Biological and Environmental Science in Hawaii

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Table of Contents

Concern
Research
Project Paper
Works Cited

Concern

On his visit to Hawaii, the great American writer Mark Twain described it as “the loveliest fleet of islands that lies anchored in any ocean”. And Twain was right in his message, Hawaii can be a beautiful place to visitors and residents alike because of its sceneries, great biological diversity, and its world-famous beaches. Consisting of 8 major islands and 124 islets stretching in a 1,500-mile (2,400-km) in the Pacific Ocean, Hawaii became the 50^th American state on 21 August 1959 (Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2008).

Its capital is Honolulu, which is on Oahu Island. It is said that these islands emerged from volcanic mountains, which explains its healthy trees and forests appeared as the soils were enriched through the weathering of basaltic lava and volcanic ash. Because the islands are considered tropical, the heavy rainfall in mountain areas of Hawaii provided a year-round water supply to all plants and animals around the island. Because of the wonderful environment in these islands, plants, and animals have migrated to Hawaii and evolved into different species that live nowhere else on the planet (Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2008). No wonder, it is not only tourists that take an interest in these islands, but biologists and scientists are also interested in its natural wonders and great diversity in plants and animals.

It is also no surprise that the environment and the great diversity of plant and animal life in Hawaii made the National Research Council (2004) declare the islands as “one of the best places in the world to study biological evolution”. It is thought that the “seeds of the endemic plant species were carried to Hawaii by birds, winds, or currents and tides, bringing about extensive forestation, shrubbery, and grasslands where soil and precipitation were favorable” (Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2008).

Yet as people have inhabited the islands, a number of species, both plant and animal have competed with the native species putting great pressure on their survival. This is why “one-third of the more than 1,000 animal species that the U.S. government has declared threatened or endangered are located in Hawaii” and the government set aside “more than 1,000,000 acres (400,00 hectares) of land (for conservation)… in an attempt to protect native ecosystems” (Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2008).

According to the Hawaii Biological Survey (HBS), “there are approximately 17,000 terrestrial, 500 freshwater, and 5,500 marine species of plants and animals in Hawaii”. Also, in Hawaii’s Bishop Museum, people can see “the world’s largest biological collections for Hawaii (about 4 million specimens)”. All these numbers are astounding but the people of Hawaii should take part in the conservation of the richness and abundance that islands had brought them. Although extinction cannot be prevented for all species, the rate at which species worldwide are currently disappearing is of concern to everyone because it creates an imbalance in our ecosystem.

We urgently need to understand the factors contributing to the decrease in the number of species and to identify methods that can be used to lessen the factors that make them die out easily. In this regard, this review about the biological situation in Hawaii would be helpful for people to have a detailed understanding of the biology of each species and the impact of their extinction on our environment.

As the author has lived in Oahu, it has been a great privilege to have witnessed the different flora and fauna on the island. In Oahu, the Honouliuli Preserve has been the haven for more than 90 rare and endangered plant and animal species. It is said that the land was once owned by Hawaiian royalty. It was named Honouliuli (meaning dark, dark harbor) because of the dark fertile lands that go from Pearl Harbor to the summit of the Waianae Mountains.

Honouliuli Preserve has been tasked to protect some animals like the native land snail species that are found nowhere else on Earth. The boundaries of this protected area also contain one of the last remaining habitats on Oahu for native forest birds and for the Hawaiian owl (pueo), revered as a guardian spirit or “aumakua” by ancient Hawaiians. On this site, one can also see the flycatching “repair”, which is a singing land bird once honored by Hawaiian canoe builders. Moreover, honeycreepers also inhabit the Honouliuli forests, along with other birds like the bright red “apapane” and the yellow “making”. Another great environmental resource on the island of Oahu is the 110,000-acre Koolau Mountain Range.

In this area, the forested mountain site is home to 80 rare or endangered native species. Most important are the streams and underground water sources that provide water supply to Oahu’s residents that amount to 133 billion gallons of freshwater each year (Nature Conservancy, 2008). These are just some places in Oahu, Hawaii that needs to be maintained properly if all people want to continue enjoying the benefits that nature has to offer. Conservation and knowledge about how to manage these resources are aspects that people need to consider in order to provide effective means to preserve these natural resources.

