Do you need this or any other assignment done for you from scratch?
We have qualified writers to help you.
We assure you a quality paper that is 100% free from plagiarism and AI.
You can choose either format of your choice ( Apa, Mla, Havard, Chicago, or any other)
NB: We do not resell your papers. Upon ordering, we do an original paper exclusively for you.
NB: All your data is kept safe from the public.
Also known as intellectual, scientific or individual freedom, academic freedom is defined as the freedom of professionals and students to question and to propose new thoughts and unpopular suggestions to the government without jeopardizing their work or privileges accorded by the institutions. Academic freedom is a refuge of intellectual individualism (Hofstadter 1995). It has been observed that since the medieval intellectual tradition universities were seen as minor-ecclesiastical institutions in society and were locked out in leadership decisions and the religious institutions were given more authority in governance; this undermined academic freedom immensely. In many countries, academic freedom is undermined and is not secure from the government’s pressure. In countries like Malaysia, Egypt, Hong Kong, Serbia and Singapore, the government has outlawed the research and publication of certain materials. Several authors and scholars have taken interest in learning academic freedom and have come up with different opinions about the subject; here are some of the writings from different authors:
Russell, C., 1993, Academic Freedom, Routledge. New Fatter Lane, London. Russell was a British historian and politician and was a Professor of British history at King’s College London till 2003. Russell wrote this book from a liberal democratic dimension with an intention to contribute to the task of sorting out the terms and conditions of cooperation between the government and other institutions of higher learning. Russell (1993) notes that all professions are under one government and is impossible for every professional to elect his or her own government, thus the government should recognize areas of independent professional judgment, along which it should not interfere under all grounds. Russell urges the government should go back to the medieval idea of ‘liberty’, where the state did not meddle into the internal affairs of institutions. Russell quotes that the government by consent is a tender plant that the people can uproot at their will. The main principle of a legit government should be to lead the people within their consent. This source acknowledges that academic freedom is a manifestation of freedom of thought and expression which ought to be respected (Russell 1993).
Altbach, P., 2001, Academic Freedom: International realities and challenges, Springer Publishers, New York. Altbach is an associate Professor at the Institute of Higher Education at Peking University. Just like Russell, Altbach recognizes academic freedom as the canon of higher education, due to its influence to professions in all dimensions of academic work. This reference claims that for the academic fraternity influences and directs the flow of information; it finds itself as a target for public vilification from external influential institutions (Altbach 2001).
In contrast to Russell (1993) idea of democratic development of academic freedom, Altbach argues that there has been a gradual increase in professional specialization and thus faculties are not well educated in freedom. Instead the students should not be taught general collegiate education only but also be taught the value and essence of general and academic freedom.
Hofstadter, R., 1995, Academic freedom in the age of the college, Transaction Publishers, NJ. Hofstadter Richard (1916 – 1970) was an American historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor at Columbia University. Hofstadter recognizes that academic freedom is a modern trend and has evolved through various academic settings. Hofstadter defends academic freedom and condemns those opposed to it and calls this act anti-intellectualism. Hofstadter upheld the university ideal in higher learning since the university is committed to certain principles of freedom, sensibility, questioning and discussion. Where there is academic freedom, questioning produces a wide spectrum of opinions, which are backed by the public and diligently assessed. Hofstadter holds that the university bridges the external world, with the world we imagine.
Unlike the other authors, Hofstadter stresses mote on ethical issues pertaining academic freedom. He argues that limits in intellectual activities should be grouped to matters of methodology and logic while the other restraints to academic freedom are in contrast to principles of society and professionals. In contrast to Russell, Hofstadter argues that development of knowledge is advocating for academic freedom. Contravention of professional codes and refusal to be answerable to the public is ethically wrong (Hofstadter 1995).
Berry, R., 1980, Academic Freedom and Peer Reviews of Research Proposals and Papers, McGraw Hill, NY. Berry is an associate professor of economics at South Dakota University. Berry defines academic freedom as the freedom of professionals to air controversial opinions and can be attained when there is non-interference from punitive sanctions from powerful individuals and institutions, for example censorship of research projects and drafts. Berry identified two canons of excellent learning; that is, exceptional professional experts and good working conditions. Academic freedom is contained in the working conditions. Berry, just like Hofstadter, Altbach and Russell (1993) says that the academic freedom can only be found where the administration is autonomous from the profession and it is not subject to any limitations although rational methods can be used (Berry 1980).
Berry opines that administrators should legitimately apply peer review committees to assist in awarding the limited resources, for instance commissioning of competitive research projects for available resources. These proposals should be assessed properly to ensure that they only contribute to knowledge. Peers should be allowed to exercise their academic freedom in doing their proposals although their opinions and criticism should address the researcher only.
Aby, S., & Kuhn, J., 2000, Academic Freedom: A Guide To The Literature, Greenwood Publishing Group, CT. Aby is an educational bibliographer and instructor at the University of Akron. Aby and Kuhn argue that the autonomy of professions from influential institutions and individuals can be best described by the Descartes’ method of inquiry. This method upholds six principles, which are, academics and knowledge activities should be attained autonomously and individually; the process should have no restrictions; an academician should have objectivity in the area of interest; sensibility is universal to all; a secure and conducive environment is necessary for learning; and sufficient amount of time should be committed according to the interest developed by the scholar (Aby & Kuhn 2000).
Aby and Kuhn argues for academic freedom to exist, certain objectives should be achieved first, these are, the need to thrive, the endeavor to make the world a better place, and a social order must exist. Aby and Kuhn advocate for professional relativism for all professions as this assists in institutionalizing knowledge and academic freedom within the profession, and also help the profession flourish.
In conclusion, all the works above uphold academic freedom and devise various means to achieve it. Although in the 20th century, academic freedom has been granted more space than earlier but a lot ought to be improved. Just like other freedoms, academic freedom brings along responsibilities to the professionals. A professional is expected to seek and report the truth as they perceive it to be. Academic freedom grants scholars and experts freedom to identify and tell the truth as they observe it, to students and the general public in the best way possible may it be through oral or written communication.
References
Aby, S., & Kuhn, J., 2000, Academic Freedom: A Guide To The Literature, Greenwood Publishing Group, CT
Altbach, P., 2001, Academic Freedom: International realities and challenges, Springer Publishers, New York.
Berry, R., 1980, Academic Freedom and Peer Reviews of Research Proposals and Papers, McGraw Hill, NY.
Hofstadter, R., 1995, Academic freedom in the age of the college, Transaction Publishers, NJ.
Russell, C., 1993, Academic Freedom, Routledge. New Fatter Lane, London.
Do you need this or any other assignment done for you from scratch?
We have qualified writers to help you.
We assure you a quality paper that is 100% free from plagiarism and AI.
You can choose either format of your choice ( Apa, Mla, Havard, Chicago, or any other)
NB: We do not resell your papers. Upon ordering, we do an original paper exclusively for you.
NB: All your data is kept safe from the public.