the most constructive and necessary of the means to racial health.

Hence, women’s life had changed a lot during the 19th and 20th centuries. Women’s started to work on their own feet even though their wages were less than men’s. Society presently acknowledged that women could be free and settle on decisions for themselves in training, occupations, conjugal status, and professions. Women’s circles had expanded to incorporate open just as home life.

Social justice is the equal access to wealth, opportunities and privileges within society. The concept of social justice began in the early 19th century which happened to be during the industrial & Civil revolutions in Europe. The concept of social justice arose with the aim to create a society that contended that every member of society should be guaranteed the same rights, opportunities, and access to goods and resources, this idea was known as the egalitarian theory. This would help fix the issues with capitalistic exploitation of human labour, as during this time period there were huge differences inequality between the individuals who were wealthy and the individuals who were poor. These ideas have existed for very long time. Social justice is linked to diversity, based on the understanding that human societies are characterized by differences of various kinds at various levels, and such diversity is an asset as it offers enrichment of lives through the breadth of perspective it can bring (Thompson, 2017:46). This report will outline two factors that contribute towards social justice, by focusing on two crucial factors. The first being Human rights which will explore and examine the rule of law and fair trial standards and the second being Gender, Power and Politics.

When a person is charged with a crime, or involved in any other legal dispute, they have the right to a fair trial. This means a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time, by an independent and impartial court. The European court of human rights has highlighted many cases of unfair trial, resulting with many imprisonments of innocent people. To prevent these social injustices people have used the ECHR to get a retrial and which makes sure that governments develop proper rules to avoid miscarriages of justice (Council of Europe – European Convention on Human Rights). The first factor that contributes towards social justice is fair trial rights, this act is one of the fundamental reassurances of human rights, tasked with the proper administration of justice. It shares attributes of other rights, which include the right to life and the prohibition against torture and other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. The Fair trials right entails that all persons must have equal right of access to the courts and tribunals, including access to remedies and reparations, it is relevant not only to individuals subject but also to criminal and non-criminal proceedings but also victims. Moreover, social justice must be administered in a way that achieves fairness for all, regardless of the identity of the parties.

The law says that everyone charged with a criminal offense shall be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to the law, also everyone that is charged with a criminal offence has to be informed promptly, in a language which they understand and explained in full detail in regards to the cause of the accusation against them, the government must give them adequate time and facilities for the preparation of there defence, the law permits the individual to defend themselves in person or through legal assistance of his own choosing or if the defendant does not have any means to pay for legal assistance, they should be provide with legal assistance for free (Human Rights Act – Article 6: Right to a Fair Trial). The effective protection of all human rights very much depends on the practical availability of access to competent, independent and impartial court of law which can and will administer justice fairly. Added to this are professions of prosecutors and lawyers each of them in his or her own field of knowledge, instrumental in making the right to a fair trial a reality and are the legal pillar of a democratic society respectful of the rule of law.

The judiciary’s capability of making sure that fair trial proceedings is not only important to the rights and interest of human beings but is likewise essential to other legal person including economic entities, small or large corporations often depend on courts of law to regulate their disputes of varies kinds. This can play a major role because if the courts don’t administer justice fairly it can lead to domestic and foreign enterprises, becoming reluctant to invest in the country because they fear of injustice and inequality. It’s argued that in countries where aggrieved persons or other legal parties are able to access courts in order to claim their rights, social tension can more easily be managed and the temptation to take the law into one’s own hands is eliminated. By contributing in this manner, they are able to defuse social tensions, enabling the courts of law to contribute to enriching security at a national and international scale.

The right to equality before the court is a fundamental principle underlying the right to a fair trial, it can be found in the article 14 of the international covenant on civil and political rights, stated ‘All persons shall be equal before the courts and tribunals’ the right to equality before the courts is comprised by the general principle of equality being protected. The principle of equality in court means firstly, regardless of gender, race, origin or financial status, for example, every person appearing before a court has the right not to be discriminated against either in the course of the proceedings or in the way law is exercised to the person. Furthermore, whether individuals are suspected of a minor or serious crime, they have the right to be equally secured. Secondly the principle of equality means that all persons must have equal access to the courts (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 14, 1). The right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty is a principle that is the right of an individual throughout the period of the criminal investigations and trial proceedings, up until the end of the final appeal/hearing. This right guarantees the presumption of innocence and safeguards everyone until proven guilty according to the law.

Its important to have these factors contribute towards social justice and overall society because it creates a safe and secure environment for society to function and flow, if these rights were violated which they are on occasions it can send innocent people to jail for reason that are not justified. And creates a society that could disregard the law which can ultimately bring chaos. These rights are crucial as they reflect the minimum standards necessary for people to live with dignity, enable people freedom to choose how they live, allows them to express themselves and importantly gives them the freedom to support who they want, among many other things, the united nations stated that human rights ensure that a human can be able to fully develop and use human qualities such as intelligence, talent and conscience and satisfy his or her needs.

Moving on to the second factor that contributed to social justice are women’s rights, beginning with the right of women to vote. The majority of women in the late 1800 lacked a formal education, feminists argued that education was the key to helping them unlock the doors into the masculine world of politics, the movement for suffrage began in the 1860s. Moreover by the 1918 there had been some remarkable changes, such as the married women’s property act in 1870 which gave women the right to own their own property and money, the local government act in 1894 was passed, which allowed married and single women to vote in election for county and borough councils, qualification of women act in 1907 is passed, enabling women to be elected through borough and county councils and as mayor. After more years of campaigning they finally get the representation of the people bill passed allowing women to vote (Bartley, 2013)

Britain is a representative democracy, a general election is held every 5 years with all citizens over the age of 18 having the chance to vote for a member of parliament, who will represent their constituency in the house of commons. Bartley suggest that its is the rule of the people by the people, and this is believed to be the best way to govern a country. however, it was not always like this, for many individuals living in the 19th century Britain the democracy was a long and hard-earned achievement, Britain only became a full democracy in 1928. This also included the rights of working-class men to vote with women being the last group of people who were granted pass to obtain the vote in 1918. However, there were restrictions that did not allow all women to vote, women had to be over the age of 30, they had to be householder or had a husband that were householders, who paid rent of more than £5 a year or were graduates of a British university, then they were granted the right to vote. After more petitions and marches 10 years later, women achieved the vote on equal terms with men who could vote if they were over 21. At long last in 1928 all women over the age of 21 regardless of their marital status or financial position were given the rights to vote.