This is to specify that it is not only the concern of the author, but it is the concern of everyone to know the biological situation in Hawaii. Other people can learn much from the lessons in the biology of how species will compete with each other in terms of the resources available. Preserving the endemic species is important because, if they disappear, more difficult problems will arise and an imbalance in nature will produce unwanted and unfortunate consequences.

When armed with knowledge about biology and conservation, we can convince other people to join us by explaining the threats and making them cooperate to have a great future for their children. We all know that these resources are not permanent and they can be depleted if we do not make a move to conserve them. Through this research, it is a good step to make people realize something and they will make their own step in the conservation of species in Hawaii.

If we all want Hawaii to still be the prime tourist destination in the future, then everyone’s participation is needed to maintain the beauty and richness of the islands. People should not only be the ones who consume the natural resources but they should be educated to become protectors of the environment. Protecting the environment is the responsibility of everyone and it cannot be denied that the knowledge of biology will be useful in this mission.

Research

Chapin, Melany H., Wood, Kenneth R., Perlman, Steven P. and Maunder, Mike. “A review of the conservation status of the endemic Pritchardia palms of Hawaii”, Oryx, 38.3 (2004): 273-281.

The research of Chapin et al. (2004) discussed the state of conserving Hawaii’s 23 endemic palms, Pritchardia spp. When we say endemic, it means it is the native species. Pritchardia is a type of fan palm usually seen as a decorative plant in private tropical resorts around the world.

It is quite surprising that, in the site of origins of these palms, they are already considered as endangered. Chapin et al. (2004) informed that “Pritchardia (Family Arecaceae) has 28 known species restricted to the Pacific archipelagos of Hawaii, Fiji, the Cook Islands, Tonga, and the Tuamotus, with 23 species endemic to Hawaii”. It is a sad fact that the “dramatic decline of the Hawaiian Pritchardia is documented in recent archaeological records”, where “fossil Pritchardia stems found near sea level on Oahu date from 100,000 years ago, suggesting that the genus was widespread prior to human settlement in 400 AD”.

When human habitants settled in Hawaii, along with them came “major contemporary threats like rats, Rattus rattus, R. exulans, and R. norvegicus, which feed on the seeds and seedlings and damage palm hearts”. Also, goats (Capra hircus) and deer (Axis axis and Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) came to eat away the young seedlings. Also, pigs (Sus scrofa) not only fed on Pritchardia seedlings but “their digging destroys seedlings and habitat”.

Other invasive foreign plants came to Hawaii to compete with both established trees and seedlings. This is why Chapin et al. (2004) accounted that, of all species of Pritchardia, “eleven species are categorized as Critically Endangered, nine – Endangered, two – Vulnerable and one as Data Deficient”. This finding also connotes that all 23 species of this plant are endangered in Hawaii.

Since a very large proportion of Pritchardia is on the edge of being extinct, the researchers suggested simple options in order to sustain the survival of these wonderful palms. They thought that without active conservation management efforts, this palm species will continue to decline and disappear. Among the solutions they listed are: 1) long-term management include maintaining and protecting the existing wild populations, 2) establishment of effective populations in its site of origins, 3) reintroduction of the species into the wild, and 4) the establishment of procedures to deal with invasive plants and animals.

Williams, I.D., Walsh, W. J., Schroeder, R. E., Friedlander, A.M., Richards, B.L., and Stamoulis, K.A. “Assessing the importance of fishing impacts on Hawaiian coral reef fish assemblages along regional-scale human population gradients”, Environmental Conservation Published online by Cambridge University Press. 2008.

It is not unknown to us that coral reefs around the world are being destroyed by humans through abusive activities like overfishing, dynamite fishing, pollution, and many other destructive endeavors. In this research by Williams et al. (2008), they investigated the impacts of fishing on Hawaiian coral reefs and peeked into the relationships between fish assemblages and human population density. They deemed that this study is vital because “coral reefs and coral reef fish populations worldwide are under stress from overfishing and the consequences of coastal development, human population growth, and climate change”.

This is why an “essential first step towards developing effective management responses is to determine the importance of the various factors contributing to degradation in any particular situation”, in this case, fishing. They chose Hawaii as the location of their study because it “contains areas such as the island of Oahu which are populous and heavily urbanized, but there remain other locations which are very lightly populated and relatively undeveloped”. In this case, the researchers will be able to determine “a large range of human impacts among reef areas within and between islands”.

