Category: 19th Century

The concept of the progression of society is timeless and it often is crucial for innovation and growth. Paris, one of the most iconic and well-known cities in the world today, went through a complex and drastic change in the 19th century. In a city consumed by economic and social issues, there were great possibilities of future crisis and destruction, yet still some had hope and an opportunist point of view. In the book, Paris, ‘Capital of Modernity’, author David Harvey, argues that some of the reasons for the re-planning Paris include the surplus of capital and labor power, the need for improvement of infrastructure, and due to the political climate.

In the mid-19th century, Paris was going through a rough situation. Harvey states that the population increased from 786,000 to 1,000,000 from 1831 to 1846 (Harvey, 93). The crisis of overpopulation led to underemployment and a surplus of capital and labor power which was simply not profitable. There were harvest failures in 1847 which resulted in people desperate for employment. The surplus of labor and capital power resulted in many tangible effects such as; crime, disease, overpopulation as well as mental and emotional effects of human misery and degradation. However, the crisis was viewed in various ways by the various groups of people as it affected groups of people differently. For example, craft workers saw this as a loss of respect and were insecure about future employment opportunities due to the capitalist control of production and distribution (Harvey, 97). The economy was clearly at a low point and was directly affecting the people.

Despite overpopulation being an issue, the surplus of capital became of use as it was used in the long-term investment of the city through construction, mining, railroad work, etc. The concept of space relations does not only reflect the physical changes but also have complex social effects. Many other European countries began improving infrastructure and manufacturing in an efficient manner, and this only further showed the importance of how Paris needed to as well. Despite having enhanced labor in the 1830’s revolution, Paris has been adapting to previous methods rather than having a strong and concrete plan for new, innovative change. The need for improvement of infrastructure was clear not just for Paris but for many European countries for the chance to truly move forward in the long term.

In 1852, Louis Napoleon declared: “We have immense uncultivated lands to clear, roads to open, harbors to excavate, rivers to make navigable, canals to finish, our railway network to complete” (Harvey, 107). In 1853, Haussmann became prefect of the Seine and was given the task of replanning the city. Paris became the hub of the new rail network as it was the main market and manufacturing center. As Paris was suffering economically, the fact that Paris was centralized made Paris for accessible for international markets and made it gain access to export markets as well. There were railroads and construction sites to organize the transport and communication systems which were previously very unorganized and chaotic filled with crowds and discomfort. In addition, separating people by class in railway stations also allowed for more privacy which led to a better social dynamic with the overpopulation conflicts. There were also improvements and restructuring in churches, schools, hotels, and other interior spaces as there more investments in these areas. Haussmann even built a city hall for administrative reasons and this helped establish a more concrete and authoritative platform which helped with the political atmosphere. One of the key realizations during all this was just because work was not profitable does not mean it is not productive. When seeking a long-term view and improving infrastructure for the future, the surplus labor and capital were put to use with the circulation of capital. As Harvey states, “The orientation of new transport systems reemphasized, for example, the tendency toward centralization of administration, finance, economy, and population in Paris” (Harvey, 114).

The change in infrastructure also affected the gender stereotypes affecting women in the 19th century. The retail revolution sparked an evolution as department stores were a big hit especially among women who became more comfortable going to stores where they were still ‘indoors’ but experiencing the outside world without judgement about their character especially from men. This also played a role in the shift of ‘gender roles’ of women and gave them the freedom and normality of going outside, which they had not had much of before. Women gaining this new freedom also affected the long-term outlook of the workforce and the economic aspects in relation to labor power. In addition, there were more tourists because of the improvement of the infrastructure and this has positively impacted the growth of the economy as well.

The political climate also played a significant role in the change in the 19th century. Paris workers began losing their rights to work as the government became more conservative in the beginning of 1848. The people rebelled against this idea against the government in the February Revolution, until Napoleon was elected at the end of 1848. The fact that Napoleon was elected meant that the socialist and democratic views were indeed popular among Parisians. Napoleon accomplished a lot for France in the time when he ruled. He encouraged modernity and the empire was a crucial shift in French politics which helped bring together the institutions of nations. He helped improve traffic circulation between rail stations and into the civic center, slim clearance around the city center, and improved access to the central market of Les Halles.

Haussmann always wanted the idea of evolution and breaking away from the past and it was through his ideologies and determination, that inspired the replanning of Paris. Through his understanding of the economic significance to his great attention to detail, he was able to replan Paris in a way that was not only visually appealing but economically feasible. Haussmann was so influential that the term ‘Haussmannization’ actually refers to the continuation of the urban transformation which he initiated. Under Napoleon’s rule, Haussmann created a strategy for ensuring that the investments would not be an extra cost to taxpayers since they were productive for society and by using tax called ‘octroi’ on goods imported from Paris. However, the investments in the infrastructures did result in a large increase of debt, from 163 million francs to 2500 million francs from 1853 to 1870. Haussmann relied on the employment of citizens to ensure the prosperity of Paris rather than welfare, school systems, and other means. The concept or surveillance became a big movement in the Second Empire.

In conclusion, Harvey has shown how the factors of surplus labor and capital, the need for infrastructure improvement, and the political climate have helped reshape and restructure Paris. Harvey shows how the economic, social, and political factors all played a role in the reasons as to why the restructuring of Paris was necessary. A city is not changed in a day, and the change can never truly be anticipated, but slowly and steadily, it can be looked back upon as we see how those changes have resulted in the improvement of Paris.

2In 1853 Baron Georges Haussmann was appointed by Napoleon III the planning and transformation of Paris. At the time Paris was still recovering from the days of revolution, not just in 1789, but also more recent ones in 1830 and 1848, and was filled with thieves, escaped convicts and prostitutes who were protected by the authorities by the dark and narrow ‘medieval’ streets. The French writer Voltaire once remarked that “Paris could be made the most beautiful city in the world in 10 years”. Haussmann was not an architect or urban designer but was a success in commerce and politics under Napoleon. However, he had developed an interest in local history, Engineering, and a fascination for roads. By the time Hausmann left in 1870, Paris was the model of European town planning and the spotlight of many capital cities. The scheme itself had main elements that were in some respects successful as Paris was modernized and transformed, however there are also consequences of failures in the scheme that are still shown in the fabric of Paris’ history today.

To create a new modern Paris and for the scheme to be a success, the planning needed to be handled delicately due to the complexity of the city and the current nature of the political climate. The aims and needs of the city and its plan were complex. For example, the effects of trees in a square needed to look picturesque but also there needed to be an understanding on the current importance of the barracks. Haussmann had a difficult task ahead of him and had to make sure the scheme did not fail by embarking on administrative campaign in order to expand the legal boundaries of the city. Parisians were in the beginning unfazed until Haussmann started to quickly disrupt the city life for example when surveying the city with large timber poles to get accurate measurements of Paris. He also did mass demolitions in the city, destroying people’s homes.

The main aims of the modernization of Paris can be categorized into different objectives. The first objective which is considered most important by some historians, was to prevent the Parisians from ‘descending into the streets’ as they have done before. To do this the geography of Paris needed to be changed. Economically, Paris needed to be modernized through increasing commercial and industrial facilities that are in the city but also by reorganizing the highways and routes leading in and out of the city. Finally, Haussmann under the direction of Napoleon III wanted the capital city to be reflective of France as a country and create a city that was filled with light and beautiful but also a city with cleanliness. These objectives were the back drive to the main elements of Hausmann’s plan for 19th-century Paris.

The previous revolutions in Paris outlined three major difficulties for the authorities. In the center of the city there were narrow streets filled with shanty towns where agitators and other criminals could easily work, large bodies of people were unhappy, and they could gather and build their outrage and violence. The narrow streets now filled with angry citizens could be easily blocked by barricades that could not be cleared. Taking down these barricades cost the police a lot of money and took time. This was not helped by the system of unprotected roads that led rapidly from one part of the town to another, meaning authorities were unable to act quickly. The most drastic solution that Haussmann implemented was the destruction of all the slums in the center of the city. This still was not enough to solve the issue, so instead he constructed barracks in such a way that it would give maximum protection to the center of the city and be the center of strategic defense communications. He then created a new highway system that linked the North, South, East and West of Paris together by creating and extending boulevards. After connecting Paris’ roads together, he needed to create more links to the world outside of the city and this was done through improvements on railway services and connections to Paris. After creating the highways connecting the railway and industrial centers, Haussmann opened the suburbs. He connected them to the heart of the city through roads leading to different points throughout Paris. For example, the Etoile in the West with twelve avenues and boulevards from all around Paris that all meet at the Arc de Triomphe.

