Architecture in Colonialism and Imperialism

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Table of Contents

Introduction
How Architecture Perpetuated Imperialism
The Legacies and Impacts of Colonialism/Imperialism in the Current Moment
Conclusion
Reference List
Footnotes

Introduction

The western countries imposed their cultural, religious, and political beliefs on their colonies. Traces of colonial powers are still visible in multiple countries worldwide in religion, urban planning, and architectural designs. Djiar argued that culture and architecture are interlinked¹. Therefore, the colonial powers viewed architecture as the most visible vehicle of cultural advance. This paper explores the role, impacts, and influence of architecture in colonialism. The research also identifies how architectural designs impact modern societies and people’s social values in different regions.

To understand the concepts explored in the paper, it is essential, to begin with, several definitions. The first term is colonialism, defined as how the European powers reached political, military, economic, and cultural domination in most Latin America, Asia, and Africa². It involved control, appropriation, authority, and cultural manifestation of the invaded territories. Applying the colonial binarism views, the colonizers believed it was their duty to enlighten the colonized individuals considered uncivilized³. The changes made by British and French colonies were often disguised using paternalistic exportation to foster the development of the natives. Therefore, the foreign powers applied a mix of adaptive strategies that focused on the gradual move between local and imported architectures and informal imperialism where control was established through peaceful means.

How Architecture Perpetuated Imperialism

In this paper’s context, the European colonizers imposed standardized housing using modern architectures of the time in new lands. An example of architectural imperialism or influence from the westerners was witnessed in Australia in the early 1700s. According to Keys, the Australian settlers prioritized shade over sunlight⁴. The northern hemisphere, where most European soldiers and explorers came from, had significantly low sunlight levels. However, these settlers were exposed to higher levels of sunlight, and they began experiencing sunburn, dehydration, and heat exhaustion linked to the Australian heat and sunlight. In response, the European settlers built houses with enclosing walls of corrugated iron sheets and high ceiling heights that were effective in creating cool structures⁵. In contrast, the Australian inhabitants relied on architectural designs that supported their cultural beliefs, such as minimal materials. These buildings were not considered permanent by Europeans, so they decided to impose their architectural forms in the region. The houses constructed by Europeans replicated those found in Europe, and their features were found in most buildings in Sydney in the colonial era.

Colonialism focused on the conquest of societies, and architecture was a significant symbolical way of demonstrating this success. The Europeans used their architectural designs to reshape the living spaces they occupied because they considered them modern. For instance, in 1830, the French invaded the Kasbah, Algiers, and replaced the Haussmannian urbanism with colonial administrative buildings⁶. The colonizers changed the city planning by assigning house numbers and street names, which were highly symbolic of the French domination and form of control. Assigning street names and house numbers proved crucial to the colonial masters because they would use the precise information to easily identify areas where insurgents were hiding during the struggle for colonization. An example is how the French paratroopers suppressed General Jacques during the battle of Algiers in 1956-1957. Such changes facilitated effective administration and control of colonies.

The French also embarked on changing Algiers’ architectural design by destroying the traditional houses built in Kasbah. The newly constructed buildings followed a western style, which advocated for certain features. For instance, the buildings had to incorporate decorative features on façade and regulations setting of balconies⁷. The buildings emphasized the aesthetic appeal and urban layout. The aim was to mark the cities of Algiers and Casablanca as French territories by displaying sufficient architectural design that would also convince the conquered of the power of the conqueror⁸. French preferred the orthogonal grids referred to as quadrillage, a French term that indicates control commonly by military or police. The urban schemes and architectural displays contributed to the new construction methods in Morocco and Algiers. The buildings were more elegant, clean, and ordered.

The French later shifted from the use of the military to psychological action in the 20^th century. During that era, the French took into account local and traditional norms and integrated them into urban and architectural designs. The colonizers did this by halting the demolition of old buildings, and in its place, new methods of buildings emerged. Lotus noted that Franco-Islamic architecture grew in this period. This style combined local North African designs and French architecture. As a result, new urban buildings in Morocco and Tunis were covered using the L’arabe or Arabisance^⁹. This change was intended to instill a sense of France respect for African traditions. Nonetheless, the Arabisance decorations were added to the European buildings without concern for their fit or function, as long as they provided the intended picture. As a result, France still maintained control and dominance, but it was done more subtly.