By conducting coral reef rapid assessment surveys, the researchers found “clear and consistent negative associations between human population density and biomass of fishes in a range of functional and taxonomic groupings”. Moreover, they deemed that “the extent of the impact of increasing human population density on local fish populations was substantial: total fish biomass at the two ‘remote’ locations was nearly three times that at the two most populous locations”. Although more research is needed to verify their findings, conservation efforts are needed in order to educate fishermen around the world about sustainable fishing practices that would not harm our coral reefs.

Idol, Travis W., Baker Patrick J., and Meason, Dean. “Indicators of forest ecosystem productivity and nutrient status across precipitation and temperature gradients in Hawaii”, Journal of Tropical Ecology, 23(2007):693-704.

The forest ecosystem is a vital force in nature because it does not only foster our watersheds, but it is the source of many other natural resources and it is the home of most of the flora and fauna in our land. In the research by Idol et al. (2007), they measured rainfall and temperature in Hawaiian forests to know their important effects on forest productivity. The researchers found “indicators of forest productivity and soil and leaf nutrients across independent gradients of precipitation and elevation/temperature in lower montane Hawaiian forests dominated by a single overstorey species, Acacia koa, situated on 1500–3000-y-old soils that were mixtures of volcanic ash and basalt”.

The researchers were also interested to prove “the degree of climate versus nutrient control over forest structure and productivity” by measuring “the basal area, leaf nutrient concentration, leaf mass per area, soil nutrient availability, soil organic matter, soil Nitrogen (N) mineralization potential and soil Phosphorus (P) fractions of forests dominated by A. koa that were distributed across independent elevation and temperature gradients on the Island of Hawaii”. The “relationships of site variables to the climatic gradients and to each other were used to provide insight into climatic and nutrient controls over forest productivity and nutrient status” in order to determine their pre-conceived notions that “productivity to be more strongly related to precipitation than elevation and for soil and leaf P rather than N to be more sensitive to changes in precipitation and elevation”.

The researchers proved that the “basal area was negatively correlated with the exchangeable soil P fraction. Also, they found that the soil carbon-nitrogen ratio “was negatively correlated with both soil P availability and the size of the primary mineral P fraction”. They also found out that “soil P availability and weathering appear to be important determinants of soil organic matter quantity and quality”. Lastly, they proved that “precipitation is the major driving force for forest productivity, but P weathering and availability play important roles in limiting productivity in wetter sites and in controlling soil organic matter dynamics in these N-fixing forests”.

However, the researchers claimed that “it is unclear how climate may be influencing P availability and the primary P pool size across the environmental gradients in our study. They thought that generally “increasing temperature and precipitation increase biological and chemical reaction rates” and “this would drive greater soil weathering rates, which should result in a decline in primary mineral P”.

Because of their findings, the researchers came to think “that due to the relatively young age of soils (in Hawaii), site-specific differences in recent ash deposition may be influencing the mineral P content of these soils in a manner that is inconsistent with the expected influence of temperature or precipitation”. This study is vital because, in understanding the importance of forests, we should consider the soil and the mineral composition of it and how the temperature can influence the growth of plants in the forest. This study is helpful in the field of ecology and this will make people realize that forest conservation should be supported by everyone.

Wright, Mark G., and Diez, Joselito M. “Coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) seasonal occurrence, dispersion and sampling on banana in Hawaii”, International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 25.2(2005): 80-85.

As bananas are one of the top five crops produced by Hawaii, it is essential to know how to control the pests that endanger it without the use of chemical pesticides that harm the environment. In the research article by Wright and Diez (2005), they reported occurrence, dispersion, and sampling of an insect pest that plagues the banana, the coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor). The researchers found that coconut scale occurs in bananas throughout Hawaii, especially in Oahu where it was first detected in 1968.

This insect can achieve heavy infestations that “result in yellowing and necrosis of leaves” and “on banana, the primary concern is an infestation of fingers, rather than damage to leaves”. Wright and Diez (2005) also reported the current methods on how to control A. destructor: “using insecticidal oils, ibuprofen (an insect growth regulator) and relying on natural enemies. Current practices also “include the application of diazinon to foliage and bunches of fruit, but this insecticide is being deregistered for use on bananas”.