Overall, in terms of the remapping of the geography of Paris Haussmann was somewhat successful in his changes as he was able to help the authorities in Paris, create industrial routes which had economic benefits and improve Paris commercially as people were more connected throughout the city. However, where this part of the scheme fails lies within the fact that the revolutionary unrest and crime that Hausmann had thought he had removed from the center of the city simply moved to the outskirts of the city. The root of the problem was never solved. The rearrangement of the city created a divided between the west and the east. Hausmann removed the physical issue but created a bigger problem of moral hostility and psychological unease.

In terms of the people of Paris, Haussmann thought that they lacked any civic sentiment towards their city and that to change. In his plan he wanted to provide Paris with public services that would be proper to a capital city example open spaces, theatres, or churches. Haussmann was successful in this sense as he provided the city with buildings such as the Tribunal de Commerce, extensions to the Louvre, and the Theatre de la Gaite Montparnasse. He helped boost tourism for example through the inclusion of the Hotel du Louvre. He also was responsible for churches, such as the St. Augustin and St. Francois Xavier, as well as more prisons, asylums, and hospitals. One major building that was in the works around the same time and was key to this part of Haussmann’s plan was the Paris Opera by Charles Garnier. The building had its own spotlight in the city of Paris and created another luxury and way of life for the Parisians. It was an inclusion in Haussmann’s plan that would help put Paris on the map. The Paris Opera provided terminus to one of Haussmann’s streets, the Avenue de l’Opera. He also created new residential quarters and workers quarters in the northeast of Paris. These developments fundamentally changed the life of Parisians. The ways it may have not been successful was that once the industrial areas in the northeast became saturated, workers moved to the outskirts of the city leaving the middle class comfortably in the middle. This, tied in with the movement of crime and revolutionary unrest mentioned previously, created what was known as the ‘Red Belt of Paris’. This left Paris in a strong political divide that would carry on till the late 20th century. However, one of the greatest and more successful changed to Paris was the introduction of the sewage systems in Paris. The whole subterrain beneath Paris was designed to be around 600 miles in length and fulfilled its purpose in keeping Paris healthy. This element of the scheme was successful in avoiding pollution and improving public cleanliness.

Haussmann wanted to transform the style of architecture that would later become distinct to Paris and the framework for many other European cities. He often used sudden and wide perspective architecture by placing public buildings boldly in the angles of squares or centralizing them along the wide avenues. This is shown as the St. Augustin church leads round the bend in the Boulevard Malesherbes. Generally, his architectural influence had a large emphasis on geometric harmony. This style is shown in the lime-stone apartment blocks built on the new boulevards that became standardized. The symmetrical and bourgeois buildings were softened by the use of trees. The open wide streets, spaces and trees almost made the hidden courtyards and odd side streets more charming and cultural ‘hidden gems’. Another part of the urban planning of the city was Haussmann’s inclusion of large open spaces such as parks and squares. Much of the inspiration came from the green places and squares in London. Haussmann also wanted to make sure that the almost glamourous open spaces in western of Paris, which were designed for the military, were not too different to the spaces for the lower classes of eastern Paris. This element of the scheme was very successful as it helped to characterize Paris into what we see it as today as well as paying homage to the history and the Second Empire in France which was important to Napoleon III at the time.

In the end, a once medieval city was now a modern powerhouse that had more room to grow. By creating new districts in the city, building new roads, monuments, and public spaces a new grandeur of the city was created. One of the biggest successes of the scheme was not just the improved appearance of the city but also the health of its citizens. The widening of the streets and the production of more housing for people in the city meant that Haussmann had eased the overcrowding within the city and lowered the threat of diseases such as cholera which was previously very prevalent. A cleaner Paris was created through the help of the new sewage system that channeled the wastewater and human excrement away from the city, reducing the pollution that would have made Paris seem more uncivilized. The new buildings that Haussmann designed have proven to be more functional and longstanding than the previous buildings that stood before in Paris and he created a new form of Renaissance architecture that was to be mirrored throughout Europe.

Although on paper and in the long run the plan to modernize 19th-century Paris was successful in different ways as just outlined, at the time and to the Parisians Haussmann’s scheme had a negative impact. Haussmann had offended ministers by ‘rebelling’ and arguing with policies and legislations in place as well as exceeding the planned budget. The tone of the new design of Paris was potentially out of touch with the unrest that had driven the recent revolutions; it seemed to most Parisians that the way the project was handled – destruction and devastation in many poor areas – and the lavish, ‘flashy’ new Paris was not in line with the new wave of freedom that they had been fighting for (‘Paris Reborn: Napoleon III, Baron Haussmann, and the Quest to Build a Modern City’, 2013). Not only emotionally for the people of Paris was this shown but also physically through the class restructuring outlined previously. Overall, the planning had many successes that transformed Paris into a lot of the city that is known to the world today. The Parisian modernization was emulated by nearly every major European capital city and brought with it a new characterization of Paris and Europe.

References

1. Chapman, Brian. ‘Baron Haussmann and the Planning of Paris’. The Town Planning Review, vol. 24, no. 3, 1953, pp. 177-192.
2. Gandy, Matthew. ‘The Paris Sewers and the Rationalization of Urban Space’. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, vol. 24, no. 1, 1999, pp. 23-44.
3. Jordan, David P. (2004). ‘Haussmann and Haussmannisation: The Legacy for Paris’. The French Historical Studies, 27(1), pp. 87-113.
4. Pinkney, D. H. (1957). ‘Money and Politics in the Rebuilding of Paris, 1860-1870’. The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press, 17(1), pp. 45-61. doi: 10.1017S0022050700059866.

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries people were kidnapped from the continent of Africa, forced into slavery in the American colonies and exploited to work as indentured servants and labor in the production of crops such as tobacco and cotton. Slavery in America ended with the Civil War, but the long struggle to end slavery actually consumed much of the first half of the 19th century. The genre known as slave narratives in the 19th century were accounts by people who had generally escaped from slavery, about their journeys to freedom and ways they claimed their lives. Slave narratives by African slaves from North America were first published in England in the 18th century. They soon became the main form of African-American literature in the 19th century. Before the high point of slave narratives, African-American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives.

Slave Narratives

A genre of African-American literature that developed in the middle of the 19th century is the slave narrative, accounts written by fugitive slaves about their lives in the South and, often, after escaping to freedom. They wanted to describe the cruelties of life under slavery, as well as the persistent humanity of the slaves as persons. At the time, the controversy over slavery led to impassioned literature on both sides of the issue, with novels such as ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ (1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe’s representing the abolitionist view of the evils of slavery. Southern white writers produced the ‘Anti-Tom’ novels in response, purporting to truly describe life under slavery, as well as the more severe cruelties suffered by free labor in the North. Examples include ‘Aunt Phillis’s Cabin’ (1852) by Mary Henderson Eastman and ‘The Sword and the Distaff’ (1853) by William Gilmore Simms.

The slave narratives were integral to African-American literature. Some 6,000 former slaves from North America and the Caribbean wrote accounts of their lives, with about 150 of these published as separate books or pamphlets. Slave narratives can be broadly categorized into three distinct forms: tales of religious redemption, tales to inspire the abolitionist struggle, and tales of progress. The tales written to inspire the abolitionist struggle are the most famous because they tend to have a strong autobiographical motif. Many of them are now recognized as the most literary of all 19th-century writings by African-Americans, with two of the best-known being Frederick Douglass’s autobiography and ‘Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl’ by Harriet Jacobs (1861).

‘Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl’

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, written by herself is an autobiography by Harriet Jacobs, a mother and fugitive slave, published in 1861 by L. Maria Child, who edited the book for its author. Jacobs used the pseudonym Linda Brent. The book documents Jacobs’s life as a slave and how she gained freedom for herself and for her children. Jacobs contributed to the genre of slave narrative by using the techniques of sentimental novels to address race and gender issues. She explores the struggles and sexual abuse that female slaves faced as well as their efforts to practice motherhood and protect their children when their children might be sold away.

Harriet Jacobs was born into slavery in Edenton, North Carolina in 1813. When she was a child, her mistress taught her to read and write, skills that were extremely rare among slaves. At twelve years old, she fell into the hands of an abusive owner who harassed her sexually. When he threatened to sell her children, she hid in a tiny crawlspace under the roof of her grandmother’s house. After staying there for seven years, spending much of her time reading the Bible and also newspapers, she finally managed to escape to New York in 1842.

Her brother, John S. Jacobs, who had also managed to escape from slavery, became more and more involved with the abolitionists led by William Lloyd Garrison, going on several anti-slavery lecturing tours from 1847 onwards. In 1849/50, Harriet Jacobs helped her brother running the Anti-Slavery Office and Reading Room in Rochester, New York, being in close contact with abolitionists and feminists like Frederick Douglass and Amy and Isaac Post. During that time, she had the opportunity to read abolitionist literature and become acquainted with anti-slavery theory. Urged by her brother and by Amy Post, she started to write her autobiography in 1853, finishing the manuscript in 1858, which was finally published in January 1861.