The British colonizers also used the same approach as France to perpetuate their cultural beliefs and domination of architectural displays. The most significant British conquest was India in 1757, and they propagated their architectural designs in the region as a display of power. The houses built had the Gothic-Victorian style. These buildings carried a political significance, as they represented the military conquering and superior race and culture¹⁰. For instance, Metcalf argued that Lord Wellesley’s government house was the first symbol of British power. Britain was also determined to spread new imperialism in India that constituted the construction of new roads, military cantonments, irrigation canals, and civil stations all over the country. The infrastructure laid by the colonial powers was suitable in imposing effective imperial rule because they would facilitate the movement of troops, and the use of expressive symbols reminded the colonies who was in control.

The British effort to gain and retain control of the Indian people included creating a hierarchy system. This system was enforced using courts, religious affiliation, and decennial censuses. British rulers despised Hindu buildings because they appeared “imposing, or even poetical,”¹¹ and the government considered them ill-suited for the common and public use. However, the British viewed the Islamic architecture as most suitable to represent the empire and they disposed Mughals helped enhance their sense of power and majesty in the region. Further, the wealthy classes moved closer to the European towns because they could afford to build mansions with external ornaments that met the western culture. The disenfranchisement of Western, Islam, and Hinduism created a system where the British architects’ buildings were considered superior and affluent, while the indigenous were seen as poor. The Indian upper class admired and imitated the colonial-style reinforces the view that architectural design enhanced colonialism and imperialism. The styles would also be passed down to the middle class, who would also decorate using themes deemed suitable by the west.

The access to trade routes also allowed the British people to travel in Asian and Middle East countries. However, some Indians, Egyptians, Turks, and Arabs possessed fine goods and pastoral lifestyles, considered leisure¹². To some extent, the exotic cultural practices of the east compared to that of Europe. Nonetheless, Britain viewed the imperial through the same lens as all foreign nations. As a result, they developed the orientalism theory, which was the western style for restructuring, dominating, and showing authority over the Orient/Asians. The west viewed the Asians as having old cultural norms and used imperialism to minimize the threat of eastern countries and exploit their resources. Orientalism gave the British power to control arts and architecture within Asian colonies. An example is how the British assimilated Indian architectural designs into European concepts. Another example of how the buildings changed the culture was constructing the clock tower at Mayo College, which gave Indian people the British concern for time and punctuality¹³. The architecture, therefore, played a significant role in the self-representation of the empires.

The Legacies and Impacts of Colonialism/Imperialism in the Current Moment

The history of colonialism cannot be still preserved through various mediums in the present. Cohen noted that modern colonies extended into the media age included in magazines or photography as it was in Algeria or cinema in Morocco¹⁴. The French landing video recordings in Morocco resulted in an influx of migrants in North Africa and Algiers, who continued to propagate and impose their beliefs in the colonies. The investments made by the colonial powers in the form of buildings, construction materials, and designs are visible in some territories worldwide. France introduced a considerable amount of iron in Algeria and Morocco used in concrete constructions and steel frames. After the independence of the colonies, the hegemony of cultures and architectural designs continued in various parts of the world¹⁵. During the colonial era, engineers and technicians trained engaged in urban planning and construction using the colonizers’ policies.

Colonialism and imperialism succeeded in creating the differentiation witnessed today worldwide. The western powers created the colonial boundaries that emphasized differentiation between the colonizers/colonized, master/slave, and progress/backwardness, which exist to date. The mode of authority created discriminatory effects that made the colonized feel that their cultures or houses were inferior. The colonial regime instilled racial, administrative, and cultural discrimination¹⁶. In modern society, the differences manifest themselves in the form of racist stereotypes. The bias against people of color is similar to that of colonial times. It affects how they receive services in various social sectors, such as schools, transport, employment opportunities, and injustice systems. This example was witnessed recently in South Africa during apartheid. People of color did not receive the same quality education as the westerners, and this has derailed economic development and self-reliance many years after independence.