Through their study, the researchers determined that the insect pest does not occur in bananas alone, but also in guava in Hawaii. They discovered that “distinct seasonal variations in A. destructor numbers on bananas in Hawaii and varietal differences in population densities and proportions of plants infested”, with the Cavendish banana variety incurring the highest A. destructor populations. The occurrence of the insect are highest during the September-January months and” lower population numbers during the summer months may be due to increased mortality of A. destructor correlated with increased temperatures”.

These findings are important to know the biology of the insect and its life patterns, so that appropriate solutions for control of this insect can be formulated. Thus, the researchers suggested insect management options like the applications of less harmful insecticides (e.g. ibuprofen), insecticidal oils, and sanitation. They suggest applying ibuprofen is limited to four per season and based on their seasonal data, “it would be appropriate to make an application during August-September, using field monitoring to determine scale infestation levels”.

Dachs, Gabi U., Currie, Margaret J., McKenzie, Fiona, Jeffreys, Mona, Cox, Brian, Foliaki, Sunia, Le Marchand, Loïc and Robinson, Bridget A. “Cancer disparities in indigenous Polynesian populations: Māori, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific people”, The Lancet Oncology, 9.5(May 2008): 473-484.

The study of biology is not limited to plants and animals, but it also includes the study of human beings because we are also living organisms. The research of Dachs et al. (2008) discussed the variations of occurrences of cancer among Polynesian people. Native Hawaiian people are considered as Polynesians, “people of Polynesia belong to one ethnocultural family as a result of centuries of maritime migrations, and… (they) are considered distinct from those from Micronesia and Melanesia”. The researchers suggested that “the Māori and Native Hawaiians constitute an important minority of the total population in New Zealand and Hawaii, respectively, whereas the Native Polynesians belong to the majority population of the Pacific islands”.

In their research, they found that reports in 1996–2000 suggest cancer incidence in “Māori women is slightly higher than in non-Māori and non-Pacific women, whereas the cancer incidence in Māori men is slightly lower than in non-Māori and non-Pacific men”. Moreover, they found that “the overall cancer incidence is higher in Native Hawaiian women than in European women”. The researchers listed the underlying causes of cancer as

smoking,
viral and other infections,
obesity and physical activity,
hormones and growth factors, and
genetic risk factors and polymorphism.

The researchers deemed that “Māori ethnicity and increasing age have been identified as indicators of poor survival for upper gastrointestinal tract cancers, including those of the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, and biliary tract, with the greatest decrease in survival for Māori people compared with non-Māori people aged below 50 years”. Patterns of cancer incidence in Hawaii should be studied more intently because it will prevent the untimely death of people if they are not educated about the causes of cancer at an earlier time.

Project Paper

With this project, the author was guided to realize how to apply the different concepts discussed in Biology 101. Learning the basics of biology is not only limited to plants and animals, but it also concerns the inter-relationships of all life forms including human beings. Hawaii has diverse flora and fauna, as well as it is a melting pot of people. With regards to the flora and fauna, it seems that the most alarming issue that arises from this research is the conservation of all plant and animal life in Hawaii. With regards to people, their involvement towards being educated about conservation and their genetic risk of acquiring cancer has been highlighted in this research.

In the article of Chapin et al. (2004), they discussed the state of conserving Hawaii’s 23 endemic palms, Pritchardia spp. We can relate this to the topics of Plant Structure, Reproduction, and Development, and Conservation and Restoration Biology. We have discussed that Pritchardia is an endemic species of palm in Hawaii. Endemic species are plants and animals that exist only in one geographic region. Species can be endemic to large or small areas of the earth: some are endemic to a particular continent, some to part of a continent, and others to a single island.

Usually, an area that contains endemic species is isolated in some way, so that species have difficulty spreading to other areas, or it has unusual environmental characteristics to which endemic species are uniquely adapted. Endemism, or the occurrence of endemic animals and plants, is more common in some regions than in others. In isolated environments such as the Hawaiian Islands, many of 90% of naturally occurring species are endemic.

Biologists who study endemism do not only consider species, the narrowest classification of living things; they also look at higher-level classifications of the genus, family, and order. These hierarchical classifications are nested so that, in most cases, an order of plants or animals contains a number of families, each of these families includes several genera (plural of “genus”), and each genus has a number of species. These levels of classification are known as “taxonomic” levels.