‘Iola Leroy’

‘Iola Leroy’, or ‘Shadows Uplifted’, an 1892 novel by Frances Harper, is one of the first novels published by an African-American woman. While following what has been termed the ‘sentimental’ conventions of late nineteenth-century writing about women, it also deals with serious social issues of education for women, passing, miscegenation, abolition, reconstruction, temperance, and social responsibility.

‘Iola Leroy’, or ‘Shadows Uplifted’ (1892), is the story of Iola Leroy, a beautiful young mixed-race woman of majority white ancestry in the antebellum years. Born free in Mississippi, she and her brother Harry are the children of a wealthy white planter and his mixed-race wife, a former slave whom he freed and married before the American Civil War (note: such interracial marriage was then illegal, although planters, wealthy enough, sometimes flouted the law). Her father sends Iola to the North to be educated. After his death, Iola is kidnapped, told that she has black blood, and sold into slavery in the Deep South.

In a plot that follows the conventions of the late nineteenth tragic mulatto genre, Iola struggles to elude the intentions of her various owners to use her sexually. After she is freed by the Union Army during the war, she seeks to find her scattered family members. Embracing her African heritage, she works to improve the social and economic condition of blacks in the United States.

Iola is supported in her struggle by people who relate to various aspects of her complicated life: a devoted former Leroy family slave, Tom Anderson, rescued Iola from a lecherous master. Her brother Harry Leroy joins her in refusing to ‘pass’ as white, although that would make life easier for them (note: Both Leroys have a majority of white ancestry). She meets a newfound uncle, Robert Johnson, who introduces her to her dark-skinned maternal grandmother Harriet, of mostly African descent.

After the war, Leroy continues to identify as black. She declines to pass for white when her New England suitor, Dr. Gresham, makes it a condition of his proposal of marriage. He wants her to promise never to reveal her African ancestry.

Leroy marries Dr. Frank Latimer, a man of mixed ancestry who also identifies with the black community. They return to North Carolina to fight for ‘racial uplift’. After a series of coincidences, Iola Leroy Latimer reunites with her surviving Leroy family members after the war.

The Double Oppression of Race and Gender

Race and gender prove to be two daunting obstacles for the women in ‘Iola Leroy’, and success depends on the women’s ability to keep a strong black feminist stance. Prescribed female roles and racial prejudice hinder Aunt Linda and Iola in their ambitions and endeavors, but they resist the expectation that women’s work is nurturing children and husbands. Both characters transcend the confines of the home, and Iola believes that working in public is key to marital success. She repeatedly encounters racism while pursuing her career, and only through the white Mr. Cloten does she secure an accountancy position. To finance a home, Aunt Linda, an entrepreneur, sells pies while her husband is at war. She exerts power over her husband, who disagrees about the purchase; however, due to slavery, she remains illiterate and thus subjugated.

Biological Vs Social Conditions of Race

In ‘Iola Leroy’, Harper explores the biological and social bases of race and raises the question of which plays a larger role in forming identity. Iola, Harry, and Dr. Latimer, born of slave mothers, struggle with whether or not to pass as white and hide their genetic composition as black. During the nineteenth century, when Iola Leroy takes place, physical appearance signified intelligence, morality, and power, and these characters’ choices of whether to live as white or black have serious consequences. Dr. Latimer, a mulatto who appears white, chooses to live as black, and his intellectual successes contrast Dr. Latrobe’s racist belief that blacks are inferior to whites. Iola and Harry, who were raised as white and appear white, later choose to pass as black. Iola labels herself “the Iola of now,” a black activist who marries a mulatto and repudiates Dr. Gresham because his whiteness links him to slavery. Fearing social and familial disapproval of his love for a black woman, Dr. Gresham begs Iola to pass as white, but she refuses, bringing much hardship to her life. For these characters, ‘blackness’ and ‘whiteness’ mean much more than biology and dictate an entire world view.

Other Novels on Slavery

1. ‘Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley’. This is a 1976 novel written by Alex Haley. It tells the story of Kunta Kinte, an 18th-century African, captured as an adolescent, sold into slavery in Africa, transported to North America; following his life and the lives of his descendants in the United States down to Haley.
2. ‘The Color Purple’ by Alice Walker. This is a 1982 epistolary novel by American author Alice Walker. Taking place mostly in rural Georgia, the story focuses on the life of African-American women in the Southern United States in the 1930s, addressing numerous issues including their exceedingly low position in American social culture.
3. ‘Beloved’ by Toni Morrison. This is a 1987 novel by the American writer Toni Morrison. Set after the American Civil War (1861–65), it is inspired by the life of Margaret Garner, an African-American who escaped slavery in Kentucky in late January 1856 by crossing the Ohio River to Ohio, a free state. Captured, she killed her child rather than have her taken back into slavery.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the theme of slavery prevailing in America was a leading theme of stories among the writers of the time. And these works play a key role both in American literature and in American history in general.

References

1. Brace, Laura (2004). The Politics of Property: Labour, Freedom and Belonging. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 162–. ISBN 978-0-7486-1535-3. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
2. ‘Slavery in the 21st Century’. Newint.org. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010. Retrieved August 29, 2010.
3. ‘Historical Survey: Slave-Owning Societies’. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on February 23, 2007.
4. Kevin Bales (2004). ‘New Slavery: A Reference Handbook’. ABC-CLIO. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-85109-815-6. Retrieved February 11, 2016.
5. Venetria K. Patton. ‘Women in Chains: The Legacy of Slavery in Black Women’s Fiction’. Albany, New York: SUNY Press, 2000, pp. 53-55.
6. Baker, Thomas N. ‘Nathaniel Parker Willis and the Trials of Literary Fame’. New York, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 4. ISBN 0-19-512073-6.
7. Logan, Shirley W. ‘Iola Leroy’. Masterplots II: African-American Literature Series, Salem Press, 1994.
8. Robbins, Hollis (ed.), ‘Introduction’. Iola Leroy, or, Shadows Uplifted, Penguin Classics, 2010.
9. ‘Ida B. Wells’. Biography.com.

There is no doubt that the United States came onto the world stage as a great power during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. How, and why that happened are important discussions to realize just how powerful the U.S. was during this time. Another big question was if the U.S. was an empire during this time. In order to answer that, the word empire must be defined. According to Meriam-Webster, an empire is “a major political unit having a territory of great extent or a number of territories or peoples under a single sovereign authority”. The United States certainly did have a great extent of territory and people under their reign, but one crucial factor of the definition says “a major political unit”, and one can argue that the U.S. at this time really did not have much to show as a big political player throughout the world. While the U.S. certanly had authority over many geographic regions and peoples in the late 19th century, it lackes the political prowess to elevate it to a worls empire, and would take more time for it to grow into the power it would become.

Recognition from the rest of the world was a very important factor in becoming a major power, especially from Europe. Technically, the U.S. was a major political power in the eyes of the rest of the world during this time. In 1892, countries of Europe proclaimed all of their ministers in Washington D.C. would be ambassadors, and that officially recognized the U.S. as a major power. That was a big stepping stone for the U.S. in terms of moving up in the world as a great power, and from then on, they continued to become more recognized. It allowed for better foreign policy between the U.S. and the nations of Europe, and provided the U.S. diplomats with a sense of confidence knowing Europe recognized them. The U.S. was still adapting to this new recognition during this time period, and it would take time for them to really assert themselves politically on the world stage.

Newcomers seemed threatening to homegrown Americans at first, however, these immigrants eventually helped spark a once simple nation to be well on its way to becoming a world power. Americans felt threatened by the newcomers moving into their cities. Italians, Poles, Greeks, Jews, Hungarians, among others filled U.S. cities in the eighteen eighties, and made Americans anxious for the future. Although it did seem threatening for a while, immigration allowed for a spread of ideas and culture, as well as an increase in population. That allowed for the U.S. to grow stronger, and develop into a more diversified nation. This would also lead to stronger international relations in the future with many nations of Europe, and the U.S. was able to become very powerful politically and economically because of this. Although immigration did lead to a stronger nation, it was not during this time period that it made them an empire. It would take years for the U.S. to adapt to immigration, but when it did, it made the U.S. an extremely diversely powerful nation.