During the period 1860-1918 women encountered a number of significant improvements to their lives, however clear areas of inequality remained, and it was these that urged the campaigning spirits of the suffragists and the suffragettes. By 1901 the vote had become their major focusing point. Some women argued and believed that an all-male parliament would only go so far to improve the lives of women and wanted the vote as they believed it will eventually lead to create better laws, education and jobs for women. The reason for campaigning for 58 years was women wanted to end women’s economic and social subordination and wanted to brighten their lives. Martyrs like Emily Wildling Davison sacrificed themselves for the cause, by jumping in front of the king’s horse and ultimately sufficing to her injuries. The gender inequality was another factor that encouraged women to campaign, working class men were being given the right to vote, this upset woman especially women that were middle-class as they were more educated and more applicable to have the right to vote compared to men of the working class.

Bartley suggest that suffragettes argued that its inappropriate to claim Britain to be a true democracy when the majority of the population was not given the right to vote because of the fact of being female, they suggested that no government least of all one that saw itself as democratic should want to preside over what was essentially an undemocratic government. Britain’s politics was criticised for being unjust and unbalanced. Pointing to the fact that a number of countries had already enfranchised women such as the isle of man, New Zealand, Finland, Norway and many states in Australia and America. A shadow had been cast down on Britain as it was supposedly the mother of democracy, expecting Britain to lead other nation in the enfranchising of women, the fact that other countries had done so challenged British democratic supremacy.

The author explains how women used history as a reason to fight to gaining the right to vote, as suffragists active in the 1860s believed the vote to be a restoration of an old right, not an exercise of a new one, this is because they argued that women in the past played significant roles in parliamentary politics, not forgetting many women during world war one worked in factory’s that created guns and machinery related to war, the men left to fight the war so women had to take up the jobs that were left by the men. The urge to gain the right to vote also emerged from the belief that women faced hardships because their views remained unrepresented. When women obtain their vote, suffragist and suffragettes argued that the government would be forced to take women’s issues more seriously (Bartley, 2013).

The right of women’s is an important factor that contributes to social justice, through the struggle’s women faced with the idea of making opportunities and life fairer and more equal like men. They wanted to vote because the legislature in the past did not make the laws that are equal to both men and women, and these laws will not be changed until women get to vote, important and lucrative positions are obstructed to them and other opportunities like public service are denied these are a small number of reasons why women wanted to vote. In today’s society many women have seats in parliament, the number have increased immensely, the sacrifice they made has enabled a more equal society that allows women to be free. They changed many things along the way which helped them in the long run and enabled feminist to rightfully gain the right to vote amongst other things. It’s important to remember and understand that these changes were not so long ago, and the demands of the suffragist and suffragettes don’t seem like much and actually are reasonable ideas and suggestions in contemporary society. But after many years Britain can proudly claim it’s democratic supremacy and lead by example of how countries of democracy run and function.

Social Justice is a contested term, meaning that different people interpret and use it, in different ways. Therefore, it’s helpful to consider what we mean by social injustice, this refers to social arrangements in a given society at a particular time in history which can be seen as unfair to particular sectors of society, usually being the least powerful groups. Gandhi is credited with the idea that a nations greatness is measured by how it treats its weakest members. Social justice relates to recognizing people’s rights and respecting them, enabling people to carry out their civil responsibilities in a reasonable way, also its important to understand they human rights are applicable to everyone regardless if they belong to a country or not as they are citizens of the world. And where human rights laws are not promoted social injustices arises. Many other factors contribute to social justice like equalising power between the powerful and powerless through penal policy and codes of conduct, enabling people to have their basic needs met in a way that offers self-respect by allowing people to be able to attain jobs through merit. It’s a strong idea that society should aim for social justice in contemporary society as this is because it promotes a society that will build upon happiness, keep the population safe and secure and enable the distribution of resources equally. Equality is important and the chance at freedom enables everyone to be able to achieve and accomplish, which is vital to be successful people. Well managed society means high functioning intellectual people.

Bibliography

1. Thompson, Neil. (2017) Social Problems and Social Justice. London: Palgrave
2. Bartley, Paula. (2013) Votes for women, 1860 – 1928. 3rd Ed. London: Hodder Murray
3. Council of Europe – https://www.coe.int/en/web/impact-convention-human-rights/right-to-a-fair-trial
4. CTITF Basic human Rights Reference Guide -:https://www.ohchr.org/EN/newyork/Documents/FairTrial.pdf
5. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights – https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CCPR.aspx
6. The human Right Act – https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/human-rights/human-rights-act

Both today’s society and the society of the 1800s have different types of restrictions and freedom. Today, there are more rules than before. Slaves in the 1800s didn’t have much freedom. They were forced into hard labor, families were split, mothers and babies were forced to leave their arms, and slaves were forced to work in the sugar fields of the Caribbean. In the modern day, slaves became free through manumission. Manumission is leaving slavery. In the 1800s, as shown by the memoir ‘Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass’, and in society today, the types of restrictions and freedom that are present in our reading and modern-day America are specific restrictions where the slave codes placed hard restrictions on slaves and particular freedom in modern-day slaves became free through manumission.

Paragraph one, in ‘Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass’, one restriction that I found in the book was: “I suffered much from hunger, but much more from cold. I was kept almost naked no shoes and no jacket” (Douglass, 16). This quote falls under restrictions because the master has rules that slaves have to follow. If they don’t follow it, they have to face the consequences. Such as getting whipped badly or the master would kill them. Their restrictions on slaves are that they have to do a lot of things and slaves don’t have much opportunity for themselves. Slaves don’t have food, clothing, benefits, etc. Another example of restrictions that I found online is: “Slaves codes places harsh restrictions on slaves’ already limited freedoms, and gave slave owners absolute power” (Douglass, Frederick, ‘Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass’, Fall River Press, 2010). I chose this quote because it goes under restriction. It goes under restrictions because I provided an example of what the masters had on slaves. Slave owners had the most power over the slaves. Basically, slaves couldn’t do anything at all. They were treated unfairly because they didn’t have clothes, shoes, or most importantly, food.

Paragraph two, another example of restrictions that I found in ‘Freedom’ by Beyonce and Kendrick Lamar is: “Where are you? Cause I need freedom too! I break chains all by myself”. This quote falls under restrictions because the masters will chain them literally on them, such as both of their ankles and both of their wrists. If slaves try to escape from the chains, they will get badly whipped or will definitely get killed. Or they will get beat, or if it was a female slave, she will get raped. Slave owners are careless and ruthless. Another example that I found online about restrictions on slaves is, “Legally considered property, slaves were not allowed to own property of their own” (Granger). This falls under restrictions because slaves weren’t informed and plus they didn’t have a say either. They had to go to jail regardless if they were telling the truth, they had a certain amount of time to go back to the plantation, and they didn’t own anything of their own. If they had a house and bought it, they couldn’t own it anymore because the whites would take over it. And they will have to listen to the whites, and they couldn’t give them attitude, because if they do, as I said in the previous paragraphs, they will get beaten and whipped badly too.

