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Introduction
The perception of the public about police has always been negative. Various factors determine this perception. Even though the studies indicate mixed results about police use and the application of its powers, how the public perceives the police is primarily influenced by the media (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). Dowler and Zawilskis 2007 study indicated that the media have a strong influence on how the public perceives the police force.
According to them, the public largely borrows the crime and justice knowledge from the media. Besides, the media have continuously depicted the police as a brutal force that ineffectively and inappropriately utilizes its powers. As a result, the negative image of the police has been perpetuated in the public mind (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). The negative portrayal of the police was witnessed in the recent coverage of Kevin Spratt Taser Affair in which the police brutality on the minority group contributed to the negative perception.
The powers of the police have also been portrayed as being invariably used (Brown & Evans, 2009; Prenzler et al., 2010). The police have been seen overstepping their authority and breaking the law to make arrests in indigenous communities, on the contrary, it has been acting fairly in the white communities (Prenzler et al., 2010). Such forms of discrimination in the application of powers have greatly contributed to the negative perception of the police in the indigenous communities.
This reason also gives an explanation why the majority of people do not approve of the addition of police powers. In fact, the recent amendments on the arrest laws to increase the police powers and expand the purpose of the arrests sparked mixed reactions. Most of the practitioners and professionals argued that such amendments would result in increased chances of police breaking the rules to make arrests (Santas & McMahon, 2014; Smith, 2010; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005).
Moreover, the possibilities of directing these new powers towards the minority groups are considerably high, given their current statistics of crime rates (Santas & McMahon, 2014; Smith, 2010). Consequently, the poor relationship between the police and the public, particularly the minority groups, would go from bad to worse.
Even though the police powers have been inappropriately applied, the positive relationship between the police and the public can be enhanced (Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). Through appropriate strategies for community policing, improved open communications, professional conduct, and meeting the public expectations can be applied to improve the relationship between the communities and the police.
Police, community, and media
The media primarily influences how the public perceives the police. Studies indicate that reports related to police misconduct significantly affect the public perception of the police (Bartsch & Cheurprakobkit, 2004). The indication is that the media play a significant role in shaping public opinion concerning the use and misuse of the police force. The reason is that the media seldom report the better conducts and good actions that the police force renders to the communities. Instead, the media concentrates on the police excesses and brutality, which creates a negative perception of the police by the public.
While the professionals and practitioners agree that media play a critical role in influencing the public opinion concerning the police force, researches indicate that the quality of the contact between the police force and the citizens also shapes the perception and attitudes of the communities towards the police service. Bartsch and Cheurprakobkit 2004; Brown & Benedict 2002; Edwards 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2005; Weitzer and Tuch 2005 have argued that the communities will be satisfied with the policing services only when the police have a good relationship with the communities.
Good relationships are often enhanced through close contacts, which are normally initiated by the police and perpetuated by their proper conduct (Bartsch & Cheurprakobkit, 2004). Various studies indicate that the majority of citizens come into contact with the police only during crime situations or traffic accidents particularly when they are part of the investigations (Edwards, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2005; Weitzer and Tuch, 2005).
Skogan 2006 and Edwards 2005 have argued that such situations do not result in a favourable view of the police by the public. Besides, it gives room for the media to perpetuate their analytical viewpoint into the public about the police (Edwards, 2005; Skogan, 2006). Further, these contacts are initiated by the police. In fact, studies indicate that most of the police-initiated communications result in public dissatisfaction compared with community-initiated encounters (Edwards 2005; Rosenbaum et al. 2005; Miller & Davis 2008).
Recent studies also indicate that the negative perception of the communities about the police result from the reported experiences of other people (Rosenbaum et al., 2005; Miller & Davis, 2008; Skogan, 2006; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). While most people are not aware of the behaviour of the police force in other states, the media reports on various incidents have a strong influence in changing the viewpoint of the local communities.
However, sharing experiences among the community members play a significant role in shaping the public opinion of the police. Weitzer and Tuch 2005; Roberts and Hough 2005 indicated that shared experiences influence the perceptions of the police. Miller and Davis 2008; Rosenbaum et al., 2005 and Weitzer Tuch 2005 have termed these experiences vicarious experiences. Generally, how the public perceives the police depends on many factors. However, such perceptions are greatly influenced by the media.
The Police Powers
Recent studies indicate that the public perceives the police as having significant authority and powers, which are generally being abused. Davids 2008 and Edwards 2005 argued that these policing attributes could result in a series of situations where police misconduct and corruption could occur. Davids 2008 further argued that in severe situations, the attributes can subdue an individuals rights, resulting in torture and discrimination.