Technological advances through the industrial revolution allowed for the U.S. to grow economically, and allowed them to keep up with the European superpowers. These advances allowed for better economic stability because of an increase in jobs, as well as an increase in job efficiency. The use of the railroad allowed for mass production across the country, and provided people with a means to move to new cities to find jobs. Along with developing the nation at home, the U.S. was able to become very powerful militarily, and was able to dominate the War of 1898 because of it. Although a lot of improvements came about from technological advances, it was also during this time that many of the trailblazers from the industrial revolution came under fire for their practices to build their corporations. American people became threatened by the power these corporations had obtained, and believed that the fundamental values of democracy were in jeopardy. The American people began to question democracy, and believed that these corporations threatened the American dream. This called for the American government to step in and regulate corporations like this. Because of this change during this time, it would take the U.S. a few years before it could really become an economic power. Advances in technology also allowed for the U.S. to expand their power across the world. Because of how big their expansion was, it is not hard for one to argue that the U.S. was an expanding empire during this time. Although expansion was so great for the U.S., it was still figuring out what to do with the power they had acquired, and again shows them living in an adaptation period during this time.

Notable writers did not believe the U.S. was fully taking on the title of an empire at this time. Mark Twain wrote that the U.S. tried to do what empires in Europe did and failed miserably. He even calls William McKinley out for trying to be so imperialistic like the countries of Europe, yet failing to do so. Rudyard Kipling, in his poem ‘The White Man’s Burden’, pushed the U.S. to take on the “burden” of an empire. This poem was written in 1899, which was toward the ladder half of this time period, and shows that the U.S. was just not there yet in terms of being an empire. Prominent writers believed the U.S. was on its way and trying, but not completely there yet.

These factors all played a huge role in the U.S. becoming an empire, however, it was not during this time period in the late nineteenth century that the U.S. became that. This period was more of an adapting period, and was extremely important in the U.S. eventually growing into an empire. During this time, the U.S. was still growing politically and economically, it was still learning how to regulate corporations and technological advancements, and it was at the very beginning of finally being recognized on a world stage. All of these factors are crucial in the U.S. becoming an empire, and it was during this time that it was really learning how to put it all together to become a world power.

In the late 19th century, British women fought for suffrage. Decades later, cross the Atlantic, black people in the US fought for civil rights. We can see the similarities in both revolutions: vulnerable groups fought for their rights, they resisted again the backward social perceptions and discrimination. Both demonstrate the inalienable human rights and equality are sure to be realized. Pursued a common goal, yet differed in paths. Based on the causal chain of the direct impact, the effectiveness of gaining support to achieve constitutional changes, we uphold the idea that the American civil rights movement is more effective.

To begin with, when comparing the cost of two movements, it seemed that the civil rights movement costed less than the suffragettes movement, yet, produced a much better result. The suffragettes resorted to violence then caused many adverse effects. For example, some of them were regarded as crimes. They committed to arsons, broke windows, destroyed paintings and even set horrific bombing. Political meetings were thus interrupted (Bearman, 2007), other citizens’ daily life were also disrupted as a result of the riot and chaos caused by suffragettes. Not only did the social stability and public order were deeply affected, but suffragettes themselves got imprisoned. Moreover, the crazy behaviors did gained publicity as they expected, however draw many negative comments, which was disadvantageous to them.

Contrary to that, people involved in civil rights movements chose to use moderate and legitimate methods as one of the best-known civil rights movement leaders Martin Luther King always advanced. The Montgomery bus boycott is also a convincing proof of people’s restraint, for it being ”non-violence protest’, but yet active and effective resistance’ (Sanders, 2016). To restrain did not mean to be fruitless, during the boycott, except the bus company and its employers, no other people’s interests and rights were undermined. Though the ‘damage’ wasn’t very massive as it was in Suffragettes movement, the effect was impressive. Even though, it costed the bus company one million dollars, and the economic loss shop owners suffered was also considerable (Wanders, 2016), basic social stability was able to be maintained. Both movements seemed to attract people’s attention, or in another word, fulfilled the primary demands of the reformers, which was to address their lawful rights. But when we compare the cost of these two movements, the American civil rights movement limited the loss and damage to the slightest degree, while the suffragettes destroyed everything they saw and caused public loss of many innocent people. We believe that when chasing for the same goal, the one who did less harm was more effective. After the comparison and analysis, we can come to the conclusion that the American civil rights movement is more effective on the front of the limitation of costs and harms.

Secondly, the civil rights movement is more effective in view of eliminating obstacles such as social biases that hinder the gaining of rights. Due to the long-existing and deep-rooted beliefs and stereotypes people entertained, black people were seen as inferior to white people and were not entitled to enjoy certain rights, and women in Britain were believed to be not as mentally stable as men to make rational decisions. Black people in America demonstrated their importance to the society and resolve to get their rights by lobbying and bus-boycott, which successfully made the white community to make reconciliation and re-considerate the role black people plays in American society（Sanders, 2016）. However, the militant actions undertaken by British suffragettes perfectly reinforced people’s bias of women not being mentally stable, leaving it less chances for them to get suffrage, one thing that shall be entertained by rational people.

While gathering public attention, the aftermath of it could be either positive or negative, and when the group get positive reaction, support from the whole society will be the catalyst of their campaign; while when people commit to illegitimate behaviors, for all that people know their demands, they won’t approve them, because nobody trusts terrorists, let alone supporting them. So as far as we are concerned, though getting public attention and awareness is essential when people fight for their lawful rights, the black people participating in the American civil rights movement boycotted with restraint and order, which led to a nice impression that further pushed the final constitutional change; on the other hand, suffragists’ violence reversely enhanced people’s biases, and consequently hindered the course to be enfranchised.

Thirdly, we view the achievement of constitutional changes as a key factor when defining whether a movement is effective, in terms of which, the suffragettes movement in the UK is less effective. Because, while fighting for rights, the suffragettes seemed to ignored the importance of restoring to legislative measures. In the civil rights movement, African Americans directly brought cases to the Supreme Court and the litigation strategy directly brought constitutional guarantee of their rights. For example, the winning of Brown v. Board of Education case resulted in the Supreme Court adjudging that separated education was psychologically harmful to black children (Sanders, 2016), resulting in the start of desegregation at schools and preliminary triumph of the civil rights movement.

In the contrast, thought the suffragettes were aware of the importance of getting the parliament involved in granting suffrage to women, rather than taking litigation tactics, they decided to cause disruption and civil disobedience, such as the “rush” on parliament, arson and law-breaking (Parliament. UK), which achieved nothing but the damage of public facilities, works of art and imprisonment for many (Gullickson, 2008). There were women’s organizations that aimed at building up the legal and constitutional support for getting suffrage for women. Yet sadly, their actions were overwhelmed by those of militant suffragettes.

Thusly, with the comparison and analysis of conducts of suffragettes and black people in the US together with their consequences, American civil rights movement appears more effective to us. Based on our criteria of the cost, elimination of biases and the achievement of constitutional changes, we reckon the effectiveness of American Civil rights movement more sufficient than of Suffragettes movement in Britain.

References

1. Bearman, C. (2007). An Army without Discipline? Suffragette Militancy and the Budget Crisis of 1909. The Historical Journal,50(4), 861-889. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/20175131
2. Gullickson, Gay L.(2008).Emily Wilding Davison: Secular Martyr? Social Research, 75(2), 461–484. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/40972072.
3. Vivenne Sanders. (2016). Civil Rights and Race Relations in the USA 1850-2009 for Edexcel. p.116

Coney Island in the nineteenth century was a major hub for spectacle and amazement. It’s various dazzling sideshows, amusement parks, and seaside location made it the ideal getaway from distressing city life. In fact, it was this very period in time that these attractions were first invented and/or introduced, with the first recorded Coney Island sideshow performance in 1880, as well as the world’s first enclosed amusement park, first roller coaster, and more. These spectacular technological displays created an overwhelming sense of ‘sensorial overload’ for patrons of the nineteenth century, as they have truly never seen or experienced anything comparable to this kind of entertainment.

This paper intends to analyze how the design of Coney Island impacted or contributed to ideas about class in the nineteenth century. The end-goal is to gauge whether or not the park’s designers intentionally constructed the park in a way that challenged class barriers and societal norms.

The two-class model of the elite and the labor class got increasingly more complicated throughout the nineteenth century as a result of industrialization, which introduced a new middle class (Katz, 579). These classes are typically isolated from each other, and individuals who are a part of different social classes have little to no social contacts (Katz, 585). It is true that Coney Island was divided into four parts from east to west, where each class had sort of instinctively claimed their preferred zone: the upper class in Manhattan Beach, the middle-class claiming Brighton Beach, the poor/working class in West Brighton, and the underclass at Norton Point (Frazier, 6). However, Coney Island’s sideshows, Sea Lion Park, and Steeplechase Park became common areas for people of all classes to intermix. Their existence derided the established order of social values and roles through the formation of a carnivalesque atmosphere (Frazier, 9).