Third paragraph, an example that I found in the memoir ‘Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass’ of being free is: “When I got to New York, I again changed my name to ‘Frederick Johnson’” (Douglass, 66). The quote goes under freedom. It goes under freedom because, after everything he went through since he was young until now, he survived. He changed his name and went to New York to have a better life or at least try to because I bet being in slavery is traumatizing after you escape from it or leave it. And knowing that you have been in slavery most of your lifetime, it has to hurt because Douglass lost his mother at a very young age. He had siblings but barely talked to them, and had a grandma, but she moved. Another example that I found online for freedom is: “Of the 20.9 million slaves in the world today, 90% are enslaved by the private economy”. This quote falls under freedom because the quote mentioned that slaves are enslaved. Some work in the private economy. Also, work for general profit such as fishing boats and carpet factories. To me, this is freedom because after everything that African Americans went through they fought to get to where they are at now/today. They still have a smile on their faces, regardless of what happened to them in the 1800s and in the modern day today also.

In conclusion, in the 1800s, as it is shown in the memoir ‘Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass’, and in modern society, the different types of freedoms and restrictions that are shown are called slave codes. The slave codes are that they placed hard limitations on slaves. One freedom in the modern day is slaves were able to leave through manumission. The meaning of manumission is allowing to leave slavery or are set free from manumission.

How Revolutions Changed the Literary World

The 18th and 19th centuries were a time of chaos and great change. They brought forth many drastic changes in terms of cultures, societal ideologies, and personal belief systems around the world. Prior to the 18th century, people had As nations began to expand and empires collapsed, people of all different nations began to focus on independence and . This was a great change from which was previously a lengthy period of classicism, introducing core ideas that can be seen translated into the literary works of Romantic Era authors and poets, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Emily Dickinson. These romantic authors wrote literary works that exemplify the

Ideas such as independence and personal freedom sprung forth from the American and French Revolutions. However, in order to evaluate the extremity of the shift brought by these events, it is necessary to take a look at the cultural and political ways of thinking preceding these revolutions. The period leading up to the era of revolutions is the classicism era (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica), where people’s typical “way of life was represented by superstition, an angry God, and absolute submission to authority” (US History).Many societies around the world heavily relied on religion and submission to God in order to glue their communities together. The basic principle of being a homogenous body of people was maintained in order to function. This can be seen in the early American colonies, where each colony remained largely homogenous within itself. For example, the New England colonies had a large population of Puritans, causing them to maintain stricter laws in society than several of the other colonies, such as the communities of Baptists in the southern colonies. These colonies functioned as a body of sovereign states, each implementing their own rules and traditions so as to preserve their small homogenous bodies of people. Furthermore, during this era of classicism, people lived like sheep under authority figures, blindly following the word of the leader without a second thought, as articulated in The Emergence of Literary Criticism in 18th-Century Britain written by Sebastian Domsch. Though not his main focus, Domsch evaluates how large bodies of people in the 18th century had a “tendency to blindly follow established authorities”, rather than deviating from the social norm and composing their own opinions and ideas. This typical way of thinking reached an abrupt stop at the end of the 18th century, which was the beginning of the era of revolutions.

Revolutions in the 18th century were the catalyst for the shift we can see in the world. The American Revolution signaled the beginning of this Era of Revolutions. It was a quintessential example of people joining together to fight a major authority figure and deviate from the societal norm. The American colonies had been in a period of salutary neglect, which “was Britain’s unofficial policy, initiated by prime minister Robert Walpole, to relax the enforcement of strict regulations, particularly trade laws, imposed on the American colonies late in the seventeenth and early in the eighteenth centuries” (Henretta). This unspoken agreement between England and the colonies came to an abrupt stop after the end of the Seven Years War, during which England had accumulated major debt which caused them to tighten the reins on the American colonies in order to pay it off. While regaining control of the colonists, King George III ignored the rights of the colonists which had been inscribed in the Magna Carta as well as The Rights of Englishmen/English Bill of Rights. Many of the colonists became outraged and became patriots who banded together, formed militias, and overcame the British in a fight for independence. They fought for the idea that “Kings did not rule by divine right, they had an obligation to their subjects” (US History), and stressed the idea of the rights of people as individuals. The American patriots went against the loyalists and British crown to do what they knew was right, refusing to comply to the harsh and unlawful acts implemented by the British monarch and British Parliament.

Shortly after the end of the American Revolution in 1983, the French Revolution began. The French Revolution was another pivotal event for the making of our modern world as it took the same ideas from the American Revolution and applied them to internal struggles within a country. It lasted for 10 years, beginning in 1789 with The Storming of the Bastille and finally drew to a close in 1799. The Bastille was a large prison in Paris where several of its prisoners were being held unjustly as a result from the tyrannical power that laid in the hands of King Louis XVI. The French revolutionaries stormed the Bastille as an act of rebellion, protesting the lack of involvement that they were given in the French government. King Louis was allowing the peasants to live in treacherous living conditions, lacking

The common revolutionary ideas from the American and French revolutions founded the Era of Romanticism. Romanticism was built by the themes of independence and patterns of nonconformity that are heavily expressed in the American, French, and Latin American Revolutions. The Romantic Era began towards the end of the 18th century and lasted until the middle of the 19th century, during which writers from all over Europe and the United States wrote haunting tales that conveyed themes of justice with a dark, supernatural twist. After coming out of this revolutionary time period, the European and American writers translated not only the ideas of the revolutions, but also the events of the wars into their writing. This is specifically seen in the works of Edgar Allan Poe who was a trailblazer for this darker, macabre style of writing during the Romanticism era. These romantic authors and poets rejected the cultural and societal norms by writing in a style of macabre, which was typically darker than most other literature at the time.