Such actions of the police have devastating effects on the public. For instance, the reports about torture during detention have eroded the public confidence and cooperation with the police. The reported police brutalities have an adverse effect on crime prevention efforts as well as the overall effectiveness of the police (Brown & Benedict 2002; Frank, Smith & Novak, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2005).
A recent survey conducted on the public about police powers indicated that the police have significant powers to do their job (Brown & Evans, 2009; Jang, Joo & Zhao, 2010; Prenzleret al., 2010). When asked whether the police should be given additional powers, most of the respondents disagreed significantly (Prenzleret al., 2010; Jang, Joo & Zhao, 2010). The indication is that most people perceive the police force as having enough powers to perform their duties (Davids, 2008).
Besides, the majority of the respondents argue that the police are invariably using their powers (Brown & Evans, 2009). The police have been seen to be lenient towards the white communities while they are brutal to indigenous communities (Brown & Evans, 2009; Prenzleret al., 2010). The variability in the exercise of powers has also caused the differences in which societies perceive the police (Prenzleret al., 2010). While the whites perceive the police as fair in their actions, the indigenous communities have a negative attitude and unpleasant relationship with the police (Miller & Davis, 2008).
Using these studies, the powers given to the police should be curtailed. Contrary to the common opinion, the police have been given additional powers by the New South Wales parliament. The amendment to the arrest laws in New South Wales provided significant powers of arrest and the reasons for which the arrest have to be made (Santas & McMahon, 2014). Such additional powers would adversely affect the police relationship with the public, particularly the indigenous communities (Santas & McMahon, 2014).
Most importantly, such powers could easily be abused and even non-offenders can be arrested (Smith, 2010; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). Santas and McMahon 2014 argued that there is a paradigm shift in the purpose of arrest as the only remaining option of bringing charges against the criminal offender to the first option to increase the rate of arrests. The possibilities of directing these new powers towards the minority groups are considerably high given their current statistics of crime rates. Besides, such powers would also increase the chances of police breaking the rules to make arrests (Santas & McMahon, 2014; Smith, 2010; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). Consequently, the relationship between the police and the public particularly the indigenous communities would be eroded (Santas & McMahon, 2014).
The concept the Marxist Theory
The Marxist approach to crime can be used to argue that the law that allows the police excesses is produced by the powerful in society at the expense of the poor and powerless. The general argument is that individuals with increased control and share of the capital often have greater access to physical compulsion (Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Petrocelli, Piquero & Smith, 2003). The amendment to the arrest laws in New South Wales is one of the direct circumstances in which the people with the means control the poor and the vulnerable. In fact, the amendments were made to the laws without wider consultations.
Santas and McMahon 2014 argued that the amendments were flawed and were passed without the formal public consultation process within the shortest time possible. The range of circumstances in which the arrests could be made was extended in the act making the majority among the vulnerable communities be more perceptible to arrests and detention. The intent and the haste in which the amendments were passed are clear indications of how easily could the powerful perpetuate the police brutality on the vulnerable communities, which result in increased negative perception of the police.
From the actions of the NSW parliament, it could easily be argued that misdemeanours and deviance is a designation of the ruling class as a means of controlling the poor or the subjects. Non-compliance to the set rules would result in punishment. The institution of the police is simply used to enforce the set rules and ensure compliance (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002). According to the Marxist approach, white collar crimes are normally not covered in most of the laws. In fact, Santas and McMahon 2014 observed that the amendments made to the arrest laws expanded on the petty crimes, which are normally committed by the poor in the communities.
The arrests are expanded to include arrests made on serious and violent offences. Marxists argue that the actions of the police are controlled by differences in the social classes. In other words, the social classes are monitored differently, wherein the lower class is closely monitored due to the perception that the possibility of criminal activities is prominent (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002). According to this approach, numerous laws are enacted to protect the ruling class in capitalist societies.
The criminal legislation in several western societies and countries that follow their ideologies give prominence to the laws that protect the political class and the rich (Brown & Benedict, 2002). The legislations that give powers to the police in NSW are not an exception to these rules. These attributes are not only noticeable in this new legislation but also in the police conduct and how the indigenous communities have been treated over the past years.
According to Santas and McMahon 2014, the new legislation will negatively impact the indigenous and vulnerable people within the larger society. The intention of the NSW parliament to enlarge arrest powers to prevent crime may have no deliberate effects on the policy of the criminal justice system. The key policy areas were not taken into consideration during the reform process. As such, the implementation process should be monitored closely to identify the potential impacts of the new legislation. Santas and McMahon 2014 argued that the new arrest laws would have a significant effect on the indigenous people and the vulnerable members of the society such as the mentally challenged.