Entertainment at Coney Island had been made up of ideas from a myriad of designers. Charles Loof, a famous artisan, crafted the first carousel in 1875; Lamarcus Thompson built the world’s first roller coaster – the Switchback Railroad – in 1884; but perhaps the most prominent designer of Coney Island was George Tilyou. Son of a Coney Island’s hotel proprietor, Tilyou learned the business and started his entrepreneurial career when he was fourteen, and would souvenir bottles of seawater and boxes of beach sand for money. As an adult, Tilyou ventured to the Columbian Exhibition in 1893 and witnessed the colossal Ferris wheel, which ultimately lead to his vision for a space, “where all the world would be on display” (Ostwald, 196), and thus, using the Ferris wheel as the basis for the idea, opened Steeplechase Park in 1897 (Frazier, 10). The park was made up of intricate compilation of rides and other attractions, including the Razzle Dazzle, the Soup Bowl, the Barrel of Love, and more. This was all enclosed by the steeplechase race horse ride – the park’s namesake (Ford and Milman, 67).

It is evident that Tilyou utilized spatial compression to cultivate a fully “simulated and controlled experience” (Ostwald, 196) that appealed to everyone despite social class. One popular attraction of his was the Razzle Dazzle, where attendees would sit huddled together on a giant spinning wooden roulette wheel, unrestrained, and try, unsuccessfully, not to be shifted by force into other riders (Gleason, 475). Similarly, the Soup Bowl was a giant bowl with slippery-smooth sides that people would try to climb out of, but would ultimately just fall all over each other (Ford and Milman, 68). To even enter the park, visitors had to pass through the Barrel of Love, a slippery, rotating cylinder, which required quick and steady feet to navigate without toppling over everyone else in the barrel (Gleason, 475). These are all just a few examples of how Tilyou strategically planned designed his rides to encourage the interaction – in this case, even physical interaction – across the social classes. Tilyou wasn’t one for passive viewers, thus offering attractions such as these in order to make the patrons as big of a part in the show as the attractions themselves. He gave visitors a chance to take a break from life and laugh at themselves and others.

Tilyou believed that by condensing the distance of his attractions and creating a barrier around them would produce the most conductive simulated and controlled experience. With this in mind, he decided to go off of Captain Paul Boyton’s idea for Sea Lion Park and construct a fence around Steeplechase Park, making it the world’s second enclosed amusement park. This allowed Tilyou greater control over who entered the park, and the power to exclude ‘unsavory elements’ from it. In turn, this made patrons feel safer and more comfortable intermingling with those of other classes. On top of that, Tilyou charged admission to get into the park, weeding out anyone from the streets who was only around to start trouble. Due to the profusion of activities that the park offered, little possibility remained for violence to occur (Frazier, 8). He charged a single price to any ride in the park as many times as each visitor wanted (Frazier, 11). This kept troublemakers out of the park while also keeping the entrance fee low enough so that the park was still accessible to all classes. Not only that, but Tilyou also invented the concept of group sales – granting special prices to junior navy militia, girl/boy scout troops, and even courted church groups (Ford and Milman, 67-69).

Coney Island’s sideshows or ‘freak show’ performances are one of the most iconic aspects of Coney Island, and still exist today. These performances, too, were designed to break class barriers in the nineteenth century, allowing classes to experience these performances together. They consisted of “formally organized exhibition for amusement and profit of people with physical, mental, or behavioral anomalies” (Bogdan, 2). Originally, this really only appealed to the lower classes, as it was considered too crude and despicable for the upper classes to explore, but became an accepted part of American life when the shows had started to become marketed as ‘scientific’ (Bogdan, 3). This allowed the upper classes to justify their curiosity and attendance at these shows, as it was now for scientific and educational purposes.

Coney Island had been the first amusement park to encourage an assortment of groups to explore new things, so much so that it became known as “The People’s Watering Place” (Frazier, 7). It is evident that it had been purposefully constructed to attract diverse social classes in order to order, entertainment, and social change. It serves not solely to entertain, but to challenge notions of both social order and public conduct by providing people across the classes an environment in which to interact and test these societal norms together.

Between 1763 and 1914, it can be considered that the Royal Navy did not change. Since the end of the Seven Years’ War in 1763, which ultimately led to the beginning of the American War for Independence, the Royal Navy kept a constant role based on the uses for expedition, trade and militarism. The Navy kept up its role for the 151 years of the period to the extent that Britain’s involvement in World War I in 1914 was due to the competition with Germany’s Navy, at this time, the HMS Victory had only just been retired, being of the same class as ships used during the height of the British Empire, it shows a presentable continuity in the role of the Royal Navy. While the use of the navy may have remained largely unchanged, the Navy itself, both tactically and in prowess, had advanced substantially, and by the end of the period, Britain enjoyed the luxury of the largest empire the world had ever seen, mainly due to the ability of the Navy to explore and conquer. Britain’s investment and reliance on its Navy presented a need to change and adaptability of how the Navy went about completing what it needed to, whereas the role that was required of it, never changed. For the length of the British Empire, the Navy was required to uphold the empire continuously, no matter the opposition.

By 1763, the Royal Navy was the culmination of centuries of tactical and technological advancements, with the best ships and crews on the planet. They had perfected the advancement from the medieval warfare tactics of ramming ships to the broadside cannon barrage. This was where a ship would line its sides with cannons and fire them simultaneously as they sailed past an opposing ship. Victory in naval warfare relied on the strength of a ship, skill of the crew, maneuverability of ships and size of guns. Alongside the technology, the Royal Navy also perfected its tactics. Ships would approach opposing ships in a long line, this enabled a form of sustained bombardment as the ships would fire one after another as they passed each other. It also reduced damage, from both friendly and enemy ships; this is because none of the ship’s broadsides were facing each other, and therefore it reduced the possibility of friendly fire. At the same time, because they were in a line, it reduced the exposure of the sterns and hulls of ships, as they were a ships biggest weakness. Use of these tactics were crucial to the victories of the Napoleonic Wars, especially Admiral Nelson’s victory at Trafalgar, even though that was his ultimate battle. The position of naval dominance made admirals reluctant to develop their ships. Yet with the Industrial Revolution in full swing, the development of steam-powered ships began. Steam engines enabled an advantage in terms of maneuverability as ships did not rely on a favorable wind to move and turn swiftly. Steam-powered ships had their introduction in the mid-19th century. After France commissioned the ship Napoleon that had 90 guns and was steam-powered, Britain realized that the end of their cheap naval dominance was near, and that it launched an arms race that lasted for the next century.

The guns used in early naval warfare had arcing trajectories, a French engineer then developed the Paixhans gun, which had a flat trajectory that was beneficial for naval warfare, and used the explosive shells normally used for bombarding land; these shells could very easily destroy a wooden ship. The Royal Navy was quick to copy this which led to France launching La Gloire, which had iron cladding as protection to these new shells, these ships would become known as ironclads. As before the Royal Navy then imitated this and launched the first ironclad as the HMS Warrior. By the end of the American Civil War, ironclads had showed their power against wooden ships, and the development of wooden ships was stopped. The 1870s showed a turning point in naval warfare with the Royal Navy launching the HMS Devastation. This ship was coal-powered, had two 35-ton guns, and had 300mm thick hull armor. The age of sail was over and with it, Britain lost a substantial advantage: their superior seamanship. From the 1870s onwards, naval dominance relied more on the ability to produce powerful ships in higher numbers and faster, rather than the ability of the crews. This advancement allowed nations such as Germany and Japan to produce powerful navies in short spaces of time, even though previously they showed very little naval dominance.

Britain always felt they should follow the two-power standard, this meant that the most powerful navy should be as powerful as the next two combined. In 1889, Britain commissioned 10 battleships, 42 cruisers and 18 torpedo gunships to be made within 5 years, at a cost of £21.5 million. Germany, France and Japan saw this and also increased their production on ships. Admiral Fisher took control in 1904 and set to work on creating a warship so powerful it would make the ironclad ships obsolete, his ideas culminated in 1906 with the launch of the HMS Dreadnaught, a ship that was so powerful it finally made all others obsolete. Admiral Fisher and the creation of the Dreadnaught class battleship was not able to end the arms race, nations like Germany, USA and Japan were able to quickly produce dreadnaughts, whereas less industrialized nations such as France or Russia were unable to keep up with these developments. Throughout this entire period, Britain held the title of having the most powerful military force in the world, but by World War I, it did not have the luxury of the naval dominance it once had.

