The Real World of Management

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Table of Contents

Introduction
Literature Review
Methodology
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
References

Introduction

It is common for people to use the phrase it is just a theory. People use this phrase when they are looking for something practical. Real life experiences help in answering difficult questions. On the other hand, most theories consider ideal situations (Trivedi, 2002, p. 31). However, in real life, there are no ideal situations.

Various factors may affect the outcome of an activity. Research helps in the development of theories. The information from the research helps the researchers to formulate a theory that might apply to similar situations. There are various theories that help in explaining various phenomena in the workplace.

Managers use these theories to solve problems that their organisations face (Dessler & Phillips, 2007, p. 173). However, application of these theories does not always have the desired outcome.

Effective management of the human resource is one of the vital functions of management. Managers use leadership theories to improve the productivity of the employees (Daft and Marcic, 2010, p. 419). However, the leadership theories may have various limitations.

Leadership theories make various assumptions, which determine the effectiveness of their application. One assumption that reduces the effectiveness of leadership theories is that followers would maintain their status as followers. It is a fact that organisations may elevate certain followers to leadership positions.

This limits the effectiveness of various leadership theories. In addition, various leadership theories may be time incentive. They may recommend activities that take a long time to implement. Cultural factors may also determine the effectiveness of various leadership theories.

Overlooking the effects of cultural factors on the behaviours of followers limits the effectiveness of various leadership theories. Therefore, it is vital for an organisation to use the right leadership theories. However, the complex nature of an organisation makes it difficult for an organisation to employ a single leadership theory.

In addition, organisations exist in a rapidly changing environment. This may make it difficult to employ certain leadership theories. All organisations have various unique characteristics. Therefore, a measure that is effective in a certain organisation may not produce similar results in a different organisation.

Literature Review

Work is a fundamental activity of human beings. Work enables people to define their sense of identity. In addition, work provides people with access to material necessities that improve their quality of life. The method of undertaking the above factors in gainful employment shows the views and values of the society.

It determines the levels of unemployment that the society deems as tolerable and how people perform their work. In addition, it determines the method of solving disputes between two parties. Leadership is a vital aspect of work. Leadership helps in motivating employees to perform their work.

In addition, leadership helps in coordinating the work of work of subordinates. Therefore, it is vital for individuals to possess leadership qualities that would help in increasing the efficiency of their work. Views and management of work have undergone several changes over the past decades.

This has necessitated managers to change their perception on how to organise and allocate work. In addition, the changes have necessitated managers to determine new methods of directing and utilising their subordinates to improve their productivity.

Managers may use two ways different approaches to achieve their objectives. The first method involves the simple use of intuitive or experimental understandings to analyse and describe new policies and practices (Abbott, 2006, p. 187). This method is advantageous in some situations.

However, its subjective and unsystematic basis usually leads to the formation of the policies that have crude assumptions or personal preconceptions. Therefore, most managers desist from using this method in analysing various situations that they may face in the workplace.

The second approach is the application of various theoretical frameworks from various scholarly sources. Most lay practitioners discredit this approach by asserting the unreality of theories in real life applications. However, it is the only credible method of interpreting various disconnected facts within the workplace.

The major advantage of this approach is that it tackles various workplace phenomena in an objective and systematic manner (Abbott, 2006, p. 188). Therefore, this approach is usually more effective than using intuitive or experiential understanding to analyse a certain situation within the workplace.

Managers usually learn the theoretical frameworks of management in learning institutions. The theoretical frameworks enable managers to make sense of various workplace situations or issues. Managers may use leadership theories to improve their efficiency.

The qualities that distinguished leaders from their followers were the major focus of most early leadership theories (Lussier & Achua, 2009, p. 16). Subsequent leadership theories focused on other factors of leadership.

These included situational factors and skill levels. There are eight major types of leadership theories. These include the great man, trait, contingency, situational, behavioural, participative, management, and relationship theories.

The great man theories assume leadership qualities are inherent in an individual since birth. This theory views leaders as heroic characters whose destiny is to lead people. This is one of the earliest leadership theories.

Scholars used the term great man since they thought that the leadership qualities were inherent in men (Waite, 2008, p. 3).

Trait theories are similar to great man theories. Trait theories assume that leaders inherit certain attributes that are vital in leadership.

According to the trait theories, leaders have certain common attributes (Gill, 2006, p. 37). However, these theories have various limitations. They do not explain why certain people may have the leadership traits yet they are not leaders.

According to the contingency theories, various variables determine the style of leadership that is suitable for a certain situation. Contingency theory states that no single leadership style fits all situations.

Various variables determine the success of leaders. These variables include leadership style, attributes of followers and the situation (Manning & Curtis, 2003, p. 23).

On the other hand, situational theories state that leaders use the situational factors in choosing the most appropriate method of handling the situation. Therefore, leaders may use different leadership styles for different situations.