Even though it is recommended that the arrests should be the last resort as a means of reducing the appalling number of aboriginal people in the criminal justice system, the number of indigenous people being arrested disproportionately is increasingly high concerning adults and children (Santas & McMahon, 2014). The police have not used any alternatives in dealing with petty offences and have resorted to arrests. The consequence is increased police assaults, resistance arrests and use of offensive language by the indigenous people (Santas & McMahon, 2014). The new legislation is likely to continue widening this gap and perhaps spreading to include other groups of people particularly the mentally ill (Santas & McMahon 2014).
Media influences
Media play a significant role in shaping the public attitude towards the police and the wider criminal justice system (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). Studies that have been conducted indicate mixed results concerning the public perception of the police (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). The indifference is largely explained by the invariable treatment of the police to different classes of society (Patrocelli, Piquero & Smith, 2003).
In New South Wales, for instance, how the police treat the white majority differs from the way the police is dealing with the aboriginals. Cross-sectional studies indicated that the white majority gives positive responses to the police conduct while negative responses would be from the indigenous people. Similar results are likely to be indicated when the study is conducted across the social classes. However, the overall results indicate sparing approval of the police conduct.
While these studies simply focus on the general perception of the public towards the police, few studies have been conducted in the manner in which the media influences this perception. Dowler and Zawilski 2007 indicated that the media have a strong influence on how the public perceives the police. The reason is that the media provide increased information concerning crime and justice (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). In fact, how the media portray the police has a greater impact on the public. However, few pieces of research have focused on the attitudes of the public on police misconduct and discrimination as portrayed by any form of media.
The social image of the police
Generally, the media portrayal of the police plays a significant role in shaping how they are viewed or perceived by the larger audience (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). However, studies indicate conflicting results on the manner in which the public perceives the police due to media coverage. The conflicting results are closely associated with the media depiction of the police. In other words, the favourable results are positively associated with the positive depiction of the media (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007).
Similarly, the negative depiction is closely associated with the negative depiction of the police by the media. Considering the frequency at which the police have been depicted as ineffective and incompetent, the number in both the print and broadcast media is overwhelming (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). The media rarely portray the police as a competent institution even in situations where the police are performing. The negative portrayal of the police is also reflected in the public perception of the police (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007).
The new social media have not been left behind in depicting the police negatively (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). In fact, the police have been portrayed in social media as evil heroes who chase innocent souls. Studies indicate that negative attributes of the police including rogue and corrupt cops normally go viral on social media (Brown & Benedict 2002; Frank, Smith & Novak, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2005). Some researchers indicate that police misconduct becomes prominent in the media simply because they make news. Generally, the social perception of the police is negative and the media pay close attention to the negative attributes of the police force (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007).
However, the police have attempted to improve their public image through reality shows and current social media networking (Patrocelli, Piquero & Smith, 2003). In fact, reality shows have proved to be successful in increasing public confidence in the police. Nevertheless, factors such as race and social class still downplay these efforts. Studies indicate that race and social class feature prominently in reality shows and have greater influence in the manner the public perceives the police (Brown & Benedict 2002; Frank, Smith & Novak, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2005).
The contrary opinions on police conduct are often displayed between the white viewers and the indigenous people. While the white opinions would be positive, the indigenous would still have negative attitudes towards the police (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). The studies indicate that the perception of the police is not only influenced by the media, but also by other factors. Generally, the continued negative portrayals of the police by the media have a spurious effect on the public attitude on the police (Dowler & Zawilski, 2007).
Case study: Kevin Spratt Taser Affair
The negative media portrayal of the police could be observed in Kevin Spratt Taser Affair. In fact, the case rekindled the long debate on police brutality, misuse of its powers and violations of the rights of the indigenous people. In addition to that, the case also resulted in intense hatred towards police by the aboriginal community. The case also portrayed the impact of highly published events on the public attitude towards the police.
Hence, the case presented an example of the manner in which negative portrayal of the police by the media has resulted in public mistrust. The media coverage on police brutality or corrupt dealings increased the negative attitude of the public towards the police. The constant exposure and revelations of what transpired during the incident increased the public belief in the frequency of police brutality particularly among the indigenous Australians. Even though the white majority was affected, the aboriginal groups were greatly influenced. In addition, the continued coverage of the incident increased the perception of police biased treatment towards the minority Australians.
