Geology and Environmental Science

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During the 1840s, local time system was replaced by railway standard time format in countries like Scotland, Wales and England. Later on, time transmission evolved whereby Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) was put into use as the standard time reference for the entire world wide (Braganza, 2005). However, scientists were concerned over the ineffective mode of time keeping as opposed to the atomic clocks which were highly accurate. This was due to the fact that the earths motion was perceived to be declining its rate by about one thousand seconds per day. In the process of adjusting fluctuation rate, an effective strategy of measuring time was invented, namely the Greenwich Mean Time. The latter has been used as the worlds standard mode of measuring time for long period (Braganza, 2005).

Longitudes are commonly used in computation of time due to reliability. It also assists in obtaining accurate navigational data. Two consecutive meridians or longitudes are separated by 15 degrees (Braganza, 2005). On the same note, the earth covers a distance of 360 degrees in a single rotation. Hence, there is time duration of one hour between two consecutive longitudes. This interval is referred to as a time zone. However, researchers assert that time zones have been interfered with due to unique differences that exist in various countries across the globe (Jerry & Fisher, 2009).

Time zones are obtained by computing the quotient between the total number of degrees covered either to the east or west of the prime meridian and 15 degree (Jerry & Fisher, 2009). When moving to the east of the prime meridian and upon reaching a new time zone, one hour is added to the current time system. Hence, movement towards the east demands the subtraction of one hour from a clock.

One outstanding importance of Time zones is that they are used to unify system of keeping time on a global basis. This is due to the fact that different places in the word experience different time intervals (Jerry & Fisher, 2009). Time zones are also used in global trade and transport activities since the global community can appropriately and easily keep time and date.

Several geological and biological changes have occurred since the time when earth was formed (Bachman & Seeds, 2011). Initially, the earth was predominantly made up of rocky objects dated million of years ago. Scientific researchers have argued that there were lumps of dust that that formed huge particles prior to the formation of the earth (Seeds & Bachman, 2009). The earths atmosphere was dominated by carbon dioxide gas. This gas had emanated from ultra violet rays emitted from the sun, volcanism and bombarding meteors. There was absolutely no oxygen found in the earths atmosphere. Additionally, the earths crust was cold but it later started melting due to radioactive processes and pressure from bombarded meteorites that produced heat (Bachman & Seeds, 2011). This made the molten earth to form layers varying in density with the dense materials at the bottom and the light ones at the top. The very materials then cooled and solidified at different rate forming the earths crust. The cooling of the eat crust saw the beginning of life. According to Newton, the earth developed gravity that held the new atmosphere and water masses tightly together (Bachman & Seeds, 2011).

Life began to develop when micro-organisms (bacteria) called prokaryotes started multiplying in the absence of oxygen. The organism was thought to use carbon dioxide and produce oxygen (Bachman & Seeds, 2011). At the same, the process of photosynthesis began hence it brought about oxygen balance into the earths surface. The earths gravitational force held the new atmosphere that comprised of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas, water vapor and inert gases.

The origin of complex human life in the earths system supported animal life. Besides, sun causes tidal effects and alters the rotation of the earth and also influences weather and climate in the planet (Bachman & Seeds, 2011). Moreover, the sun provides energy needed for photosynthesis. Comets contain dust and ice particles although they are smaller than other planets. Additionally, the moon has similar composition although it has no air and hence cannot support life. It moon causes tidal effect to the planet and is also responsible for longer days than nights on earth. Galileo and Newton confirm that the tidal effect slows down the rotation of the earth (Bachman & Seeds, 2011).

Similar to the evolution of the earth, other heavenly bodies like the sun and moon have evolved. This has been occasioned by constant collision of heavenly bodies which has led to changes in the initial composition. The change in positioning for comets is also as a result of this collision bearing in mind that the latter is often in constant motion of shifting from the outer to inner space (Seeds & Bachman, 2009). Kepler asserts that every planet is in an ellipse with the sun. Newton enforces kleplers theory as he affirms that heavenly bodies have evolved at unpredictable rate. Kepler asserts that planets revolve around the sun in their own axis. Moreover, Galileo discovered that in some planets like Jupiter there are several moons orbiting around them (Seeds & Bachman, 2009). Scientific evidence also indicates that the sun will continue to evolve into a white dwarf that will erupt at some point in time. This may presumably be the end of life on earth (Seeds & Bachman, 2009). Additionally, scientists also believe that the sun will evolve into giant stars due to energy produced when hydrogen gas heats up.

Formation of Pacific Northwest region and the theory of Plate tectonics

The Pacific Northwest regions have been prone to several geological activities such as earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain formation and movement of glaciers (Wuerthner & Moore, 1999). These activities are as a result of plate tectonic forces that led to the formation of oceanic and continental crust. Geologists assert that initially, lava existed in the pacific plate. This earthly material was in a molten. Due to movement caused by tectonic plates, the molten lava erupted and thereafter led to the formation of volcanic mountains. Successive volcanic eruptions have led to formation of myriad volcanic mountains (Gates & Ritchie, 2007). On the same note, random, divergent, convergent and transformational movement of plates led to the formation of mountain ranges but also crumpled ocean basins and triggered earthquakes in some areas (Wuerthner & Moore, 1999). At this point, it is imperative to note that each form of movement resulted into formation of unique geographical features.

The movement of these plates was caused by radioactive decay of the earths crust that produced heat causing magma to rise up to the surface. In this region, plate movements are responsible for mountain uplift like the Olympics that was formed in the American plate due to collision (Wuerthner & Moore, 1999). Rocks composition was also a factor that influenced the intensity of tectonic motions.