Emily Dickinson lived from 1830 to 1886 and was a poet during the tail end of the romantic era. She used her words to write poems that convey the Romantic themes of self-identity and nonconformity. In her poem “I’m Nobody, Who are You?”, she expresses individuality, a key idea in revolution thinking. Though this poem is short, it easily exemplifies important traits of romantic era writing. Dickinson writes “How dreary to be somebody!”, showing how she favors the idea of people expressing themselves, rather than following the crowd. Additionally, the idea of “nobody” in this poem further exemplifies how romantic writers believe people should go against the societal grain and live as their own person. This is drawn from the core value of noncompliance in the American Revolution, where the colonists were fighting for the ability to have control over their government rather than having to conform to the strict orders that came from England. Dickinson also writes in her poem “Hope is a Thing with Feathers” about a metaphorical description of a bird as “hope, the thing with feathers, that perches in the soul”. She uses her imagination to escape from the struggles of society and or life, and seeks answers through spirituality in nature. The “soul” is a symbol that stands for the essence of our being, or individuality. Furthermore, !!!!!!Dickinson also uses the imagery of feathers in our mind to create a symbol for “hope”. Feathers represent the “hope” that will enable us to escape to a new beginning. The colonists relied on hope to win the American Revolution. They lost many battles to England because they to a lack of trained militias,

In source 1, Erasmus Darwin speaks about the revolutionary piece of technology that changed the way of life in the 19th century- the steam engine. The steam engine affected the industrial revolution in various ways, particularly the textile industry. It allowed large pieces of machines in factories to produce mass amounts of cheap energy and products. It also paved the way for European businesses to transport their produce time and cost efficiently, increasing their profit. The steam engine helped develop Europe’s first true industrial machine. Factories no longer needed to be built near water sources like water mills and rivers for energy, allowing business owners to expand, provide jobs and provide a quicker means of transport. One technological development discussed by Nisbet is the effect of electrical lights implemented in Melbourne’s Paddy’s Markets. Electric lights gave people absolute control over lighting inside their homes and businesses at the simple flick of a switch. Even in rural areas, many turned to electricity to power their lights instead of candles and oil lamps, saving them for emergencies only. Electricity, particularly electrical lights influenced the way of living and work, allowing industrial plants and workers to work all day long because of it. The use of electrical lights increased the speed of industrialization and allowed the development of a more advanced lighting system. Electric lights paved the way for higher work and home safety measures. During the industrial revolution, your wealth dramatically changed the way you lived your life. Poor women were only allowed to cook, have children and clean cottages whilst men worked jobs outside, usually involving a lot of labour. They were forced to work in factories with very little pay as their small home businesses were destroyed. Both women and children in large numbers had to endure intense labour in dangerous and unhygienic working conditions.

The rich on the other hand, received the best education money could buy from top private schools, had the ability to own home businesses and lived in a large house, usually with many servants. New pieces of technology being invented led to cheap mass production being created, sold and transported more efficiently. This introduced manufacturing businesses and trade, making the rich even richer. As Europe advanced, the rich made more profits with their businesses and had the poor become their workforce. The rich travelled and splurged money and the successful middle class climbed social ranks into the upper class. This industrialization and the sudden amount of money coming into their pockets allowed them to build mansions, buy out public infrastructure, collect rare art and overall give them a new life of absolute luxury. Child labour during the industrial revolution was a popular workforce that required low maintenance and cheap wages. Poor children were stationed in factories, on farms, on the streets selling paper, in coal mines and even as chimney cleaners. They worked in precarious conditions as they were small and could slip easily in small spaces. The children who worked received little to no education and often worked a 12-16 hour shift, from 4 am to 5 pm. They were forced to pull wagons of coal up small and tight tunnels, usually just a few feet tall. Mine shafts would collapse and lethal air quality made work even more unbearable. Young girls would work in match factories, surrounded by chemicals so toxic their teeth would fall out.

Business owners saved a lot of money and treated children no better than slaves. They were popular in the production of goods as their small hands could unclog flesh slicing machines and wore no protection whatsoever. Children were often abused and suffered life threatening accidents and injuries. They had little to no rights and very low wages. The machines produced harmful fumes and chemicals and exerted intense levels of heat, making working unbearable. They suffered under abusive and horrible working conditions. The Industrial revolution established foundations in agriculture, manufacturing processes, the economy, urbanisation, energy sources, political changes, social changes, cultural transformations and kick started the growth of cities that eventually made for a better world. It replaced the hand crafted economy into a world of business, industry and manufacturing via machines (though working conditions in factories were poor).

Technological changes including the use of iron/steel and the use of fuels like coal and the steam engine are responsible for the pieces of technology and transport we have in our modern world. The inventions of new machines would eventually replace human labour and increase productivity as well as increase demand of natural resources, thus commencing an era of factory systems and mass production, though at the cost of the environment. The steam engine in source 1 is an example of a technological development that impacted one of the biggest manufacturing organisations and paved the way for more efficient means of transport, as well as allowing business to expand.

Agricultural developments including more efficient farming techniques and improved livestock breeding led to mass food production, resulting in better health and population growth. This agricultural revolution introduced techniques like crop rotation and overall developed the national market as well as the rise in domestic farmers and land conversions, further impacting our lives today.

The Industrial revolution made goods more affordable, accessible and established import and export systems across the globe. It increased the wealth of companies that led to shifts in businesses towards our society today. The development of technology like electricity, phones and vehicles not only saved time, money and labour investments but improved our communication, created home appliances (lights and refrigerators) and developed transport, therefore increasing our standard of living.

The Industrial revolution is also responsible for our advanced discoveries in medicine, through the inventions of devices like test tubes and all kinds of scientific equipment (which was made accessible so more people could join the field of medicine). Developments in communication allowed doctors and scientists to interact with each other and allowed for collaboration in finding cures and solving health issues, thus improving patient care across the globe. Our modern infrastructure is shaped based on events and developments during the Industrial revolution. It created more job opportunities and allowed the middle class to expand, creating a new level of economic power through investment of companies. This increase in jobs made specialist popular and specific machines for a certain product.

Whilst the industrial revolution paved the way for a better world, it is also responsible for a significant amount of wealth inequality and distribution. Social classes were even more divided, the rich got richer and the poor got poorer as seen in source three, money dramatically changed the way you lived. Though population growth expanded business and trade, it also led to overcrowding cities and things like disease and water contamination made life difficult for both the rich and poor. The use of factories and new technology is responsible for the destruction of its surrounding environment, including deforestation, water pollution, the extreme demand of natural and scarce resources like soil and minerals and overall led to our global warming issue from the use of fossil fuels and pollution.

If the level of tension/stress that we bear in today’s times was carried by the people in the 19th century, they were considered lunatic. With all the research, it seems like the authorities back then really made sure that the environment is calm and peaceful for everyone. Even though it meant they had to “arrest” the people causing a slight hindrance to society. Yes, that’s right – arrest. Well, according to the report, it was worse than going to jail. People captured in the mental asylum were tortured to the extent where instead of helping those people heal, their conditions were getting worse at a faster rate. Especially in Australia where Victoria has officially declared the state with the highest insanity in the world in the 1880s.

Back then, human rights weren’t officially established, and hence it was easy for the authorities to misuse their powers. Their treatment included being tied up to a chair to the extent where they couldn’t move, their legs and hands chained, and head tied with a headrest over their face. For these people, there was no returning to normal – EVER! It is vital for us to dig into the past with regards to this topic as it can suggest how things can be approached differently in the present and future.

I interviewed Stephanie Carlos who is a professional psychologist from Brisbane and has special knowledge about this topic who said “There was the mishandling and misuse of powers by the experts which contributed to the abolishment of the good rights.”