The museums built in former western powers still present some notions that represent that colonial superiority. The colonizers have built museums in their town cities that display objects, photographs, and other items taken or “gifted” by former colonies. The art from the colonized countries is often labeled as “primitive art,” which builds on the established notion that colonies had inferior cultures, houses, and way of life¹⁷. The museums also represent the domination mechanism employed by the westerners. More importantly, the museums do not disclose how the items were obtained from the colonies or when they intend to return to the owners.

The subordination of other religions by the colonizers also has dire impacts on modern society. The foreign powers discriminated against other religions and their places of worship, as witnessed in India when Britain outlawed their architectural designs. In return, the colonialists introduced new religions and built churches in these regions, and people were required to convert because it was argued Christianity was superior. For instance, Spain focused on converting the conquered territories. Many people converted not because they wanted to, but to enjoy certain benefits such as paying fewer taxes and social acceptance¹⁸. The natives were also required to learn a foreign language like English, French, and Spanish. These changes have led to the loss of certain, especially those fully assimilated by the foreign powers.

The exploitation of resources is a challenge that created economic disparities between less and more developed countries in the world. Europeans used military and psychological methods to exploit the natural resources in colonies. For instance, countries like Britain, Spain, and France hold large gold reserves obtained from their empires¹⁹. Europeans and Americans also exploited the natives by overworking them in mines and farms during the industrial revolution²⁰. During the industrial revolution, colonies were exposed to new diseases such as yellow fever that killed many people, especially in Latin America. It also gave rise to the slave trade, and the majority of black people ended up in the Caribbean and Americas, where they worked in plantations. Despite the enormous contributions in the form of resources and labor, colonizer nations have never allowed fair competition in the market, making the colonies remain under-developed.

The colonial and imperial relations created conflicts and large disparities between the colonizers and slaves. These conflicts still exist in modern society, and the westerners’ denial of their role in harming the indigenous often exacerbates the issues leading to reactionary behavior from the minorities. The view that colonizers’ culture, religion, and ideas are superior to the colonies has resulted in racist violence that leads to political unrest experienced this year. For example, colonialists often subjected Africans to forced labor and slavery. The mistreatment against African Americans continues to date, as evidenced by multiple cases where innocent people of color are imprisoned or killed arbitrarily²¹. In contrast, the majority of whites do not face similar judicial sentencing, and they are often released or given the benefit of the doubt after committing crimes. Such examples have led to the belief that the people of color are inferior, which creates cultural conflicts.

Past and current racial discriminations have influenced the disproportionate impacts of COVID-19. The people of color have always been denied access to better health care facilities because of low income or segregation during slavery/Jim Crow laws. Lack of income has made many minorities overwork, consume food with inadequate nutrients or diet, lack housing, and missed hospital appointments that would help in early diagnosis²². As a result, most of the low income earners, especially Black and Latinos, had a high risk of contracting the coronavirus and a high mortality rate due to the underlying health conditions²³. Additionally, many minorities had not saved up because they only work in low-paying jobs because of past discrimination that prevented them from acquiring education or employment opportunities.

In my opinion, an ideal anti-colonial and anti-imperial world would have diverse religions, cultures, linguistics, and economic policies. The invasion of westerners in colonies led to the disruption of certain cultures and religious activities by introducing Christianity and new languages. The changes led to the hegemony of religion and culture, which is a source of conflict for many people. If colonialism did not exist, I believe that a superior or inferior way of life would not be present in the modern world. Additionally, countries that were colonized would not have their resources exploited. The natural resources would allow the countries to invest in building social amenities and infrastructure in line with their beliefs.

Conclusion

The European powers appropriated countries they colonized by imposing their ways of life, such as architectural designs, culture, religion, and economic principles. The westerners used the constructed infrastructures as symbolic domination in countries like India, Morocco, and Algeria. The foreign nations left their traces in architectural designs, construction materials and policies, and city plans in colonies representing an era of traumatic conditions that affected the indigenous people.

Reference List

Béguin, F., Baudez, G., Lesage, D. and Lucien Godin. “Arabisances: décor architectural et tracé urbain en Afrique du Nord 1830-1950.” (1983).

Bhabha, H, “Signs Taken for Wonders: Questions of Ambivalence and Authority under a Tree outside Delhi, 1817.” in Critical Inquiry, 12, 1985, 144-165.