Authoritarian leadership may be the most effective leadership style in situations where the leaders are the most skilled people in the organisation. On the other hand, in instances where the organisation has several experts, democratic style of leadership would be more favourable (Bertocci, 2009, p. 33).

Behavioural theories state that leaders do not possess inherent leadership skills from birth. Leaders acquire these attributes during their lifetime (Bertocci, 2009, p. 28). Therefore, the society helps in nurturing the abilities of leaders. Failure to nurture the abilities may lead to the loss of the abilities.

According to the participative theories, ideal leaders should consider the input of others. Therefore, leaders should encourage group members to participate in various decision-making. This makes the group members feel more relevant to the groups activities.

However, the leader maintains the right to choose the inputs to include or reject (Miner, 2002, p. 291). Participative theories are time insensitive. This may reduce the efficiency of their application in the real world.

Management theories focus on the role of supervision on the performance of employees. According to these theories, rewards and punishments are vital in determining the performance of subordinates. Therefore, managers should reward successful employees and punish employees who fail (Leonard, 2012, p. 339).

Promotions or financial rewards are the most common rewards that companies use. On the other hand, punishments may range from financial penalties to terminations. The punishments and rewards help in motivating the subordinates.

According to relationship theories, leaders should strive to motivate their followers by helping them realise the importance of their tasks.

Leaders should focus on the individual performance of group members and the entire group. This enables the group members and the entire groups to fulfil their potential (Richman, 2011, p. 23).

Some of these theories are many decades old. However, organisations exist in a dynamic environment. Therefore, the theories may not apply in modern day situations. This is because during the formulation of the theories factors that affect modern organisations may have been non-existent.

In modern organisations, managers act as leaders. However, there are various differences between managers and leaders (Bach & Ellis, 2011, p. 90). Managers should strive to motivate their subordinates. Effective communication is one of the factors that increase the efficiency of managers (Drucker, 2005, p. 104).

Various personality traits of managers may hinder their effectiveness. Managers who have a neurotic impostor mentality are likely to fail (Vries, 2005, p. 111). However, it is difficult for companies to determine neurotic impostors.

Various leadership theories do not take into consideration the effect of these factors in leadership. Therefore, it is vital to determine whether the leadership theories may be applicable in modern situations.

The complex nature of the business world may limit the effectiveness of leadership theories in contemporary business practices.

Methodology

This research helped in identifying the effectiveness of applying several leadership theories in the workplace. Twenty managers of mid-sized companies in the U.S. formed the sample for the research. The managers had more than five-years experiences in various managerial positions.

Therefore, they had applied various leadership theories during their tenure with varying degrees of success. The research used structured questionnaires to determine the effectiveness of applying management theories in real life. The managers responded to the following questionnaires:

What is your level of academic qualification?
What is your area of specialisation?
What department do you head?
How many subordinates do you manage?
How many initiatives do you implement in one year?
Do all initiatives produce the desired outcome?
What is the major aim of most initiatives that you implement?
What are some of the factors that prevent the initiatives from producing the desired outcomes?
What are some of the factors that are critical in ensuring the efficiency of various initiatives?
What leadership theories do you employ in your organisation?

Results

From the research, it was clear that implementation of various leadership theories in the workplace did not produce the expected results. In some instances, implementation of the leadership theories had a negative effect on the performance of employees.

All managers that took part in the research had experienced this at least once during their managerial careers. According to the managers, managerial experience was vital in ensuring the success of various initiatives that use various theories of management as their basis.

Experience enables managers to foresee possible problems that may occur during the implementation of the initiatives (Seibert & Daudelin, 2009, p. 201). Therefore, experience enabled the managers to formulate various strategies to tackle problems that may occur during the implementation of the initiatives.

However, experience does not enable managers to avoid all problems that may occur during the implementation of various initiatives. This is because all initiatives are distinctively different.

Support from the top-level managers of the organisation and board members was vital in ensuring the success of various initiatives. Support provides the managers with unlimited resources that ensure the success of the initiatives. Support from the top-level managers also reduces the resistance from the managers subordinates.

Most initiatives strive to improve the competitiveness of the organisation. This is through the increase in the productivity of employees and increasing the efficiency of various operations of the organisation. Managing the human resources of an organisation was one of the most difficult undertakings of the managers.

Managers strive to ensure that the employees are highly motivated. Motivation leads to increased productivity of the employees. The managers used different leadership styles.

Some managers used only the leadership styles that enabled them to solve the problems they faced. These managers did not use a similar leadership style in all situations.

Discussion

Managers may face various hurdles in implementing various leadership theories in the workplace. This is because the leadership theories may overlook the effect of various factors. It is a fact that no leadership theory that is perfect. Therefore, managers may use different leadership theories.