Concept: Labeling theory
While looking at the incident from a different perspective, the police misconduct could be explained through the labelling theory. The theory postulates that the behaviour and actions of an individual can be determined by the way they are generally perceived (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002). The labelling theory argues that the behaviours are deviant because they are labelled in such a way by society. Hence, the people who are responsible for the conformity of conduct within society construe these behaviours as deviant and then append them to individuals (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002).
Powerful individuals in society including the politicians and police are known to impose the most significant characteristics on minorities or less fortunate individuals in the society (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002). The labelling processes have occurred not only among the Australian indigenous groups but also in minority groups around the globe. In fact, minority groups have been labelled delinquent and criminal offenders.
The actions in the case of Kevin Spratt Taser Affair found its roots in the prior labelling process where the police have labelled the indigenous Australians as criminals even in situations where there are no criminal activities. The perception of the police on the aboriginal group has always been negative. As a result, Spratt could have been tortured on the pretext that he showed criminal intent behaviour. In fact, without investigating whether Spratt committed the crime, the police made conclusions based on the general perception of the indigenous groups.
Similarly, the indigenous groups have also labelled the police as brutal and demeaning. As a result, the individuals react with a similar force whenever attacked by the police. The reason explains why Spratt could have resisted the police arrests and aggression towards the police. The incidence in the case is due to the prior demonstration of behaviour without determining the actual occurrence of the incidence. The police behaviour indicated in the incident emanates from the prior judgment of the individual even if the individual was not escaping the police arrest or committed the crime.
The fact that Spratt had in mind that the encounter would result in police brutality, his reactions as indicated in the incident was normal. The incident indicates a case where many innocent people end up being brutalized by the police simply because they belong to a certain group of people. Besides, the concept indicates how the police perceive a certain group of individuals, which have resulted in a long-term negative relationship with the individuals.
Creating public confidence in the police in future
Even though most studies indicate a continued negative relationship between the police and the police, creating public confidence in the concept of policing can still be attained (Santas & McMahon, 2014; Smith, 2010; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). In fact, studies indicate models that have proved to be effective in increasing the public confidence in the police (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002).
Community policing is one of the models that have been applied by various police departments to enhance the relationship between the police and the public. Community policing is a situation where the communities are allowed to monitor the criminal activities and trends among the members and report to the police (Bartsch & Cheurprakobkit 2004; Edwards 2005; Rosenbaum et al. 2005).
In certain circumstances, the police appoint one of the community members to act as a point man who reports all the criminal intents (Santas & McMahon, 2014; Smith, 2010; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). Even though the model has proved to be effective, it still has various shortcomings. In fact, the model has been observed to be effective in the circumstances where there is open communication between the police and the community (Bartsch & Cheurprakobkit 2004; Edwards 2005; Rosenbaum et al. 2005). Besides, the model can only work where there is trust between the community and the police.
From the shortcomings of the model, it could easily be deduced that communication between the public and the police play a significant role in improving the confidence and good relationship between the public and the police (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002). Open communication must be initiated by the police first. In addition to open communication, the police must be seen to be acting professionally and to the expectations of the public. The police must understand the expectations of the society they are serving and act to fulfil those expectations (Santas & McMahon, 2014; Smith, 2010; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005).
Community policing can be very effective with open communications combined with the professional conduct of the police force (Burke, 2009; Benard, Snipes & Gerould, 2010; Brown & Benedict, 2002). To improve the effectiveness of community policing, the police must reduce the conflicting interests, misconduct, and negative perceptions they have on certain groups or individuals (Santas & McMahon, 2014; Smith, 2010; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005).
Conclusion
As indicated in various studies, the public perception of the police has always been negative. Besides the media, various factors have also been found to have a greater influence on the public attitude towards the police. However, the media primarily influences the manner in which the public perceives the police. In fact, the media have a strong influence because of the fact that the public largely borrows the crime and justice knowledge from the media. Further, the media have continuously depicted the police as ineffective and incompetent, creating a negative image of the police. It is, therefore, true that the public will always perceive the police in the same manner in which they are portrayed by the media. As a result, the public will have a negative attitude toward the police.
The contact attributes between the police and the public have also been found to be significant. In fact, the quality of the contact between the police force and the citizen also shape the perception and attitudes of the communities towards the police service. In addition, the satisfaction of the communities on the services the police offer depend on the nature of the relationship the police have with the communities. Studies also indicate that the negative perception the communities have of the police result from the reported experiences of others.
To improve the relationship, there is a need on the part of the police to improve communications and professional conduct. Communication between the public and the public play a significant role in improving the confidence and good relationship between the public and the police. The police must first initiate the communication. Also, the police must be seen to be acting professionally and to the expectations of the public.
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