The Royal Navy had a consistent use within trade and commerce of the early British Empire. The Empire followed the ideology of mercantilism, this meant they maximized exports, but minimized imports; due to being an island nation, the ability to export goods relied very heavily on the ability to rule the waves and naval strength. Not only did Britain follow mercantilism, but also protectionism, protectionism is a way of introducing taxes and tariffs on foreign goods to prioritize domestic produce. In 1830, when the Whigs won the election, these policies began to change, the ideas of free trade were introduced; this minimized taxation and tariffs to make both domestic and international trade as easy as possible. Free trade is the antithesis to protectionism. This meant the Navy was no longer required to enforce strict rules on foreign trading ships as before, although it was still necessary for them to provide transport and protection for other trade, especially exports and imports from China and South America. In 1849, the Navigation Acts were put into use, this reinforced the strength of British export, as all exported goods had to be transported on British built and owned ships, similarly, goods from colonies had to go through British ports first before being reshipped onwards. The Navy had a responsibility to patrol the waters and make sure these rules were being followed. Ultimately, trade changed drastically, but the Navy’s primary responsibility remained relatively constant.

In 1768, the Royal Society proposed to the British Admiralty an idea to begin exploration of the seas, this was enticing to the scientific community as it allowed them to make discoveries, similarly, they wanted to use the transit of Venus in front of the Sun to measure the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The idea was enticing to the Admiralty as they could lay claim to new lands and create new anchorage points for ships; this was necessary as, during the early years of the Empire, the biggest destroyer of British ships was rocks and bad weather due to sailing uncharted waters. Captain James Cook lead this mission and successfully circumnavigated the globe. Cook was able to take accurate measurements of Venus for the scientific community, but his mission was important for other reasons. It showed that a mission could stay at sea for extended periods without loss of crew as long as cleanliness and access to fresh food were maintained. Similarly, Cook was a cartographer and successfully made maps of the Pacific region that were used until the 20th century. Also, it allowed established Britain’s claims to Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific. Cook voyaged out two more times for the admiralty before being killed in Hawaii. After his voyages, explorative sailing became much more common and more and more waters were being charted.

During the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, the Royal Navy’s key goal was the destruction of France and its allies. New ports became increasingly important as they chased France around the globe. Territorial expansion became increasingly difficult due to the reduced size of the Navy after the unfortunate events of the late 19th century and the common loss of ships in uncharted waters. By the middle of the 19th century, as naval warfare developed substantially on a global level, retention of naval dominance became increasingly difficult. Many officials began to attribute their dominant position to the control of key territories around the globe with the support of an unassailable navy.

One cannot say that the navy explicitly showed either change nor continuity, although the use of the Royal Navy was relatively constant, it showed development in other forms. Such as the development of tactics and technology in warfare. This is consistent across all roles of the Navy, the roles did not change, but how they did such roles did.

When The Soccer Was Created?

Humans has created a lot of ball games, since antiquity . It is known that this sport existed both in the culture of the Mediterranean Sea and in America. The oldest and most revealing finding dates back to a relief from Ancient Greece 400 BC, where a man dominates a ball on his thigh. This sport was episkyros that was played with a leather ball painted with bright colors always and two teams of 12 to 14 players but no more players than 14. The FIFA recognized him as one of the oldest forms of football today. In Rome received the name of harpastum.

In Europe, already at the end of the Middle Ages and later centuries, various team games were developed in the British Isles and surrounding areas, which were known as soccer codes . These codes were uniting with the passage of time, but in the second half of the seventeenth century when the first great unifications of football, which later gave rise to football were given rugby , the football , the Australian football and sport that today is known in much of the world as football.

In other areas of the world, games were also practiced in which a ball was driven with the feet. Among them we can mention the Jesuit Reductions of the Guaraní zone , more specifically in that of San Ignacio Miní in the seventeenth century, in the region that is now known as Misiones . The Spanish Jesuit José Manuel Peramás wrote in his book De vita et moribus tredecim virorum paraguaycorum: «They also used to play with a ball, which, although full of rubber, was so light and fast that, every time they hit it, it continued to bounce some time, without stopping, driven by its own weight. They did not throw the ball with the hand, like us, but with the upper part of the foot naked, passing it and receiving it with great agility and precision ».

The first British codes were characterized by having few rules and by their extreme violence. One of the most popular was carnival football . For this reason, carnival football was banned in England by decree of King Edward III and was banned for 500 years. Carnival football was not the only code of the time; In fact, there were other codes that were more organized, less violent and even developed outside the British Isles. One of the best known games was the Florentine calcium , originally from the city of Florence that is ubicated in Italy. This sport influenced in several aspects the current football, not only for its rules, but also for the party atmosphere in which these games were played.

Unifications of the 19th Century

The British schools were divided against the Rugby Code; while several decided to follow him, others decided to reject him because in them the practice was not to touch the ball with his hand. Among these last schools wer of Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Charterhouse and Westminster.

In the mid- nineteenth century, the first steps were taken to unify all the codes of football into one. The first attempt was in 1848, when at the University of Cambridge, Henry de Winton and John Charles Thring appealed to members of other schools to regulate a new code, the Cambridge Code, also known as the Cambridge Rules. The rules presented an important resemblance to the rules of current football. Perhaps the most important of all was the limitation of the hands to touch the ball, passing the responsibility of moving it to the feet. The objective of the game was to pass a ball between two vertical poles and underneath a ribbon that united them, and the team that scored the most goals was the winner. Even a rule was created out of play similar to the present. The original 1848 documents were lost, but a copy of the 1856 rules is retained. Between 1857 and 1878 a football code was used that would also bring features to modern football: the Sheffield Code, also known as the Sheffield Rules. The code, created by Nathaniel Creswick and William Perst, adopted rules that are reflected in current football, such as the use of a crossbar (horizontal post) of rigid material, instead of the tape that was used so far. The use of free throws, corner kicks and throw-ins was also adopted as methods of resumption of the game.

While these unifications of football achieved several advances for the creation of modern football, it is considered that the day of his birth is on October 26, 1866, when The Football Association met for the first time. On that day, Ebenezer Cobb Morley began a series of six meetings between twelve clubs from different London schools in the Freemason’s Tavern, with the aim of creating a universal and definitive football code that would be accepted by the majority.

Finalized meetings, December 8 , eleven of the twelve clubs reached consensus to establish 14 rules of the new code, which would be called football association (association football in English), to differentiate it from other codes of football season . Only the Blackheath club refused to create these rules, which would later become one of the creators of another famous sport, rugby.

The regulation used as a basis for football was the Cambridge Code, except for two points of it, which were considered very important for the current codes: the use of hands to move the ball and the use of tackles (physical contact brusque to take the ball from the opponent) against the opponents. This was the reason for the abandonment of the Black club.

Along with the creation of the new code, the Football Association (FA) was created, the governing body of football in England to this day. At that time, the students of the English schools developed the abbreviations ‘rugger’ and ‘soccer’ (derived from ‘as association’), to designate both sports: rugby and soccer, respectively. With this last term, football is mostly known in the United States.

Most Important Championships

Selections

At the level of national teams, the most important tournament is the Soccer World Cup, which has been held since 1930. Prior to the creation of the World Cup, particularly during the 1920, the Olympic football competition was considered the highest competition in the sport, although it is currently maintained as a secondary tournament where players under 23 are allowed, with up to 3 players that exceed that age limit per team. At the women’s level, the equivalent of the World Cup is the Women’s World Cup.

At the level of confederations of FIFA, the most important tournaments are the Copa America (South America ) and the Euro (Europe); and, being located at a lower level, are the African Cup Of Nations (Africa), the Gold Cup of Concacaf (North America , Central America and the Caribbean ), the Asian Cup ( Asia ) and the Nation Cup of the OFC (Oceania ).

The most important tournament for young players is the U-20 Soccer World Cup, which receives teams classified from the South America U-20 Championships. (South America), the European U-19 Championship (Europe), the CAF Youth Championship (Africa), the U-20 Championships of Concacaf (North America, Central and the Caribbean), AFC Youth Championship (Asia) and the OFC U-20 Championships (Oceania).

Clubs

In each country football clubs usually federate in associations or leagues that organize official tournaments between them, where the champions of each country emerge and the teams that will participate in international tournaments. There is no single tournament system and each national league organizes them according to their traditions. In general, most countries have two main tournaments a year: Colombia (Opening and Closing) (the season starts according to the European calendar), Mexico (idem but in the reserve order), Chile (National Tournament and Chile Cup), Spain (League and Copa Del Rey), and Italy (Series A and Copa Italia), etc. In some cases the champions of both tournaments play annual ‘supercopas’ and ‘recopas’ with each other. England has a main championship system (the Premier League) and then several cups involving teams from different divisions. Brazil has a system of championships by State (paulista, carioca, mineiro, gaucho, etc.), besides having a National Championship (Brasilerao). In Mexico there is only one annual championship divided into two semiannual tournaments (Opening and Closing).