This increases the inefficiency of the theories. Management theories are the most common leadership theories that managers employ. Management theories strive to increase the motivation of employees. It is vital for managers to ensure that employees are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated.

Managers usually give more emphasis to intrinsic motivation (Neely, 2007, p. 434). However, it is very difficult for managers to ensure that employees have intrinsic motivation (Frey & Osterloh, 2002, p. 21). This is because managers are prone to making dispositional attributions in explaining the behaviours of employees.

Most initiatives of organisations strive to create deals with employees to ensure that they are extrinsically motivated. In so doing, organisations overlook the intrinsic motivation of employees.

Differences in the behaviour of followers in various regions make it difficult for leaders to employ a single leadership theory. Employees in North America are usually less cognisant of the socio-emotional expressions of their co-workers (Sanchez-Burks, 2002, p. 925).

North American employees and managers usually overlook the considerations of socio-emotional dimensions in the workplace. They value relationships due to their utility instead of the socio-emotional value of the relationships.

The individualism of the North American society is the major factor that influences the orientation of the employees. North Americans have a norm of self-interest (DeVoe & Iyengar, 2004, p. 48).

Managers usually give more emphasis to the role of extrinsic incentives in various motivation theories that they may apply to motivate the employees. However, various employees perceive themselves as being intrinsically motivated (Sheldon et al., 2001, p. 336).

These factors make it difficult for managers to apply various leadership theories. Relationship theories require leaders to form good relationships with their followers. The ability of managers to understand the needs of their followers determines the effectiveness of this theory.

However, it is clear that most North American managers do not understand the needs of their employees. This limits the effectiveness of this theory. Most leaders in North America strive to include their followers in decision-making.

Therefore, participative leadership theories may help in explaining the leadership style of most North American leaders.

On the other hand, the Asian and Latin American cultures have less self-interest norm and market orientation. In these cultures, collectivism dictates the social norm and values (Elvira & Davila, 2005, p. 5). Therefore, employees in these regions may form relationships that value the socio-emotional aspects of their colleagues.

The Spanish employees usually have a high emotional involvement with their colleagues. The Chinese employees usually form relationships that have a familial orientation. Therefore, the Chinese employees may make personal sacrifices for their groups (Morris, Podolny & Ariel, 2000, p. 76).

This shows that leaders should not focus their attention on the crude individualism-collectivism dichotomy. Instead, leaders should strive to have a good understanding of the cultural factors that determine the behaviours of their subordinates.

This would enable the leaders to have fine-grained distinctions of the different forms of individualism or collectivism of their employees. However, it is difficult for leaders to achieve this. Therefore, leaders are prone to make different generalisations, which may limit the effectiveness of various leadership theories.

The nature of the Asian and Latin American followers makes it difficult for leaders to use participative leadership theories. Using participative leadership theories may reduce the efficiencies of the leaders.

Leaders should simply offer instructions to their followers. Incorporating followers in decision-making may make them perceive the leaders as weak.

However, it is vital for leaders to ensure that they make the right decisions. This requires leaders to have good leadership skills. Therefore, leaders are prone to make wrong decisions from time to time.

In an organisational context, motivation of employees is one of the factors that determine the success of leaders. Therefore, leaders strive to ensure that employees are highly motivated. Leaders may use leadership theories to improve the productivity of their subordinates.

However, leadership theories do not take into consideration the cultural differences that may exist in various regions. Therefore, the leadership theories usually provide a general explanation of how managers may motivate their employees.

This may reduce the efficiency of the leadership theories in real world applications. This is because in the real world cultural factors play a critical role in motivation of the employees (Silverthorne, 2005, p. 110).

In addition, the perception of the managers may also hinder the efficiency of motivation theories in motivating employees. Managers from North America may face various problems if they work in regions that have different cultures.

They may be unable to understand how cultural factors determine their perceptions of employees towards motivation. This problem is usually prevalent in multinational corporations, which usually employ managers from their domestic countries to head operations in foreign regions.

Ideally, managers should spend at least six months trying to understand the cultural factors of people in the region before being involved in the day to day running the organisation.

Cultural factors play a significant role in determining the behaviours of managers and their subordinates. Individualistic cultures usually value uniqueness.

The North American society is individualistic (Hofstede, 2001, p. 225). For North American employees to excel, they should have attributes that distinguish them from the perceived norms. The employees should show their managers how their personal attributes are different from those of their colleagues.

Therefore, impression management strategies are vital in the success of employees (Wayne & Liden, 1995, p. 256). However, it is vital for employees to have attributes that their managers value.

Employees should strive to prove their managers lay assumptions wrong. These factors may reduce the success of foreign leaders or employees in North America.