As history states, the control of the entire of Australia was in the hands of the British in the early stages and the British themselves didn’t have a good start. Before the formation of Australia, Britain was said to be the darkest place on earth for mentally ill people. Their ruthlessness towards the unstable had crossed all limits when they were reported to treat the patients like wild beasts until a depressed patient who was also a religious Christian died due to ill-treatment.

“When people in Britain gained knowledge of mental asylums being built in Australia, many families put their lunatic relative in the boat with some pounds and sent them to Australia. All the other abandoned people who were poor and homeless roaming on the street causing troubles were locked up in asylums. With time, they built more asylums and when Victoria started becoming this proud and prosperous city, they changed the laws for lunacy which gave the doctors more freedom to determine people as lunatic as per their definition” says Carlos.

Upon asking Carlos about how were people identified as lunatics back then, she said that the doctors and the government had a lot of power as there were no human rights introduced in the 19th century. They were the hunters of the town who could decide who was lunatic as per their will. They picked up people with intellectual disability, children with any sort of disability, people with dementia, epilepsy, people who had drinking problems, etc.

With that increasing number of people admitted to the hospital, there wasn’t sufficient staff to handle the chaos, and the mental asylums started falling apart. Day by day the quality of well-being at these hospitals dropped to worse which caused degradation of humanity.

“It won’t be wrong to say that people who were first brought to Australia may have had health issues as in the early stage of country formation, people were brought to a place they can’t return from and that must have dragged them towards mental disorder.”

From most of the pictures of the 19th-century mental asylums, the walls seem to have carvings with a number of drawings, pictures, marks, scratches which all look very hideous and disturbing. The rooms are seen crowed where patients are seen doing all kinds of things that reflect their mental conditions. Some are seen sitting quietly at one corner of the room, some are seen playing with random things, some talking to themselves, some crying, some fighting. The look of the hospital is best described as muddled with broken doors and windows.

The harsh treatment received by the mentally disturbed people wasn’t a headline anymore. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the western world started to believe and accepted that the treatment of mentally ill people was similar to torture. This acceptance made it easier for doctors to experiment with new ways of harsh treatment on the existing patients. Some of these treatments gave the patients near-death experiences.

In the process of researching new treatment methods, the doctors discovered old narratives dating back to the Roman times of people who recovered from insanity by being nearly drowned.

This theory led to mental patients being locked in cages and suffocate in water till the bubbles stop rising. As soon as the patient showed almost drowning signs, they were pulled back up expecting the patient to have survived the treatment and been reinstated their senses.

Other methods included spinning the patients till they vomited and unloaded their bowels.

A restraining chair was invented which looked slightly like an electric chair. To initiate the treatment, the arms and legs of the patients were tightly roped to the chair, closed stools were placed beneath the chair in case the patients evacuated their bowels during the treatment with a padded headrest that went through the eyes and ears. This situation disabled the patients from feeling any sensations and reduced the blood flow to the brain due to the chair’s firm grip.

Coldwater was poured on the heat and hot water on the feet. This experiment was expected to draw the “insaneness” away from the patients.

Mentally ill people who weren’t yet admitted to the hospital were sometimes being ill-treated by their family members. They were often hidden from the public view as the family members were too ashamed to carry the mentally ill to social events.

The electric shock therapy in its testing days experimented on the inmates where a part of the patient’s brain was detached. They lost all rights to their own existence with no hope of living a normal life again. With all these facts, the lives of the patients can certainly be termed – almost dead while alive.

Compared to all the cities in Australia, Victoria has exhibited to have the most number of immigrants over the last 150 years. As per the 18601’s census, 71% of Victoria’s population were immigrants. In the following years, this percentage fell down to 9 by 1947 but again rose post-1945 assisted migration schemes. Hence, a significant number of immigrants have formed the population throughout Victoria’s history. But the proportion of the population was even larger of Victoria’s mental hospitals during the 19th Century.

Victoria was a booming state and its citizens of demanded decency in their flourishing colony. Hence, the law was broadened for more people to be locked away in mental asylums. The new explanation of a lunatic became anyone of an unstable mind. This dragged in children and adults with intellectual disabilities, older patients with dementia, epilepsy, drunkards, etc.

At the end of the 19th century, Victoria had more lunatic asylums and a larger asylum population compared to any other state in Australia. By 1887, Victoria had 6 overcrowding asylums with 3300+ patients. As per the estimations, 1 in every 300 Victorians was a patient at the asylum. Predictions were made by an alarmed writer in his 1880 article ‘On the Prevention of Lunacy’ that –If the lunacy trends continued, by 2043 Victoria would have a population of 60 million – all of them ‘lunatics’.

Today, historians argue that one of the reasons for the mental health of Victoria to be so poor was the structural differences in population. As the majority of Victoria’s population consisted of male residents, the mental asylums predominated of male patients who were unmarried. As per the asylum casebook, the male patients were majorly admitted due to reasons like ‘disappointment’ and ‘isolation’ as almost all the female immigrants were recorded to be married and the males weren’t.

Most of the men were diggers and moved to Queensland, New Zealand, Western Australia when the new gold rushes occurred. Others became bush workers and swagmen. Their ‘disappointment’ was in terms of failing to fulfill their dreams due to the migration schemes and ‘isolation’ was in terms of having no family around in Australia.

Due to all the loneliness and sadness being built up over the years, a number of these male diggers ended their lives in Victoria’s lunatic asylums.

Apart from all the diggers that were mentally distorted, other major groups consisted of Chinese immigrants. In 1861, the estimated number of Chinese men who migrated to Victoria was 25000 – all of them were single. At that time, there were only 8 Chinese women in the whole colony. Some of the Chinese men found their way to the asylums in the 1850s, their main reasons- language and cultural differences. As most of the medical and nursing staff of the asylums were British or Australians, their communication with the Chinese patients was very difficult. Gradually after 1901, when Chinese immigration was restricted, many Chinese voluntarily and unwillingly returned home after which, their numbers jumped to 6000+ including 600 Chinese women by that time.

As the role of the United States grew globally in the late 19th century into the early 20th century, many motivating factors caused this growth. Americans looked to other lands and saw hope in potential territory gains and economic prosperity, but the main reason was two-sided in assisting other nations for humanitarian and Social Darwinist purposes.

Americans’ worth of freedom and democracy were trailblazing when a new government was established in 1776. Since then, many other nations looked up to the United States and its values and sought to copy them. After expanding westward and achieving manifest destiny, America was ready to be a powerhouse around the world.

In the search for land, the nation first turned within its hemisphere to Russian-controlled Alaska. Although many were opposed to gaining territory, calling it “Walrussia” and naming the quest “Seward’s Folly”, the U.S. gained Alaska from the Russians in exchange for gold (Document 1). This shows evidence of The United States’ push for more land.

Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan contrasts America’s foreign drive with the “wealth and greatness” that Great Britain got through trade. The United States was quickly becoming a power in manufacturing and production due to its industrialization and abundant resources. Expanding the market and trading with other foreign nations ameliorate the economy (Document 3).

Although imperialism provided territorial and economic benefits, the ideology of assisting countries in need, was a problem of imperialistic motives. In a Message to Congress in 1904, President Roosevelt denied any land famine as an objective but instead expanded upon building friendships with other nations and making mutual stability and prospering. Expanding friendships with other nations is important for the safety of the United States and for making the citizens of the U.S. gratified.

This humanitarian target took another turn among many of the people of the United States to Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism is the ideology that stronger nations and cultures are required to dominate other “inferior” cultures. The United States sent school teachers to the Philippines to improve their education and consequently, improve their society and Westernize. The Filipinos denied this unwelcome intervention because they thought it was disrespectful.

In conclusion, economic success and land gains were the motivations for America’s expanding role at the international level. However, providing other nations with assistance seemed to be the biggest push factor.

Included in the program music is Respighi’s ‘Gli Uccelli’, written in 1928 and based on 17th and 18th century music in an attempt to transcribe birdsong into musical notation, and illustrate bird actions, such as fluttering wings, or scratching feet, Mozart’s ‘Piano Concerto No. 21’, written in 1785 rapidly after his previous piece called ‘D minor concerto K. 466’, Satie’s ‘Gymnopédies No 1 and 3’, written in 1888 and named after a Greek traditional festival where men dance naked, and Mendelssohn’s ‘Symphony No. 4’, written in 1833, Mendelssohn’s piece encapsulates his experiences travelling across wartime Europe.

In playing Respighi’s ‘Gli Uccelli’, the ensemble carefully plays the first movement with a pleasant, controlled, and balanced sound. The phenomenal transition into the second movement brilliantly uses the violin to create great contrast that emphasizes the musical texture of the piece. The ensemble ends to together as they transition to the third movement, where the strings start at an energetic pace and show off their impressive staccato. Towards the middle of the piece, a trumpet blares a touch too loudly for the balance of the piece, but other than that the ensemble plays pleasantly. The rest of the piece demonstrates the intended bird noises and ends rather unspectacularly.

In playing Mozart’s ‘Piano Concerto No. 21’, the strings create a cohesive flowing sound while the brass works to create a peppy sound. Later, the strings excellently navigate a technical section of the piece while showing off a great degree of control over their sound through dynamic contrast. After the first movement ends, the pianist takes a handkerchief off the top of the piano and wipes her head. This action seemed slightly unprofessional but is understood given the circumstances of the stage lights and nerves. In the second movement, a high reaching violin voice hits way up in the register while maintaining a controlled sound. On the other hand, the flutes attempted to reach into the higher register but ended up sounding shrill and unpleasant. The piano transition ended up sounding clunky and unsupported but the ensemble pulls forward and ties the piece together in a dramatic closing to the movement. The next movement opens with highly energetic call and response between piano and ensemble. The strings players all seem to move with the music and create a powerful stage presence.

Satie’s ‘Gymnopédies No. 1’ presented a calming and relaxed tone which acted in great contrast to the energetic nature of the previous pieces. Through the flowing piano melody, the audience felt drawn together in common experience of the soothing piece.

Mendelssohn’s ‘Symphony No. 4’ gave the ensemble the opportunity to once more show off their impressive technical musical ability through quick-moving sections. The use of dynamic contrast created a piece of music that showed great contrast to the previous piece while standing on its own as an astounding finale to a moving concert.

Overall, I felt that the orchestra demonstrated a variety of skilled techniques across a pleasing array of pieces that truly brought the audience along through a journey across time and showcased the depths that music has to offer.

The history of the United States covers the progressive era, the new deal, and the post-World War II. The end of the 19th century was influential in the history of the US. This is a period that has often been remembered as an era of progress and expansion. The period was characterized by unparalleled economic and technological development. It was, however, a controversial era that was characterized by struggles between the poor and the wealthy as everyone struggled to acquire power and wealth (Boyer et al., 2016). The paper will focus on the development of America since 1877, chronologically analyzing the forces and events that made the US what it is today.

Progressivism, which took place between 1880-1920, was a well-organized and well-planned movement in the US and had wide diversified objectives. This era was marked by widespread political reforms and social activism across America. During this period, the federal government leaped forward in activism and power. The movement consisted of people from the middle class who had confidence and knew that they could accomplish social development via political reform. The leaders of this movement centered on humanity element and struggled to make positive changes by supporting liberation. It was an era of development of new changes and reforms for the US. The movement dealt with various struggles and problems for the US. The issues were as a result immigration, urbanization, political corruption as well as unfair wealth distribution. The leaders believed that such issues required immediate action. They wanted to make the US a better place through idealism, arranged action, social research, and initiatives (Boyer et al., 2016). They were present in politics, organizations, organized labor, and even churches. It is hypothesized that this movement changed the values and lifestyle of Americans and had an everlasting effect on American history. However, the campaign had several dishonorable qualities. The progressives were biased and racially prejudiced. While the eventual objectives of this movement were improved democracy, uncorrupt government, and social justice, they never achieved all these because of their bias.

The New Deal was a series of financial reforms, public projects, regulations, and programs enacted between 1933 and 1936 by President Franklin Roosevelt in the US. The movement was in response to the reform, relief, and recovery from the Great Depression. The programs were enacted to aid America in dealing with poverty that was widespread during that period. Poverty had a significant effect on American citizens. They lacked homes and employment, and this led to depression. The program was determined to three steps: relief, recovery and reform. Many Americans felt that the New Deal was a great success as it led to their prosperity, and for the very first time, these people had hope for a better future. One of the greatest achievements of the New Deal was the bringing down of unemployment from almost 13 million to 8 million. The movement led to the creation of long-term jobs by the use of alphabet agencies. A welfare state was introduced in the US, and a significant number of people received shelter clothing and food. This stopped the citizens from starving. The government established welfare and social security schemes for the benefit of its citizens. Still, this program drastically changed the two major political parties in the US (LaFeber & Woloch, 2015). The commitment of President Roosevelt to improve the plight of both the poor and the working class shifted political loyalties.

The responsibility and role of the federal government changed significantly during the New Deal. Drastic changes after the Civil War led to the need for political, social, and economic reforms. Before the new deal and the progressive era, the federal government did not care much about the welfare of US citizens. With the New Deal, the government became participated more and became more responsive to the public and came up with many reforms. According to history, the New Deal was successful. Although it did not end unemployment altogether, it significantly reduced it. One of the most significant objectives of the New Deal was to put America back to work, and the program made agencies help such as the AAA, PWA, and CCC fulfill this objective. Millions of Americans got employed in the projects that were sponsored by the government. Still, the citizens benefited from the hospitals, new roads, and schools. This proves that this era produced the most substantial change in American history.