Because endemic animals and plants by definition have limited geographic ranges, they can be especially vulnerable to human invasion and habitat destruction. Island species are especially vulnerable because islands commonly lack large predators, and many island endemics evolved without defenses against predation. Cats, dogs, rats, and other carnivores introduced by sailors have decimated many island endemics. The flora and fauna of Hawaii, exceptionally rich before Polynesians arrived with pigs, rats, and agriculture, were severely depleted because their area was limited and they had nowhere to retreat as human settlement advanced.

Tropical rain forests, with extraordinary species diversity and high rates of endemism, are also vulnerable to human invasion. For this reason, the people of Hawaii should be educated about conservation biology in order for them to understand the importance of each species of life present in their environment.

As we concern ourselves with the conservation of plants, we should not neglect animals as well. In the research of Williams et al. (2008), they investigated the impacts of fishing on Hawaiian coral reefs and peeked into the relationships between fish assemblages and human population density. We can relate this to the topics of the Evolution of Vertebrate Diversity, Unifying Concepts of Animal Structure and Function, and Conservation and Restoration Biology.

We all know that coral reefs serve as the home for fish and other marine life. It takes hundreds of years to form these habitats and destroying them would create an imbalance in the marine ecosystem. Beckham (2003) informed that highly productive marine ecosystems may contain over 3,000 species of fish, shellfish, and other invertebrates. About 33% of all of the fishes of the world live and depend on coral reefs. With the advent and availability of diving gears to the general public in this half of this century, the diversity of life exhibited on coral reefs has been a great lure for tourists to these ecosystems throughout the world.

Even with their calcium carbonate skeleton and exquisite beauty, coral reefs are being degraded and destroyed daily, not only by natural events such as constant wave action and storm surges but, more importantly, by the actions of man. In fact, Beckham (2003) enumerated that “109 countries that have coral reef formations within their territorial waters, 90 are losing them because of man-induced environmental degradation”. Most are the result of physical abuse or pollution which alters the narrow range of physical and chemical parameters necessary for the coral to remain viable.

Today, about 10% of the world’s coral reefs are completely degraded, 30% have reached a critical stage. Scientists have determined that if degradation at this rate continues, 70% of all coral reefs could be gone in 40 years (Beckham, 2003). With these coral reefs gone in Hawaii, the marine sanctuary will be eradicated and it will soon affect people because the fish and other marine life will also disappear. This is why conserving the coral reefs through managing sustainable fishing operations will be helpful in preserving the sanctuary of Hawaii’s marine life. Minimizing water pollution is also vital so that it will not kill off the sea creature that thrives here.

Oil spills and other toxic or hazardous chemicals that find their way into the marine ecosystem through man’s actions are killing off the coral and/or the organisms associated with the reefs. The mining of coral for building materials takes a massive toll on these communities. We should all be aware of the biology of coral reefs and we should cooperate in the efforts in its conservation.

On the other hand, the research by Idol et al. (2007) discussed how forest ecosystems worked and they determined rainfall and temperature in Hawaiian forests to know their important effects on forest productivity. Forests are home to Hawaii’s endemic flora and fauna, this is why knowing the ecology and conservation of these forests are vital in preserving them. Pressures on rainforests include converting forests to plantations and other land uses that have threatened the habitat of Hawaii’s endemic species. There is the desire to harvest the massive trees and huge timber volumes before they are lost to insects or wind blow. There is also the desire to replace slow-growing natural forests with younger forests of fast-growing species. Those who favor preservation cite the connection between intact forests and the amount of water available.

They note that the replacement forests, being simpler in structure and species composition, cannot offer the same biological diversity and ecosystem functioning. Because old-growth rainforests are natural ecosystems, they are considered to have great intrinsic value, which is degraded when they are harvested or otherwise disturbed. The intrinsic value of rainforests is further enhanced by the enormous richness of species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are dependent on this specific ecosystem, particularly in the tropics. Mostly because of the intrinsic biodiversity-related value of rainforests, it is critically important that not all of the world’s tracts of these natural ecosystems are converted to human uses.

To prevent this terrible damage from occurring, extensive landscapes of the world’s remaining rainforests, in both tropical and temperate regions, must be protected in ecological reserves and parks, where the traditional uses by humans will no longer be permitted.

In the article by Wright and Diez (2005), they discussed the occurrence, dispersion, and sampling of an insect pest that plagues the banana, the coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor). They informed that banana is one of the important crops produced by Hawaii and controlling the extent of pest damage is vital in the balance of good crop production and the effect of using viable measures to control it by using environment-friendly practices, like using natural means.