Leadership theories assume that people willingly follow people who inspire them. Therefore, they offer little resistance to various initiatives of the leader. However, in the real world, this is not the case. Leaders may face resistance from their followers (Bryman, Collinson & Grint, 2011, p. 186).

Various factors may contribute to the resistance. The leader may be attempting to implement initiatives that are not popular with the followers. This reduces the effectiveness of leadership theories in the workplace.

Leadership theories assume that the vision of an individual helps in transforming the followers. However, it is a fact that the vision of an individual may not help in transforming followers.

Leaders need the input of followers to ensure the success of the vision. In addition, leadership theories assume that when people work together they achieve great things.

However, in the real world, this is not the case. Having certain people in a group may derail the efforts of the group. In addition, there are certain activities that individuals may perform better than when doing the same activity as a group.

Leadership theories assume that energy and enthusiasm are vital in ensuring people perform various activities effectively. Despite the fact that the two are vital, they are not the only ingredients for success.

Knowledge is also vital in ensuring the success of various initiatives. It is useless for people to have energy and enthusiasm while performing meaningless activities.

Leaders strive to nurture an original thought. In an organisational context, there are various thoughts and ideas. Therefore, it is vital for leaders to determine the rights thoughts and ideas that the organisation should pursue. In some instances, leaders may fail to pursue ideas that may have many future benefits.

Leadership theories require leaders to nurture original thoughts and expressions. However, this is very difficult in an organisational context. This increases the inefficiency of various leadership theories.

Organisations face various challenges. The mere existence of organisations is to solve the problems that their customers face. However, organisations may face various challenges that may threaten their existence.

Therefore, organisations strive to avoid challenges. Leadership theories assume that challenges enable leaders to show their real abilities. However, in the real world, leaders may face various insurmountable challenges. This limits the effectiveness of various leadership theories in real world application.

The character of leaders is vital in ensuring that they achieve their targets. Various leadership theories rely on the ability of the leader to motivate their followers (Goethals, Burns & Sorenson, 2004, p. 468). Motivation ensures that driving force behind any activity.

However, in the real world, the leaders may lack the character that may help them to inspire their followers. This may limit the effectiveness of the leadership theories. Various leaders may use a certain leadership theory to achieve huge success.

However, the application of similar leadership theories by other leaders may lead to failure. This creates inconsistency in the leadership theories. These consistencies are common in the real world.

Organisations exist in a dynamic environment. Therefore, from time to time organisations change their strategies to cope with various trends in the industry. The change in strategy may require organisations to change their style of management.

Various leadership theories do not consider the effect of change in strategies. According to various leadership theories, only a certain style of leadership is effective (Lussier & Achua, 2009, p. 154). The inflexibility of various leadership theories reduces their effectiveness.

Various leadership theories require the participation of employees in decision-making. However, this may be difficult to achieve in various organisations. Companies that have many employees may not resort to these leadership theories.

This is because the leadership theories are time insensitive (Cassidy & Kreitner, 2009, p. 32). In the real world, organisations strive to make decisions within the shortest time possible. This creates more time for the implementation of the decisions.

However, the leadership theories may require people to deliberate on the problem to come up with the most effective solution.

The people may make several amendments to increase the efficiency of the decision. However, in the real world, employees may have very strict deadlines. This may render the leadership theories impractical.

Various leadership theories may not be effective for unskilled employees. This is because the leadership theories may require employees to have certain skills.

These skills include the ability of the individual to work in a group, certain professional qualification, or good decision-making skills. Therefore, organisations that have a large number of unskilled workers may resort to other leadership theories.

Various leadership theories require organisations to share information with their subordinates. Having unlimited information would enable the employees to make the right decisions. However, in the real world, managers may not share certain sensitive information with the employees.

This is despite the fact that this information may be vital in decision-making. Sharing the sensitive information with employees may lead to several problems. It may create conflicts among employees or lead to leakage of the information (Atwater & Waldman, 2012, p. 89).

Therefore, managers keep the sensitive information to themselves. This may limit the efficiency of various leadership theories.

Promotion is a common phenomenon in all organisations. It is common for an employee to rise from the lowest levels to the highest levels of management of the organisation. Therefore, it is vital for leadership theories to consider the effect of promotions.

However, various leadership theories do not consider the effect of promotion. The leadership theories assume that the followers will remain as followers for the rest of their lives. This is a wrong assumption. This assumption limits the efficiency of application of various leadership theories in the real world.

Conclusion

Organisations use various leadership theories to improve the productivity of their employees. Leadership theories consider ideal situations. Therefore, they have many assumptions. Some of these assumptions may render their application in the real world impossible.

Cultural factors may make it difficult for an organisation to apply various leadership theories. In addition, the nature of the organisation may limit the effectiveness of applying various leadership theories.

Therefore, managers should consider several factors before deciding the leadership theories they should apply within the organisation.

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