The decade after the Second World War is fondly remembered as an era of cultural stability and economic growth. The US had won the war and defeated the other forces. The experiences of the previous hardships and depression were replaced by the increased opportunities, improved living standards, and a new emerging US culture that was confident in the future and internal position. While World War II presented Americans with various issues and problems, they became full of confidence after winning the war. The war drastically changed the views of Americans on racial discrimination. It also became a stimulus for the rights of women. They became economically active and worked on various businesses. After the war, there was a massive economic growth and an end to the Great depression. The involvement of America in the war dramatically changed the nation for good and developed a legacy that has left a significant and permanent mark (LaFeber & Woloch, 2015). After the war, the US gained a new view on their position in the society and affirmed their independence.

The Congress of Vienna and the German Confederation 1815-1864

The year is 1815. Napoleon has finally been defeated by the combined forces of Prussia and Britain. The Emperor of France was sent to the Pacific Island of Saint Helena, never to return. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna was called, a meeting between the old powers of Europe, to return the continent to its pre-Napoleonic state. During the reign of Napoleon, most of what is known as Germany was part of the Confederation of the Rhine, a French puppet state. The people of the Confederation did not enjoy living under French occupation, and would attempt to counteract it by emphasizing their German heritage. This would ultimately lead to the idea of German nationhood, and at the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation was established, a loose alliance of German states, ruled by the Austrian Emperor. It is important to note that while the states in the German Confederation shared a similar cultural and linguistic heritage, they were still vastly different. The Northern German states were heavily influenced by both the Netherlands and Britain, with a largely Protestant population, while the Catholic South (dominated by Austria) shared more ties with the Italians, Hungarians, and French, than with their Northern neighbours. These cultural differences had begun during the wars of the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648), and many North Germans, particularly the Prussians, were just as unhappy living under Austrian dominance as they were under France.

The German Confederation would become further divided after 1848, when a wave of nationalistic revolutions struck Europe. In the ethnically German North, this was a uniting factor, but in the South, which was comprised of Austrians, Czech, Bohemians, Saxons, Bavarians, French, and Hungarians, it was a dividing factor. As the Austrians were occupied with putting down their nationalist rebellions, Prussia became more and more influential in the German Confederation. Despite being wracked by infighting, the German Confederation was still largely a positive influence on Germany, as its standing army of 300,000 men was able to effectively defend its borders, and allow for economic growth. As time went on, Austria would continue to become less influential in German politics, largely due to being blocked by Prussia from joining the Zollverein (a German trade union).

The Wars of German Unification 1864-1871

“The great questions of the day will not be settled by means of speeches and majority decisions but by blood and iron!”

Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia

Cracks had begun to form in the German Confederation as early as 1818, but the decisive turning point came during the Second Schleswig War. The territories of Schleswig Holstein had long belonged to the Danish Crown, but in 1864, war broke out between the German Confederation and Denmark for control of the territory. Prussia and Austria supplied the majority of the troops for the conflict, with 60,000 men against Denmark’s 38,000. It was a relatively brief war, ending in October 1684 with the Treaty of Vienna, which ceded both Schleswig and Holstein to the German Confederation. In recognition for their services in the war, Prussia would receive Schleswig and Austria would receive Holstein. The Austrians were displeased with the result of the war, as it meant that they would have to travel deep through Prussian controlled Schleswig to reach their own territory of Holstein. The Austrians would confront Prussia on this matter, and it would ultimately lead to another war. The Prussian forces were extremely well drilled and equipped, under the leadership of General Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, who was also Chief of Prussian General Staff. Unlike many commanders of the time, Moltke embraced modern technology, particularly railways, allowing Prussian forces to mobilize and deploy much faster than their opponents. Prussia had a long martial history, and their soldiers had been regarded among the best in Europe since the Seven Years War (1756-1763.) Furthermore, junior officers and generals in the Prussian army were highly educated on military tactics, making them far more prepared for conflict than their opponents. The Austrian army was considerably less modernized, still using the same tactics that they used to achieve success in the centuries prior, while their general staff was hindered by bureaucracy. The Prussians had also formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Italy, and it was agreed that Italy would invade Austria through the South, while Prussia would invade through Bohemia. The war was a shocking success in the North, as they caught the Austrians off-guard, and advanced deep into Bohemia, crushing the Austrian army at Koniggratz, furthermore, Prussian morale was high as they were personally led by Kaiser Wilhelm. Austria would enjoy some success against Italy, but they were pressured by Prussia to sue for peace after only seven weeks.

Prussia had been very careful to ensure that France, Britain, and Russia stayed out of the war. Much of this was done through the work of Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Minister President. He would later be responsible for much of Prussian, and later German foreign and domestic policy until the twentieth century. Bismarck, Moltke, and the Prussian War Minister, Albrecht von Roon championed the political movement Realpolitik, suggesting that Prussia should act extremely pragmatically, with a selfish national interest at heart. While at certain occasions, Bismarck was a cold and calculating man, he was also known to have sporadic childish tantrums. During a heated debate over how Prussia should proceed against Austria after the Seven Weeks War, for instance, Bismarck allegedly broke down in tears, smashed a lamp, and threatened to jump out of a window if the Kaiser did not accept his advice. It must have been a rather uncomfortable situation for the Prussian general staff.

In the aftermath of the Seven Weeks War, the Austrians found themselves abandoned by most of their former allies, and many German states joined Prussia, forming the North German Confederation. The Austrian Empire was displeased with this result, but ultimately accepted it, and decided on shifting their foreign policy to the Balkans, steering clear of Prussia. For the time, the North German Confederation was quite liberal, allowing men above twenty-five to vote for their representatives in the Reichstag (Parliament). This rapid Prussian expansion was noticed by the other major powers, and it would not be long before someone challenged Prussian hegemony in Northern Europe.