At a global level, the most important competition is the FIFA World Cup that has been held since 2000 and in which the champions of the different conferences that make up FIFA take part. At the continental level, the most important competitions are the Copa Libertadores de America ( South America ), the UEFA Champions League ( Europe ), the CAF Champions League ( Africa ), the Concacaf Champions League ( North America , central and the Caribbean ), the AFC Champions League (Asia ) and the OFC Champions League ( Oceania ). Also at a continental level, the secondary competitions of South America and Europe Stand Out: the Sudamerica and the Europa League (ex), respectively.

In some cases clubs of other confederations are invited to competitions of a certain confederation. For example, in the case of the participation of Mexican teams affiliated with CONCACAF in the Copa Libertadores de América, organized by CONMEBOL.

Organizations of Football

The governing body of football at the international level is the Federation, better known by its FIFA acronym, based in Zurich, Switzerland. Said organism considers 5 main points to guarantee the good development of the sport: to improve the soccer from its universal, educational and cultural character, as well as to improve the human values that raises the same; organize sports competitions; develop a regulation to maintain the spirit of the game; control the different forms of football, adopting measures to improve them; and prevent certain practices that affect the essence of the sport.

FIFA does not focus solely on the organizational details of the sport, but also promotes improvements in the football infrastructure of each country, particularly the poorest, through the Goal Program. The same inculcates tactical, technical, health and organizational aspects to the populations of these countries, helping them to grow in football. The program does not finance the construction of stadiums, but it does do so with training grounds, training material and office elements for the associations. Currently, 185 national associations benefit from the program, which has completed or is working on a total of 292 projects.

Due to the constant growth of FIFA, six regional confederations have been created throughout history, whose objectives are similar to those of FIFA. They are responsible for coordinating all aspects of sport in each region. For an association to be a member of a confederation, it does not necessarily belong to FIFA.

In turn, within each confederation there are football associations, which represent a country and, in some cases, a territory or state not internationally recognized. Except in

Exceptional cases, there is only one association per country or territory, and if there is more than one, only one may be affiliated with your confederation. In some cases the main association of the country has affiliates other sub associations to help in the organization of football. Each association organizes the soccer of its country independently of its confederation, but in some cases, for example to classify clubs to international matches, these clubs must be endorsed by the association before the confederation. In some cases, a team may be directly or indirectly affiliated with an association without being affiliated with a confederation.

We must also mention the NF-BOARD, an organization that brings together unaffiliated associations or FIFA, or any of its confederations. The vast majority of their associations belong to territories and states not politically recognized internationally. The only competition of this organism is the VIVA WORLD CUP.

Duration and Result of Soccer

The duration of a match, specified in Rule 7 of the regulation, will be two equal times of 45 minutes, with an intermediate period of rest that may not exceed 15 minutes, and the duration of the regulation of each competition must be established. The duration of each half of time can only be altered if the rules of the competition permit, and if there is agreement between the referee and the two participating teams before the start of the match. The time lost during the match dispute must be recovered at the end of each period, with the duration of these recovery periods remaining at the discretion of the main referee.

The goal of the sport is to score more goals than the opponent. It is considered that a team has scored a goal when the ball completely passes the goal line between the vertical posts and below the horizontal post of the opponent’s goal, provided that a breach of the rules of the game has not been committed previously. The goal is the only way to score in football, something that does not happen in other soccer codes. If both teams score the same amount of goals, the game is considered tied.

In many cases, when the match ends in a draw, you must find some way that one of the two teams is considered the winner of the match, and to achieve this there are several ways. If the match ends tied, you can play an extension or overtime, which consists of two times, usually 15 minutes each, where the initial match is continued. In addition, there are two ways in which the extension can culminate ahead of time: the Golden goal and the silver goal, although these forms have been left aside in recent years.

If equality persists, a series of penalty kicks or penalties will be executed. The same is that each team throw penalties alternately to total 5 each. If at the end of the 10 penalties or penalties the equality persists, a team penalty will continue until a winner is defined.

The use of extra time and penalty kicks is a format widely used in modern football, the main exponent of this being the elimination phases of the final phase of the World Cup. In some competitions it is passed to the execution of penalties directly after the culmination of the initial match, without using the extension. A clear example of this system are the eliminatory phases of the Copa America.

In all these examples a single match was played, but there are other tournaments where the eliminatory phases are played to two matches, the so-called round-trips. To determine if the key (both matches) ended in a draw, the goals are added in favor of both teams in both games, and if they give the same, it is said that the key ended in a draw. In some cases, if the key is tied, a tiebreaker system with overtime or penalty kicks is used, which is executed at the end of the second game of the key.

In some knockout stages another form of tie-break prior to the extension or penalties is considered: the goals of visitors. If at the end of both games no team has beaten the other in goals in favor, the number of goals scored by each team in the match that he played as a visitor will be counted. If a team scored more goals at the end of both matches, it will be the winner of the key, but if equality persists also in the visitors’ goals, the extra time or penalties will be applied. An example of this system are the eliminatory phases of the Copa Libertadores de America and the UEFA Champions League.

If it was possible to travel a bit more than a century in the past most of the sports that we know and cherish today would not exist. Even the sports that were around, today we would have a hard time recognizing. The development of organized sports in the 19th century possessed an extensive role in constructing culture during the 19th century. This period for sports made the sports themselves along with the culture what it is today. This theme was heavily depicted in both American baseball and European football. From the beginning of the French revolution in 1789 variations of the two sports that were around, baseball and European Football were not yet even referred to by those names. There were many names that were used for the “dribbling” of a ball trying to score into a “goal” as well as ball and stick games as well as townball. Both of the games stayed as an entertaining pastime for quite some time, however, baseball was not officially developed until 1845. For the development of the Football Association (FA) on the other hand, it was not until 1863 that the first match was played. A considerable factor when thinking about organized sports is the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution brought many people to the city mostly for job opportunities this made it much easier for sports to form because of the concentration of people compared to the countrysides. Another aspect of the industrial revolution is labor, many workers enjoyed playing organized sports during leisure time. Increasing leisure time not only allowed workers to participate in sports but as well as spectate them. Schools also started to teach some sports as a subject.

The first time that baseball was talked about in the United States was in 1791 in the town of Pittsfield, Massachusetts when a regulation was passed that banned baseball from being played 80 yards from the town meeting house. In 1903 the British sportswriter Henry Chadwick published an article speculating that baseball derived from a British game called rounders. Baseball executive Albert Spalding disagreed. Baseball, said Spalding, was fundamentally an American sport and began on American soil. To settle the matter, the two men appointed a commission headed by Abraham Mills, the fourth president of the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs. The commission, which also included six other sports executives, labored for three years, after which it declared that Abner Doubleday invented the national pastime. During the time before baseball was officially organized, there were many variations of the game that depended on a couple of different factors such as the size of the field and the number of players. There were many mentions of a bat and ball game with bases that dated far before the start of baseball.

Folk football through the 18th and 19th centuries Was essentially a game for large numbers played over wide distances with goals that were as much as three miles apart, as at Ashbourne. At Whitehaven, the goals were a harbor wall and a wall outside the town. Matches in Derby involved about a thousand players. In all cases, the object of the exercise was to drive a ball of varying sizes and shapes, often a pig’s bladder, to a goal. Generally, the ball could be kicked, thrown, or even carried. It is believed there were some places at which only kicking was allowed. Whatever rules may have been agreed beforehand, there was no doubt all of folk football was extremely violent, even when relatively organized. One form of kicking that was common was ‘shining’, the term for kicking another player’s legs, and it was legal even if the ball was hundreds of yards away.

The transformation of football from an English folk custom to global popular culture began in the 1800s. Football and other recreation clubs were founded in the United Kingdom to provide factory workers with organized recreation during leisure hours. Sports became a subject that was taught in school. Increasing leisure time permitted people not only to participate in sporting events but also to view them. Several British football clubs formed an association in 1863 to standardize the rules and to organize professional leagues. The organization of the sport into a formal structure in the United Kingdom marks the transition of football from folk to popular culture. The word soccer originated after 1863 when supporters of the game formed the Football Association. Association was shortened to assoc, which ultimately became twisted around into the word soccer. Beginning in the late 1800s, the British exported association football around the world, first to continental Europe and then to other countries. In the twentieth century, soccer, like other sports, was further diffused by new communication systems, especially radio and TV. On the evening of 26 October 1863, representatives of several football clubs in the Greater London area met at the Freemasons’ Tavern on Long Acre in Covent Garden. This was the first meeting of The Football Association (FA). It was the world’s first official football body and for this reason, is not preceded with the word English. The first meeting resulted in the issuing of a request for representatives of the public schools to join the association. With the exception of Thring at Uppingham, most schools declined. In total, six meetings of the FA were held between October and December 1863. Committee member J. F. Alcock, said: ‘The Cambridge Rules appear to be the most desirable for the Association to adopt.’