CDC, “Communities, Schools, Workplaces, & Events”. In, Centers for Disease Control, 2020. Web.

Cohen, J, “Architectural History and the Colonial Question: Casablanca, Algiers and Beyond.” In Architectural History, 49, 2006, 349-368.

Djiar, K, “Locating architecture, post-colonialism and culture: Contextualisation in Algiers.” In The Journal of Architecture, 14, 2009, 161-183.

Godoy, M, & D Wood, “What Do Coronavirus Racial Disparities Look Like State By State?” In Npr.org, 2020. Web.

Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism, (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1991).

Jones, Scarlett A. “If You Build It, They Will Come: A Study of Imperial Design in Victorian Britain.” (2013). Honors Theses. 113. Web.

Keys, C, “Shifting priorities of shade and northern Australian architecture: Colonial settlement prior to the 1920s.” in ABE Journal, 2020.

Korody, N, “Uncovering the Architecture of Colonialism with ‘The Funambulist’.“. In Architect, 2020.

Mambrol, N, “Binarism in Post-colonial Theory.” In Literary Theory and Criticism, 2017. Web.

Marshall, M, “US police kill up to 6 times more black people than white people.” In New Scientist, , 2020.

Metcalf, T, “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910.”. In Representations, 6, 1984, 37-65.

Pettinger, T, “What happened to the Spanish Gold from the Incas? – Economics Help.” In Economics Help, 2020.

Piñón Escudero, E, “Coloniality and museums: architecture, curatorship, management, and the perpetuation of colonialist structures.” in Hdl.handle.net, 2020.

Footnotes

K Djiar, “Locating architecture, post-colonialism and culture: contextualisation in Algiers”, in The Journal of Architecture, vol. 14, 2009, 161-183.
E Piñón Escudero, “Coloniality and museums: architecture, curatorship, management, and the perpetuation of colonialist structures”, in Hdl.handle.net, , 2020. Web.
N Mambrol, “Binarism in Post-colonial Theory”, in Literary Theory and Criticism, , 2017. Web.
C Keys, “Shifting priorities of shade and northern Australian architecture: Colonial settlement prior to the 1920s”, in ABE Journal, , 2020.
C Keys, “Shifting priorities of shade and northern Australian architecture”
N Korody, “Uncovering the Architecture of Colonialism with ‘The Funambulist’”, in Archinect, , 2020. Web.
J Cohen, “Architectural History and the Colonial Question: Casablanca, Algiers and Beyond”, in Architectural History, vol. 49, 2006, 349-368.
Béguin, François, Gildas Baudez, Denis Lesage, and Lucien Godin. “Arabisances: décor architectural et tracé urbain en Afrique du Nord 1830-1950.” (1983).
The concept of Arabisance was intended by the colonialist to “delight and reassure the native soul.” Lotus p.43 or “ to cheer and inspire Europeans.” Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism, (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 111.
T Metcalf, “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910”, in Representations, vol. 6, 1984, 37-65.
T Metcalf, “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910”, pp.44
S Jones “If You Build It, They Will Come: A Study of Imperial Design in Victorian Britain.” (2013). Honors Theses. 113.
S Jones “If You Build It, They Will Come: A Study of Imperial Design in Victorian Britain.” 7.
J Cohen, “Architectural History and the Colonial Question,”p.362
J Cohen, “Architectural History and the Colonial Question,” p.366
H Bhabha, “Signs Taken for Wonders: Questions of Ambivalence and Authority under a Tree outside Delhi, May 1817”, in Critical Inquiry, vol. 12, 1985, 153.
E Piñón Escudero, “Coloniality and museums: architecture, curatorship, management”
E Piñón Escudero, “Coloniality and museums: architecture, curatorship, management,” pp.12
T Pettinger, “What happened to the Spanish Gold from the Incas? – Economics Help”, in Economics Help, , 2020. Web.
E Piñón Escudero, “Coloniality and museums: architecture, curatorship, management” p.14
M Marshall, “US police kill up to 6 times more black people than white people”, in New Scientist, , 2020. Web.
CDC, “Communities, Schools, Workplaces, & Events”, in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, , 2020. Web.
M Godoy & D Wood, “What Do Coronavirus Racial Disparities Look Like State By State?”, in Npr.org, , 2020. Web.

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