The key here is to control pests and not delete all of them entirely. Conservation of enemies is an important part of any biological control effort. This strategy involves identifying any factors that limit the effectiveness of a particular natural enemy and changing them to help the beneficial species. Conservation of natural enemies involves either reducing factors that interfere with the natural enemies or providing needed resources that help natural enemies.

The planting of cover crops, such as providing nectar-producing plants and sources of alternate hosts in and around fields, and the interplanting of different crops to provide habitat diversity are management techniques that lead to the buildup of natural enemy populations and result in enhanced biological control. We all have been aware of the ills of using chemical pesticides like DDT because it affects innocuous plants and animals, including people. Thus, reading through Wright and Diez article, people will be educated that there are several ways in which we can control pests without being harmful to our environment.

Finally, the research of Dachs et al. (2008) discussed the variations of occurrences of cancer among Polynesian people. Native Hawaiian people are considered as Polynesians, “people of Polynesia belong to one ethnocultural family as a result of centuries of maritime migrations, and… (they) are considered distinct from those from Micronesia and Melanesia”. The researchers suggested that “the Māori and Native Hawaiians constitute an important minority of the total population in New Zealand and Hawaii, respectively, whereas the Native Polynesians belong to the majority population of the Pacific islands”.

We can relate the topics of Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance, Patterns of Inheritance, Molecular Biology of the Gene, and How Genes Are Controlled by reading through the article. Although the cause of most types of human cancers is still unknown, a number of factors are thought to be operative in the development of this disease. Genetic factors are thought to be related to some human diseases such as lung cancer.

The incidence of lung cancer, among persons with a positive family history of cancer maybe three times as high as in those who do not have a family history. In the United States, the carcinogens in tobacco account for up to most of all cancer deaths in both men and women. The increasing incidence and death rate from cancer of the lung in women is alarming and is directly related to the increasing prevalence of cigarette smoking by women. There is absolutely no doubt that the single most important action that could be taken to reduce the incidence of cancer in the United States would be to reduce or eliminate cigarette smoking.

Cigarette smoking and the heavy consumption of ethyl alcohol appear to act synergistically in the development of oral, esophageal, and gastric cancers. The investigation of Dachs et al. (2008) suggested cancer incidence in “Māori women is slightly higher than in non-Māori and non-Pacific women, whereas the cancer incidence in Māori men is slightly lower than in non-Māori and non-Pacific men”. In this case, Maori women should avoid smoking when they want not to increase their chances of contracting cancer because their genetic makeup is susceptible to cancer already. We have learned that our genes are the result of what we get from our parents and the environment. Having knowledge about genetics is, therefore, vital to our overall health and well-being as humans.

Going through the five research articles has been a challenge because it has revealed advanced terminologies and complicated explanations that the author need to figure out. However, armed with the basic concepts of biology, it enabled the author to understand by relating these articles to the topics discussed in Biology 101. What’s more essential is that the author has drawn upon some recommendations of how to deal with problems discussed by the articles.

It has been realized that conservation efforts should be supported in order to maintain the beauty and grandeur in Hawaii. Also, the changes needed should not be done once but it should be a continuous struggle because we want the future generation to experience the same beauty and grandeur we have witnessed in Hawaii for the many years is existed. Everything in it is vital, every fungus, every sea creature and every plant is essential to the environment that it is now. Also, let us not forget the people as part of this ecosystem and their health and well-being should also be maintained. The extent of biological knowledge is vast and it should all boil down into how we can effectively use our knowledge to improve and sustain the wonderful place we live in.

Works Cited

“Hawaii.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2008. Web.

Beckham, Eugene C. “Coral Reef.” Environmental Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. 3^rd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 323-325.

Chapin, Melany H., Wood, Kenneth R., Perlman, Steven P. and Maunder, Mike. “A review of the conservation status of the endemic Pritchardia palms of Hawaii”, Oryx, 38.3 (2004): 273-281.

Hawaii Biological Survey (HBS). Bishop Museum, 2008. Web.

National Research Council. Evolution in Hawaii: A Supplement to Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2004.

Nature Conservancy. Places We Protect (2008). Web.

Wright, Mark G. and Diez, Joselito M. “Coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) seasonal occurrence, dispersion and sampling on banana in Hawaii”, International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 25.2(2005): 80-85.

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