Baseball reporters opened up a new aspect of spectating the sport of baseball. Improved reporters helped turn the game of baseball from a pastime into it being more valuable to watch o read the victory compared to playing a mediocre version of the game. Gentlemen started to seek out exercise and comradery through other games. Winning turned into an intensified urge to win due to the reporters and the spectators. The first enclosed stadium was built in 1962 by William H. Cammeyer. He was one of the first to take advantage of the business opportunity that was baseball. This was the first field to include a clubhouse. Four years earlier 1,500 spectators bought tickets for the price of fifty cents apiece to watch the first game of the 1958 championship series for the national baseball title. The struggle for the national championship intensified the drama of luck and skill, to give the spectators an eager look to see how victory exploited both. Commercialization and the development of professionals went hand and hand. Baseball was instantaneously seen as a new expressway to fame and fame as well as wealth. Skilled players were sought after as well as premium clubs, money and gifts were used as an incentive. This act violated the association rule for players to be paid or bribed.

The development of organized sports during the 19th century played a large role in constructing the 19th century culture into what it was. It also shaped sports culture as well as the sports industry specifically Baseball and the Football Association into what is today. When the sports first started there were various versions of the game but not yet a game that was compatible with personal interest because it was only games that people played for a pastime. Once the game was developed people were able to learn the game with set rules and regulations. The national championship for baseball and the world cup for soccer really pulled in the interest of the spectators because they would route for ‘their team or their favorite players and turned spectators into real fans who shared a love for the game. Once sports were developed they gave working men and women in industrialized citys something to look forward to and take their mind off of the laborious work in factories and got leisure time when games took place as well as time to play it. These factors were seen by young entrapenors that saw the potential for homerun And initiated a multibillion-dollar industry that lead to the common sports of Baseball and European Football. The sports we know and love today could have never taken off if it weren’t for the development that took place in sports during the 19th century.

Many economists have attributed the increase in world trade as an effect of globalization. Globalization is the integration of international markets (O’Rourke et al, 2002 p.25), that is, gravitating to a single world market. This first happened in the 19th century as the world was never globalized to this extent before and this was evidenced by the factor price convergence of goods (O’Rourke et al, 2002 p.46). Factor price convergence is the price equalization of similar factors of production across countries as a result of international trade (Samuelson, 1948). I will now explain how the fall of certain barriers to trade and colonization may have affected world trade in the 19th century.

The revolution in transport on land and sea during the industrial revolution made large contributions to globalization in the 19th century. A fall in transport costs would lead to import and export prices converging which subsequently increased international trade volume (O’Rourke et al, 2002 p.25). The adoption of steamships at sea drastically reduced the international shipping times as steamships did not rely on wind patterns like sailing ships did (Pascali, 2017 p.2823). Increasing use of the constantly improving steamships that were faster and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 reduced international freight costs (Daudin et al, 2010 p.7). As evidenced by the fall in freight rate indexes for coal between 1714 and 1913 by Harley and North (Harley, 1988 North, 1958 cited by O’Rourke et al, 2002 p.36). A similar trend was observed with the American freight rates for exports between 1840 and 1913, as it fell by more than 40 percent after being adjusted for inflation (O’Rourke et al 1994). This meant that the transport revolution was an international occurrence.

Pascali found that steamships had reduced average shipping times by more than half and the Suez Canal added an additional 10 percent of time reduction. Pascali used the reduced shipping times to find a correlation with world trade patterns and had positive results (Pascali, 2017 p.2844). He found that steamships alone were responsible for approximately half of the increase in international trade during the 19th century (Pascali, 2017 p.2823). The expansion of the railroad network helped reduce expensive domestic costs of transport which further promoted economic integration (Daudin et al, 2010 p.8). The effect of railroads reducing interior-to-seaboard costs was greater than or equivalent to steamships reducing the international freight rates (Bordo et al, 1999) which was beneficial for peasant producers in rural areas (Findlay et al, 2009 p.405). The fall in transport costs would lead to converging terms of trade which subsequently increased international trade volume (O’Rourke et al, 2002 p.25).

After the Napoleonic wars, there was relative and stability in Europe during the 19th century and after the post-war settlement at the Congress in Vienna in 1815 (O’Rourke et al, 2010 p.100). This peace promoted trade (Jacks, 2006 cited by Daudin et al, 2010 p.8) and allowed global integration of markets the capacity to flourish. Most European trade policies were generally protectionist right after the Napoleonic war (Findlay et al, 2009 p.395). Britain became the first major economy to liberalize trade by abolishing the Corn Laws in 1846 and promoting free trade policies (O’Rourke et al, 2010). After 1846, major European countries adopted more liberal trade policies with average tariffs falling throughout 1850 until the 1870s and reinforcing the reduced transport costs (Findlay et al, 2009 p396). Most of Asia and Africa had low tariffs as well due to European imperialism and American pressure on Japan (Findlay et al, 2009 p401).

However, the agricultural tariffs in Europe started to increase after the 1870s due to cheap grain from the New World and Russia starting to impact domestic producers negatively (Findlay et al, 2009 p.397) and most European tariffs began rising past this point. After the Civil War, the United States became pro-tariff as they wanted to protect their domestic producers from European competition (Findlay et al, p.398). In general, tariffs remained high in most major economies apart from the United Kingdom, Asia, and Africa by the late 19th century (Findlay et al, 2009 p.402). Therefore, it is hard to conclude whether trade policies affected world trade.

International trade in the 19th century was a multilateral system and relied on convertible currencies which required monetary stability (Findlay, 2009 p.406). The gold standard was able to provide this monetary stability with reduced exchange rate fluctuations between countries which led to reduced trade uncertainties (Daudin, 2010 p.8). The gold standard also allowed countries with large circulation to escape from adjusting for domestic deflation as inflation was relatively stable (Flandreau, 2010 p.97). Calculations on trade between pairs of countries after they adopted the gold standard were found to have increased by about 30% (López-Córdova and Meissner, 2003 cited by Findlay, 2009 p.407).

The laying of the transatlantic telegraph cable 1860s linked financial hubs together and drastically reduced the time taken to communicate with overseas agents (Bordo et all, 1999 p.32). Information asymmetries were greatly reduced which led to more long-term capital flows as credit risks could be better assessed (Bordo et al, 1999 p.33). This implies that foreign direct investment would increase in other countries. The telegraph caused a price convergence in the capital markets too, as the cost of financial assets decreased, which also indirectly increased international commodity trade (Findlay et al, 2009 p.408). The telegraph effectively decreased the cost of communication between countries which facilitated an increase in world trade (Daudin et al, 2010 p.17).

Advancements in technology during the industrial revolution allowed the increased power of Europe and the United States (O’Rourke et al, 2010 p.100). This allowed for international markets such as Asia and Africa to be forcibly opened up through colonization and expansion of the empires (O’Rourke et al, 2010 p.100). European advances were made in India, Africa, and Asia and were forced to adopt looser foreign trade policies (O’Rourke et al, 2010 p.100). This meant that countries that would otherwise not trade with Europe would be forced to with lower tariffs. A famous example of Europe opening a market would be the ‘Opium Wars’ in China around the mid 19th century which ended in treaties that would support foreign trade in favor of Europe (Bleeching, 1975).

Colonization also forced countries to adopt similar institutions which led to similar economic policies across countries as well (Bordo et al, 1999 p.21). Colonization brought together different markets under one institutional system by having one official language, one currency, uniform channels for the transaction of knowledge, and much more (Roy, 2012 p.208). This meant that colonies had a part in reducing information asymmetries and also helped lessen the language barriers between countries as well. Colonization also allowed for enterprising Europeans to take advantage of the low costs of production in other countries (Daudin et al, 2010 p.17). The effect of colonization on international trade was so profound that to this day countries with colonial ties still continue to trade with each other in large volumes (Rauch, 1999 cited by Bordo et al, 1999).

In conclusion, the invention of steamships and the decrease in transport costs and times allowed for comparative advantage to occur at an international scale, this was because the countries no longer had the natural protection of distance (Findlay et al, 2009 p.426). Colonization also forced different regions to trade with each other and created powerful monopolies. While most economists generally agrees that the gold standard did promote trade, there is disagreement about the magnitude of effect (Findlay et al, 2009 p.407). Hence, the increase in world trade can be mainly attributed to the many technological innovations that occurred during the industrial revolution, but many other factors