The intensity of earthquakes and volcanoes in the Pacific Northwest region was fueled by the topography of the landscape itself and the high radioactivity of the earth crust in the region. The random movements of the plate led to shear and collision forces. In this case, the region is said to be an active zone of plate movement (Wuerthner & Moore, 1999). Currently, the American plate is slowly overriding the Juan plate pushing it towards the North American plate. Wuerthner and Moore (1999) observe that rocks dragged deeper into the plates caused high pressure and the resulting heat melted down the rocks into magma. In this case subsequent tectonic motions led to frequent volcanoes and earthquakes. Moreover, the rift in the middle of oceanic floor oozed lava frequently. This led to the formation of strong opposing forces on the earth crust and subsequent earthquake. Gates and Ritchie (2007) affirm that the presence of still hot magma melted the rocks easily leading to frequent geological activities in the pacific region.

Motion of the tectonic plates and climate

Plate tectonic motion affects climate in various ways. Firstly, when the plates move, volcanic eruptions are triggered. As a result, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide gases are released into the atmosphere. This definitely leads to rise of earths surface temperatures above normal. This may result into desertification in drier areas. For example, forest cover in the Andes Mountains was reduced to a desert due to high atmospheric temperature that led to extinction of some plant species which could not bear extreme temperatures. Additionally, severe tectonic movements lead to mountain building. It is common when two plates converge to form a mountain which thereafter affects rainfall patterns. On the other hand, less tectonic movements imply shortage of carbon dioxide gas and consequently lower atmospheric temperatures.

Motion of the tectonic plates and geography

Tectonic plates move in three different ways; towards, past or against each other hence leading to convergence divergence and transformational features (Gate & Ritchie, 2007). When plates diverge, new crusts emerge as magma pushes up to occupy the space left. In most cases, submerged ground may form a sea floor where water accumulates to form a lake or sea. On the other hand, converging plates may result into the formation of mountains. Convergence of oceanic and continental plates may lead to formation of tsunamis and volcanic eruptions such as those experienced in Andes north of pacific (Gate & Ritchie, 2007). Features resulting from tectonic forces modify the geography of certain areas.

Motion of the tectonic plates and distribution of organisms

Tectonic motions affect climate as well as geography of the earths surface. When the geography is affected, food supply is also disrupted (Gate & Ritchie, 2007). For example, most volcanic prone areas are rocky and hence it is rare to find many species in such areas since they are less productive. Additionally, when climate is affected, species distribution is altered. For instance, when plates split, new water body may be formed. Hence, aquatic species may inhabit the area displacing the original terrestrial species.

Collision of plates decreases diversity where some species might die from activities like earthquakes and volcanoes (Gate & Ritchie, 2007). Changes in climate lead to succession of species.

The role of the Sun and the oceans in each: weather, climate, and the water cycle

The sun heats the earths surface leading to rise of warm air to the atmosphere (Smith, 2009). At the lifting condensation level point, the warm air condenses and later falls back in form of precipitation thereby influencing daily weather (Braganza, 2005). Climate is determined by the amount of solar radiation. Heat energy from the sun influences how water circulates from the earths surface (both land and water bodies) to the atmosphere and back. Ocean waters evaporate providing moisture that results into precipitation (Smith, 2009). On the overall, the long term impact of sun-ocean interaction in a continuous water cycle accounts for climatic pattern of any given region. Describe in one to two sentences the cause and effects of air movements and ocean currents.

Air moves in masses due to difference in temperatures. When air heats up, it rises since it is less dense. It then moves toward regions of low pressure belt leading to what is referred to as wind (Smith, 2009). Ocean currents are caused by strong winds in flowing over the ocean. Such currents are important in enhancing movement of air and nutrients need by aquatic life.

Write a short analysis of the effects of the air movements and the ocean currents

Air rises up carrying with it water vapor into the atmosphere then cools and falls into the surface as precipitation. Therefore, it helps in hydrological cycle (Smith, 2009). Moreover, its movement triggers the formation of ocean currents that help in nourishing marine life owing to movement of currents that enhance circulation of gases in and distribution of nutrients in water.

List a few characteristics of each of the bodies of water below for comparison

A river is a water body where water flows across land. A lake can be flesh or salty, large or small in size, may have an inlet and an outlet. Oceans are large flesh water bodies. A bay is enclosed by land while sea is usually linked to another water body like an ocean. Strait is narrow joins two large bodies (Smith, 2009). Estuary is a river draining undivided into distributaries. Canals are waterways connecting larger bodies. Swamp has fresh water, muddy, waterlogged with shrubs growing in it. Reservoirs are water bodies constructed by man to store water. Wetlands are terrestrial though aquatic and act as drainage areas (Smith, 2009).

References

Bachman, D. & Seeds, A. (2011). Universe: Solar System, Stars, and Galaxies. Boston: Cengage Learning.

Braganza, M. (2005). Earth Science. Carmen: Rex Book Store, Inc

Gates, E. & Ritchie, D. (2007). Encyclopedia of earthquakes and volcanoes. New York: InfoBase Publishers.

Jerry, B. & Fisher, S. (2009) Cliffs Notes CSET: Multiple Subjects. New Jersey: John Willey & Sons.

Seeds, A. & Bachman, E. (2009). Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond. Belmont: Cengage learning.

Smith, J. (2009) the Facts on File dictionary of weather and climate. New York: InfoBase Publishing.

Wuerthner, G. & Moore, W.G. (1999). Olympic: A Visitors Companion. Mechanicsburg: Stack pole books

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