This would come when Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern and cousin to Wilhelm I, was offered the Spanish crown. This proposal worried the French Emperor Napoleon III, as he did not want to be encircled by the Hohenzollern family, as had happened to France during the sixteenth century, when the Hapsburg dynasty controlled both Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon III expressed this to Wilhelm in a telegram that was a thinly veiled threat as to what would happen if Leopold took the throne. The Kaiser then proceeded to send the telegram to Bismarck. The telegram, known to history as the Ems Telegram, was edited in a manner which made the French appear weak and cowardly, provoking them into declaring war. Much like in the Seven Weeks War, Bismarck ensured that the other great powers would stay out of the war, while making alliances with the German states of Bavaria and Wurttemberg. The North German Confederation army was once again lead by Helmuth von Moltke and Albrecht von Roon, who had painstakingly planned for the war. The army numbered 900,000 strong, along with 200,000 reserve soldiers who would join later in the war – they were equipped with a new weapon, the Needlegun. France outnumbered the Prussians by nearly a million soldiers; however, they were less well drilled, equipped, and organized. Napoleon III would personally command the French army, despite lacking the military experience required to combat the Prussians, but before his army had fully mobilized, the Prussians had already crossed into French territory. The war was another resounding success, after Napoleon III and most of the French army was captured at the Battle of Sedan. Led by Moltke, the German army pushed onwards to Paris, and bombarded the city, after a request for the Parisians to surrender was refused. Furthermore, the German navy had blockaded France, sending away any foreign aid. After the fall of Paris, German forces would march South to Orleans and Metz, where they gained even more victories, and on the 26th of January, 1871, the French government surrendered to the Prussians at Versailles. Earlier that month, on January 1st, at a meeting of the German leaders in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, Bismarck called for the creation of the Kaiserreich, the German Empire, with Wilhelm I as emperor, and Bismarck serving as the first Chancellor of Germany. In the mere seven years from 1866 to 1871, Prussia had humbled the Danes, Austrians, and French, never faltering, and managed to do what so many had failed in the last millennium, create a united German Nation.

Wilhelm and the Kulturkampf 1871-1888

During the reign of Wilhelm I, Bismarck continued to play a major role in both foreign and domestic policy, managing to centralize the many states of Germany, and making alliances with Austria-Hungary and Italy, while securing peace with Russia and France.. The German Constitution was largely based off of the North German Constitution, as all men above twenty-five would be given the right to vote for their representatives in the Reichstag, the legislative branch of the government. Bismarck would also organize the 1884 Berlin Conference, a meeting between the great powers of Europe to divide Africa, as he dreamt of making Germany a great colonial empire, much like Britain and France.. The German Empire would gain several colonies, such as Ghana, but a global empire was ultimately not in its future. Also under Wilhelm (and until the outbreak of WWI), Germany would continue expanding their army, at its peak numbering over four million, making it one of the largest in Europe. The navy was also swelling in size, increasing from a largely unimportant coast guard in 1871 to one that would ultimately rival that of Britain in the early years of the 20th century. In the early years of the German Empire during the 1870s to 1880s, the nation experienced what was known as the Kulturkampf, the “Culture Conflict.” Prussia, the core of the German nation, as well as their neighbours such as Hanover and Schleswig were largely Protestant, while the South German states maintained strong ties to the Catholic Church. Bismarck desired to remove any foreign influence on the German people, whether it be from a rival nation, or the Clergy. He would do this through several laws passed by the Reichstag, which limited the power of the Church (most importantly, the School Supervision Act of 1872 blocked Church oversight in Schools and Universities, Wikipedia, Kulturkampf)

Economy, Industry, Nationalism 1871-1900

From 1871 onward, Germany urbanized, alongside a rapid period of industrialization. Factories sprung up across the nation, producing massive quantities of iron, steel, and most importantly, coal. While this allowed for unmatched economic growth, making them the world’s third largest economy by 1900, the sheer amount of people moving into the major cities (Berlin, Konigsberg, Frankfurt, among others) led to extremely poor quality of living for the middle class, ultimately causing the rise of the Social Democratic Party, which championed the rights of the lower and working class. politicians and philosophers looked to the German past to build a united country. To counteract the poor quality of life, Bismarck introduced the German Welfare State, which formed the basis for much of modern day European and American welfare, providing a modicum of healthcare, and a pension for senior citizens. Since 1848, Nationalist movements had sprung up across Europe, with one of the major uniting factors being a shared cultural heritage. For this purpose, politicians and philosophers looked to past “Germanic” heroes to build a united nation. One of the most influential figures for German nationalists was Arminius,a 1st century C.E Germanic tribal leader who had rebelled against Roman hegemony, which ultimately lead to his death. Another Proto-German was Friedrich Barbarossa, a Holy Roman Emperor who had fought against both French and Italian incursions into his territory, as well as dying on crusade. A legend was spread that he was alive and well in the mountains, waiting to aid Germany in its hour of need (Hitler’s Wehrmacht codenamed their Russian invasion Operation Barbarossa.) Naturally, these figures were heavily propagandized, and it is unlikely that either (among others) of them truly believed in a German nation, rather securing power for their families. Another uniting factor for Germans was their Anti Semitism, which had existed for centuries, as they were viewed by the common people as a cult who desired world domination.

Wilhelm II 1888-1914

Wilhelm I would die at the age of 91, in May of 1888, and the throne passed to his son Friedrich III, who would also maintain Bismarck as German Chancellor. Friedrich III did not achieve much in his reign, aside from marrying the daughter of Queen Victoria, intertwining the British and German royal families. Less than half a year into his reign, Friedrich died of cancer, and his son Wilhelm II succeeded him. Wilhelm II was extremely hot headed and did not appreciate Bismarck constantly meddling in foreign and domestic policy, dismissing him in 1890. The year before Bismarck’s death, he visited the Kaiser one last time, telling him that within a few years, a “Great war would break out, likely over some foolish thing in the Balkans”. During the early years of Wilhelm’s reign, Germany reached its peak, as he proudly supported Mathematics, Philosophy, Arts, Science, and Music, making the country one of the most culturally diverse and advanced nations in Europe at the time. Furthermore, he added on to the welfare reforms, making Germany a comparatively liberal place to live by 1900. The Kaiser maintained good relations with the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef, as well as making several visits to the Ottoman Empire, securing alliances. Despite being cousins with George V of Britain and Nicholas II of Russia, the Kaiser disliked both of them, seeing Nicholas as somewhat bumbling, while the British viewed Wilhelm as simply too arrogant. Both of these assessments are probably fair. Germany also experienced a population boom under Wilhelm II, the nation numbering over sixty million at its peak. The Military would also increase in size and skill, particularly the navy. Under the leadership of Alfred von Tipritz, Germany would rapidly modernize and increase the size of their fleet, with nineteen warships by 1905 (Wikipedia, Imperial German Navy.) These naval exercises greatly worried Britain, as they saw it as a threat to their naval hegemony, which had existed since 1805, and was one of the major reasons that relations soured between Wilhelm II and George V. The army also expanded, numbering approximately three million in the early years of the twentieth century, under the competent, but not exceptional leadership of Alfred von Schliefen and Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, cousin of the previously mentioned Moltke the Elder, and by 1910, Germany established a rudimentary air force, of around four thousand planes. So it would appear that on the eve of the twentieth century, Germany was prepared to become the pre-eminent world power within generation. A mere eighteen years later, that dream would come crumbling down.